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Why do we need transport

system?

Transport in mammals Larger

ALL BECAUSE…

size Animals require higher

demand for energy !!!

More
active
Can Diffusion be the only
way to go?

More
waste NO!

Learning outcome(s) Mammalian

Cardiovascular
 State that the mammalian circulatory system is a closed System
double circulation consisting of a heart, blood and blood
vessels including arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules • Blood system
and veins • Consists of:
• Heart - pump
• Blood vessels –
 Describe the functions of the main blood vessels of the
interconnecting tube
pulmonary and systemic circulations, limited to pulmonary
• Closed blood system:
artery, pulmonary vein, aorta and vena cava
• blood always remain
within these vessels
• DOUBLE CIRCULATORY
SYSTEM:
• Pulmonary circulation +
systemic circulation

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Pulmonary circuit Systemic circuit

Deoxygenated blood pump out Oxygenated blood pump out

of right ventricle of left ventricle

Pulmonary arteries Aorta

Lungs Body

Oxygenated travel to Deoxgenated blood travel to

pulmonary veins vena Cava

Heart Heart

T. Externa

Learning outcome(s)

 Recognise arteries, veins and capillaries from microscope

slides, photomicrographs and electron micrographs and
make plan diagrams showing the structure of arteries and
veins in transverse section (TS) and longitudinal section
(LS)

 Explain how the structure of muscular arteries, elastic

arteries, veins and capillaries are each related to their
functions

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Blood Vessels
 3 main types

The vessel
that carries
The vessel blood
that carries towards the
blood away heart
from the
heart

The vessel that links between

arteries and veins and carrying
blood close to cell

Endothelium vs epithelium?!?
Arteries Endothelial cells are often
considered specialised epithelial
cells which line blood vessels
 Function:
 To transport blood swiftly and at
high pressure, to the tissue (away
from the heart)

 Structure:
 Inner layer: tunica intima
(endothelium)
 Layers of flat squamous epithelium
 Middle layer: tunica media

 Elastic fibres, collagen fibres,

smooth muscle
 Outer layer: tunica externa

 Collagen fibres & some elastic

fibres

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Cross-section of an artery
The arteries carry blood at high
pressure and swiftly away from the
heart to the tissue.
Looking at the cross-section of an
artery, why is it suitable for
carrying blood at high pressure?

thick tunica externa

thick tunica media;

smooth muscle tissue
elastic fibres
narrow tunica intima/
endothelium layer

What’s so special about

artery??
 Arteries have the thickest walls of any
blood vessel
 Thick tunica media, contains large
amount of elastic fibres - allows the
wall to stretch & recoil
 Stretch: prevent artery from
bursting
 Recoil: to give blood a small ‘push’
and raise a pressure a little, thus
balancing out the blood flow
 Narrow tunica intima
 To keep blood from the heart at high
pressure and flows quickly to reach
every part of the body, even the little
toes!
Suggest why arteries close to the heart have
more elastic fibres in their walls than arteries
further away from heart??
1. Elastic fibres allow the artery to stretch and recoil as
blood pulses through.
2. The nearer the heart, the pressure changes between
systole and diastole will be greater than anywhere
else in the circulatory system.
3. Thus, more elastic fibres are needed to cope with
these large pressure and pressure changes.
4. To reduce the likelihood that they will burst.
The biggest artery is the AORTA with diameter of 2.5cm
and wall thickness of 2mm

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Arterioles Capillaries
 Arteries are then transported into smaller branch of vessels  Tiniest blood vessel
known as arterioles

Arteries  arterioles  capillaries  Function:

 Carry blood as close
Decreasing pressure
as possible to all cells
 Walls of arterioles similar to arteries, but have greater smooth  Allow rapid transfer
muscles of substances between
 Smooth muscles contract  narrowing diameter of arterioles cells and blood
(Vasoconstriction)  reduce blood flow
 To control the volume of  Capillaries form networks
blood flowing into a tissue surround every tissue in the
 Dilated vessels carries more blood body (except cartilage and
than constricted vessels cornea)
= capillary beds

Precapillary sphincters Properties of capillary:

 Size: 7 µm = similar to size of RBC

 Extremely thin walls (single layer of endothelial
cells)
 Pressure has significantly dropped

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 Why there are no blood capillaries in the Take home questions

cornea of the eye?
Blood cells and Hb in RBC would cause 1) Can you relate the size of the capillary and thickness
scattering and light absorption before it reached of the endothelium wall to efficient transporting of
the retina blood?

