Sedimentology (2020) 67, 1750–1796 doi: 10.1111/sed.

12684

Facies and depositional model of alluvial fan dominated by

episodic flood events in arid conditions: An example from the
Quaternary Poplar Fan, north-western China
CHONGLONG GAO*, YOULIANG JI*, CHENLIANG WU†, JUN JIN‡, YING REN*,
Z H A O Y A N G ‡ , D A W E I L I U * , Z H I J U N H U A N * , X I A O B I N G D U A N * and Y U Q I Z H O U *
*State Key Laboratory of Petroleum Resource and Prospecting, College of Geosciences, China
University of Petroleum, Beijing, 102249, China (E-mail: geophd2014311005@126.com)
†Department of Earth, Environmental and Planetary Sciences, Rice University, Houston, TX, 77005,
USA
‡Research Institute of Experiment and Detection, PetroChina Xinjiang Oilfield Company, Karamay,
834000, China

Associate Editor – Charlie Bristow

ABSTRACT
Alluvial fans are usually constructed through episodic flood events. Despite
the significance of these ephemeral floods on the morphodynamics of allu-
vial fans, depositional responses to the variations in flood conditions are still
poorly documented. This greatly limits the ability to interpret ancient sedi-
mentary successions of fans and the associated flood hydrodynamics. The
Quaternary Poplar Fan from endorheic Heshituoluogai Basin provides an
optimal case for addressing this issue. Based on the variations in facies asso-
ciations and flood conditions, three depositional stages – namely; lobe build-
ing stage, channel building stage and the abandonment stage – are identified.
During the lobe building stage the Poplar Fan is predominately constructed
through incised channel flood, sheetflood and unconfined streamflood, with
coeval development of distal surficial ephemeral ponds. The channel build-
ing stage is characterized by the development of gravelly braided rivers.
However, only scour pool fill deposits are preferentially preserved in the
Poplar Fan. During the abandonment stage, erosional lags and aeolian sands
randomly occur throughout the fan, while gully deposits can only be found
in the distal fan. The distinctive facies architecture of the Poplar Fan is
likely to be the result of periodicity of climate fluctuations between wetter
and drier conditions during the Late Pleistocene to Holocene. The ephemeral
floods formed under wetter conditions usually show high discharge and sed-
iment concentrations which facilitate the lobe building processes. During the
drier periods, only gravelly braided rivers can be developed through ephem-
eral floods as the intensity and frequency in precipitation, discharge and
sediment concentrations of the flood flows significantly decrease. The aban-
donment stage of the fan may occur between recurring flood episodes or dur-
ing the driest periods. Furthermore, the long-term (105 to 106 year)
geomorphic evolution of the Poplar Fan shows the influence of tectonic
activities. The ongoing thrust uplift tectonic activities have caused destruc-
tion of the fan but can also facilitate the fan-head trench/incision of the fan,
which in turn facilitate the progradation of the fan. This study proposes a
new depositional model for alluvial fans constructed through episodic flood
events, which shows the character of both sheet-flood dominated and
stream-flow dominated end members of alluvial fans. These findings

1750 © 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists

 Alluvial fan dominated by episodic flood events 1751

supplement the understanding of the variability of the alluvial fans and pro-
vide means to characterize rock record of alluvial fans and their associated
flood and climate conditions.
Keywords Alluvial fan, arid conditions, depositional model, ephemeral
flood, episodic flood event, north-western China, Quaternary Poplar Fan.