 Then, how can the cornea be supplied

with it’s requirements?
The aqueous humour supplies the cornea with 2) Why do capillaries form capillary beds?
its requirements

Take home questions

1) Can you relate the size of the capillary and thickness of the endothelium
wall to efficient transporting of blood?
 Capillaries made of thin walls

 consist of endothelium which is only one cell thick

 to bring blood into close contact with the tissues for the exchange
(diffusion) of substances between cells and the bloodstream
 Capillaries have small lumen

 forces the blood cells to pass through in single file

 slowing down flow rate

 maximising exposed surface area.

2) Why do capillaries form capillary beds?

 to maximise SA

 for exchange of substances between the blood and cells

 so that no cells are far from blood supply

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Veins
Compare the cross-section of a vein and an artery.
 Arteries  arterioles  capillaries  venules  veins
Why are they different?
Smallest
Thickest diameter Medium
walls size walls

 Function of a vein:
 To return blood back to the heart

 Properties:
 Tunica media is much thinner (less elastic fibres and
muscle fibres)
vein artery
 Blood pressure has dropped to a very low value by
the time it enters the veins Veins do not need to keep blood flowing quickly at high
pressure and so they have much thinner walls than arteries.

Cross-section of a vein Blood flow in veins – preventing backflow

Blood travels back to the heart in veins at low pressure.
If the blood pressure is too low, what, for example,
might happen to the blood in leg veins?

blood
to the
heart possible
thin tunica externa
backflow
of blood
thin tunica media gravity
wide tunica intima
If low-pressure blood has to move against gravity, it might
slow down further and even flow in the wrong direction!

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Blood flow in veins – valves

Blood pressure in different
Veins have valves to prevent backflow.
circulatory system

backflow
vein valve prevented
open
vein valve
blood closed
to the
heart

When blood flows along If blood in a vein does

veins it pushes past flow backwards,
the valves, which can it is trapped by
only open in one direction. closed valves.

Blood flow in veins – muscle contraction

1. Vein have thin walls and so need help from muscles to push blood
towards the heart.
2. Many veins lie inside or between skeletal muscle
3. Muscles contract and squeeze the veins.
4. Pushes blood towards the heart.

blood
keeps
flowing
to the
heart
blood
to the
heart

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Transverse section

Transport in mammals
Blood, blood plasma, tissue fluid & lymph

Learning outcome(s)
 Recognise and draw red blood cells, monocytes, neutrophils
and lymphocytes from microscope slides photomicrographs
and electron micrographs.

 State that water is the main component of blood and

tissue fluid and relate the properties of water to its role
in transport in mammals, limited to solvent action and high
specific heat capacity.

 State the functions of tissue fluid and describe the

formation of tissue fluid in a capillary network

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Blood components Blood plasma

 Blood is composed of cells floating in a pale yellow liquid
called plasma

Plasma consists of:

- Mostly water
- Nutrients (eg: glucose)
- Waste products (eg:
urea)
- Plasma proteins

Question 1 – blood cell composition

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Tissue fluid
 As blood flows through capillaries – some plasma leaks out
through the gaps between the cells in the walls of the capillary
– seeps into the spaces between the cells of the tissues

 Tissue fluid = Question to ponder…..

blood plasma
 But has fewer  Since there are only very little protein molecules found in
protein tissue fluid, what about blood cells? Can they be found in
the tissue fluid?? Explain.
molecules

Why??

Protein molecules are too large to

easily escape through the small
gap in the capillary endothelium

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Question to ponder….. Question to ponder…..

 Volume of fluid which leaves the capillary to form tissue fluid is the
 Since there are only very little protein molecules found in result of two opposing pressures. How are these tissue fluid move
tissue fluid, what about blood cells? Can they be found in back into the capillaries?
the tissue fluid?? Explain.
1. Tissue fluids has lower concentration of proteins compared to
plasma.
 NO, because blood cells are too large to pass through the
gaps between the cells in the walls of the capillary 2. Water of tissue fluid moves to venous end of capillaries from high
to low concentration by osmosis
3. Water of tissue fluid:
1. flow out of capillaries into tissue fluid at the arterial end of
capillary
2. flow into capillaries from tissue fluid at the venous end of
capillary
4. Overall, there are more fluids flowing out of capillaries. So, there is
a net loss of fluid from the blood as it flows through a capillary bed.

Question to ponder…..

 Volume of fluid which leaves the capillary to form tissue

fluid is the result of two opposing pressures. How are
these tissue fluid move back into the capillaries?

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Oedema
• Accumulation of tissue
fluid in the tissue due
to constant high blood
pressure.

• Also known as water

retention

• Arterioles helps to
reduce the pressure of
blood to avoid oedema

Different types of body system

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The lymphatic system

Lymph absorb lipids from the digestive system

Includes:
1. Bone marrow
2. Lymph
3. Lymph nodes
4. Lymph vessels
5. Spleen
6. Thymus
7. Tonsil and adenoids

Lymphatic system
 Fluid inside lymph
vessels: lymph
 Contains lymph nodes
help in immunity
 One way system to heart
– contains valves
 Return excess tissue
fluid and leaked protein
into the subclavian vein
 Edema results if system
blocked or surgically
removed

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How is lymph moved along?

 3 ways:
1. Hydrostatic pressure of the tissue fluid
leaving the capillaries
2. Contraction of body muscle, squeeze the
lymph vessels, valves inside the vessels
ensure that the fluid moves in one direction
towards heart
3. Enlargement of thorax during breathing in

Location of
nodes
DRAW OUT A TABLE TO
DIFFERENTIATE BLOOD
PLASMA, TISSUE FLUID AND
LYMPH.

In terms of position, protein content, oxygen and

nutrient content, waste content and cell content

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Difference between blood plasma, tissue fluid and lymph

Blood plasma Tissue fluid Lymph Summary of composition
Location In arteries, Between cells in In lymph vessels
capillaries, veins tissues

Protein High Very low Very low blood plasma Tissue fluid
content
Oxygen and High High (arterial end) Low • RBC • Water • Water
nutrient Low (venous end) • WBC • Nutrients • Nutrients
content
Waste Low (since Low (arterial end) High
• Platelets (glucose) (glucose)
content constantly removed High (venous end) • plasma • Waste (urea) • Waste (urea)
via kidneys) • Plasma • Some
proteins plasma
Cell content Contains solutes Contains many white Contains same white proteins
e.g. glucose and blood cells which cells as tissue fluids
urea. escape from blood, plus lymphocytes • WBC
Carries many RBC (e.g. neutrophils) made in lymph nodes
and WBC (ratio of
RBC:WBC=1000:1)

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PLASMA,

TISSUE FLUID AND LYMPH Functions of blood:-
 Transport of nutrients, waste products, hormones and gases
(O2 and CO2)
Water’s properties as a solvent, dissolved substances are
transported from one part of the body to another.

 Distribution of excess heat from deeply heated organs

- Water has a high heat capacity, which allows it to absorb
a lot of heat energy without altering its temperature very
much

 Defence against diseases

- Clotting of blood

- Phagocytosis

- Immunity

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Plasma – 95% water

Red blood cell under light

microscope

4 significant structures of RBC

Red blood cells
 Very small
 Also called erythrocytes  Approx 7 μm

 Red colour because of the  Haemoglobin are close to the surface membrane
presence of haemoglobin for efficient gas exchange
 Produced in bone marrow  Biconcave disc shape
 Increase SA:V ratio for quick diffusion

 Has no nucleus, mitochondria and ER

Do you know where blood was
first formed when you are in  To maximise the amount of oxygen to be carried by
fetus form?? each RBC
 Very flexible
 Cells are able to deform to pass through vessels
Liver
 Have specialised cytoskeleton that allows them to
be squashed

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Phagocytes
White blood cell
- Neutrophils & monocytes
 Also known as leucocytes
- Destroy invading microorganisms by phagocytosis
 Also made in bone marrow (except for lymphocytes)
- Originate from bone marrow, mature in bone marrow
 Can you distinguish red blood cells and white blood cells from
a blood sample?? Granular cytoplasm
 Organelle contents
 Size Lobed nucleus
 Shape
 Function

White Blood Cells

Lymphocytes
- three types: T-cells, B-cells and NK (natural killer) cells
- destroy invading microorganisms by secreting antibodies
Granulocytes Agranulocytes
- Originate from bone marrow, mature in thymus gland
-Basophils -Monocytes (monocytes)
-Eosinophils -Lymphocytes
-Neutrophils (Phagocytes) Small cytoplasm

Large and
round nucleus

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Learning outcome(s)
Blood under SEM  Describe the role of red blood cells in transporting oxygen and
carbon dioxide with reference to the roles of:
False-colour • haemoglobin
scanning electron • carbonic anhydrase
• the formation of haemoglobinic acid
micrograph of human
• the formation of carbaminohaemoglobin
blood. Red blood
 Describe the chloride shift and explain the importance of the
cells have been chloride shift
coloured red. The
 Describe the role of plasma in the transport of carbon dioxide
blue spheres are
white blood cells.  Describe and explain the oxygen dissociation curve of adult
haemoglobin.
The platelet has
been coloured  Explain the importance of the oxygen dissociation curve at partial
pressures of oxygen in the lungs and in respiring tissues.
yellow.
 Describe the Bohr shift and explain the importance of the Bohr shift

Transport in mammals
Haemoglobin

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Haemoglobin https://www.youtube.com/w
atch?v=b2hKDxX-KjE
Chloride shift
 The haem group of haemoglobin has affinity for CO2 and O2

 Hb + 4O2 HbO8 (Oxyhaemoglobin)

One haemoglobin (Hb)

O2 O2
Haem Haem  The movement of chloride ions into red blood cells from blood
plasma, to balance the movement of hydrogencarbonate ions
into the plasma from the red blood cells
Haem Haem
 Hydrogen ions (from the dissociation of carbonic acid)
O2 O2 accumulate in rbc and cannot leave the cell, because cell
membrane is not permeable to them. The influx of chloride ions
therefore helps to prevent the overall charge inside the cell from
1 Hb + 4 Oxygen (O2)  HbO8
becoming too positive.

Haemoglobin dissociation
curve
 The release of oxygen from Hb is called
dissociation

 In terms of gas:-

Concentration = partial pressure (kPa)

At saturation, haemoglobin has combined with

maximum amount of oxygen…

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 At high partial pressure, all Hb will combine with oxygen Oxygen dissociation curve
(100% saturation)
 Dissociation curve = a graph showing the r/ship between
partial pressure of oxygen and % saturation of haemoglobin
with oxygen

At low partial At high partial

pressures of pressures of
oxygen, oxygen,
percentage of percentage of
saturation is very saturation is very
low high

Oxygen dissociation curve

 In lungs: Why is it S-shaped??

 ppO2 ~ 12kPa (98%
saturation)  Binding of first oxygen is difficult, thus slow
 In respiring muscle  But with this first binding, the second and
 ppO2 ~ 2kPa (23% third oxygen were facilitated to bind better to
saturation) the haemoglobin
 Thus, Hb gives up ~  Last oxygen bind slowly because the limit is
70% of oxygen approaching.
carried from the  At this point, the molecule structure has been
lungs distorted and very little additional binding
occurs

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Bohr effect
 Bohr effect: 5%

 the effect of CO2 on speeding the dissociation of oxyhaemoglobin

(HbO8)
 shifting the dissociation curve towards the right 10%

 
Increase Decrease 85%
affinity for affinity for
oxygen oxygen

 Low partial pressure of CO2 = dissociation curve shift to the left

 High partial pressure of CO2 = dissociation curve shift to the right

3 ways of CO2 transportation Important!

1. 85% CO2 diffuse into RBC:
1. Forming carbonic acid under the control of
carbonic anhydrase. Carbonic anhydrase

CO2 + H2O  H2CO3  H+ + HCO3-

2. Carbonic acid dissociates to produce HCO3- Hydrogen Hydrogencarbonate
Carbonic acid
hydrogencarbonate ion ion ion

3. The HCO3- diffuses out of the red blood cell into Takes place in the cytoplasm of the
the plasma RBC

2. 10% CO2 binds with Hb to form

carbaminohaemoglobin (CO2Hb)
3. 5% CO2 dissolves directly into plasma

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Haemoglobin as a buffer Myoglobin

 Haemoglobin has greater affinity towards hydrogen ions compared  Myoglobin
to oxygen molecules - X present in blood
- found in certain body tissues
Hb + H+  HHb (haemoglobinic acid) e.g. muscle cells
- red pigment which gave the
 With this, blood is also function as a buffer meat it’s red colour
 ↑ concentration of H+ ions = acidic (↓pH)

 When the Hb binds with H+, the environment will be less acidic
 Haemoglobin has 4
polypeptides with one haem
 helps to maintain the pH of the blood close to neutral
each, but myoglobin has only
 Presence of high partial pressure of CO2 causes haemoglobin to one polypeptide with one haem
release oxygen  Bohr effect.

Fetal haemoglobin
 The Hb of fetus different from
mother Hb
 Fetus Hb have higher affinity
towards oxygen compared to adult
Hb
 Composed of two alpha and two
gamma chains

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 However when myoglobin binds with O2 to form 2 Factors affecting the efficiency of oxygen
oxymyoglobin, the molecule became very stable and will
not release its oxygen unless the partial pressure of oxygen
transport:
around it is very low indeed 1. Carbon monoxide (CO)
2. High altitude
 Myoglobin acts as an oxygen store

 The oxygen held by the myoglobin is reserve until the body

requires a great demand of oxygen

Carbon monoxide
 Carbon monoxide: incomplete burning of carbon-
containing compound
 Eg: car exhaust fumes, smoke from cigarettes
 Hb + CO  Carboxyhaemoglobin (COHb)

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TRY THIS!!!
 Carbonic acid (H2CO3)
CO2 + water = ____________________
 Carbaminohaemoglobin (CO2Hb)
CO2 + Hb =___________________________
 Oxygen + Hb = _____________________
Oxyhaemoglobin, HbO8
Carboxyhaemoglobin (COHb)
 CO + Hb =________________________

 Bohr effect (increase in pH):

H+
_______ HbO8  ________
+ _______ 4O2
HHb + ______
Haemoglobinic
acid

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