INTRODUCTION types, natural systems seem to show a spectrum

Alluvial fans are distinctive conical or tongue-
shaped masses of clastic deposits commonly
developed where drainage catchment outlets
encounter a topographic transition from elevated
mountain ranges or plateaus to subdued, open
terrains (Blissenbach, 1954; Blair & McPherson,
2009; Ventra & Clarke, 2018). These fan sedi-
ments record changes in palaeoclimate, tectonic
history and landscape evolution across a variety
of environments on Earth (Harvey, 1996; Hor-
nung et al., 2010; De Haas et al., 2015) and even
on Mars (Moore & Howard, 2005; De Haas et al.,
2013).
Alluvial fans tend to aggrade mostly through
catastrophic sedimentary processes associated
with episodic flood events of ephemeral flood
flows (Blair & McPherson, 1994; Moscariello,
2017), which can be further differentiated into
gravity-driven debris flows (Blair, 1999b; Blair &
McPherson, 2009; Harvey, 2011) and unconfined
Newtonian water flows consisting of stream-
dominated and/or sheetflood flows (Blair, 2000;
Arzani, 2005; Hampton & Horton, 2007; Blair &
McPherson, 2009; Trendell et al., 2013). In par-
ticular, the ephemeral floods can be initiated by
heavy/prolonged precipitation associated with
monsoon anomalies, rapid icemelt/snowmelt
related to climate change, or the rapid release of
impounded water due to the failure of a natural
dam (Blair & McPherson, 2009; Harvey, 2011;
Plink-Bj€orklund, 2015). Additionally, surface
sediments of the alluvial fans can be remobi-
lized and redistributed through secondary pro-
cesses, such as weathering, overland flow, wind,
bioturbation, pedogenesis and neotectonics
(Blair & McPherson, 2009; De Haas et al., 2014;
Bahrami et al., 2015). To account for different
fan types and different controls on fan develop-
ment, a range of depositional models of alluvial
fans have been proposed on a case to case basis
(e.g. Kelly & Olsen, 1993; Jo et al., 1997; Nichols
& Fisher, 2007; Blair & McPherson, 2009;
Shukla, 2009; Ventra & Nichols, 2014). While
these models focus on the end members of fan
© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
of transitional fan types that cannot be properly
characterized by using existing models (Hamp-
ton & Horton, 2007; North & Warwick, 2007;
Blair & McPherson, 2009). This is partly due to
the fact that similar geomorphologies of fans can
be produced through a variety of processes
which can operate separately or simultaneously
(Clevis et al., 2003, 2004; Clarke et al., 2010;
Salcher et al., 2010; Van Dijk et al., 2012).
Therefore, assigning the resulting architecture of
fan succession to a single dominant process, as
most traditional models do, will tend to down-
play the importance of other processes, under-
estimate the complexity of fan architecture and
misinterpret the evolution history of the fans.
To deal with this issue, experimental and
numerical models have been used to character-
ize fan dynamics and associated facies architec-
tures (Salcher et al., 2010; Waters et al., 2010;
Van Dijk et al., 2012; Clarke, 2015). These meth-
ods supplement traditional fan models, increas-
ing understanding of the relationship between
depositional processes and facies architecture.
However, challenges still exist in determining
whether changes in the morphodynamics of
alluvial fans have been caused by the variable
flood discharges and/or sediment supplies (Ven-
tra & Clarke, 2018). Particularly, field data from
Quaternary fans are still needed to understand
how the ephemeral flood conditions influence
hydrological regime and episodic sedimentation
patterns on alluvial fans (Harvey, 2011; Ielpi &
Ghinassi, 2016; Ventra & Clarke, 2018).
Ephemeral floods shape the geomorphology of
alluvial fans through a set of depositional pro-
cesses (for example, sheet-like flow, channelized
flow, debris flow, etc.) (Whipple et al., 1998;
Arzani, 2005; Blair & McPherson, 2009; Harvey,
2011). The expressions of these depositional
processes are largely influenced by the allogenic
controls, especially climate (Ritter et al., 1995;
Harvey, 2003; Pope & Wilkinson, 2005; Weiss-
mann et al., 2005). Climate-controlled deposi-
tional patterns are usually considered high-
frequency and can overprint depositional
1752 C. Gao et al.
patterns developed in response to tectonics,
which are typically low-frequency (Waters et al.,
2010; Jones et al., 2014; Chen et al., 2017). In
particular, climatically induced water and sedi-
ment supply is supposed to be the dominant
control (Jones et al., 1999; Salcher et al., 2010;
Harvey, 2011; Wang & Plink-Bj€ orklund, 2019).
Especially during the Pleistocene, distinct oscil-
lations in climate exerted a large influence on
the sediment supply to discharge ratio, which
can have an important effect on whether the
fans undergo aggradation or degradation (Wells
& Harvey, 1987; Vandenberghe, 2002; Salcher
et al., 2010; Harvey, 2011). In addition, any
abrupt changes in sediment supply to a reach
will result in changes in the channel pattern
and become the main trigger of channel bifurca-
tion, avulsion and confluence (Pelletier et al.,
2005; Weissmann et al., 2005; Chakraborty
et al., 2010; Salcher et al., 2010; Wang & Plink-
Bj€orklund, 2019). Moreover, ephemeral dis-
charge regime under arid conditions can result
in downstream disappearance of river systems
before reaching a standing body of water (for
example, terminal fans) (Kelly & Olsen, 1993;
Nichols & Fisher, 2007; Cain & Mountney,
2009). Nevertheless, the impacts of climate on
facies development of alluvial fans through tem-
poral and spatial variations in water and sedi-
ment concentrations of the ephemeral floods are
still not well-understood (Pierson & Scott, 1985;
Wells & Harvey, 1987; Parker et al., 1998). Fur-
thermore, no existing depositional models for
alluvial fans can adequately account for climate
influence on facies and architecture of fans
developed through ephemeral floods.
The Poplar Fan located in Xinjiang Province,
China, provides an optimal case to address these
issues. The Poplar Fan is one of a series of Qua-
ternary alluvial fans formed at the northern mar-
gin of the Heshituoluogai inter-mountain basin
under arid to hyper-arid conditions. A radially
oriented and deep-incisional fluvial valley has
developed on the fan, which provides exposures
for documentation and analysis of internal
architectures and facies of the fan. Transverse
sections at 13 locations throughout the fan pro-
vide additional exposures to evaluate lateral
variability of architecture and facies in the fan.
Therefore, the abundant exposures of the Poplar
Fan and well-constrained palaeoclimate condi-
tions (Rhodes et al., 1996; Feng et al., 2006;
Zhao et al., 2009) around the region provide an
opportunity to evaluate both facies development
and its relation to palaeoclimate conditions.
© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
The objectives of this research are two-fold: (i)
to improve the understanding of depositional
processes on alluvial fans related to episodic
flood events; and (ii) to understand the impact
of climate on the development of various depo-
sitional patterns. Specific questions addressed
by this study through the study of Poplar Fan
include: (i) does neotectonism contribute to the
destruction or construction of the fan body; and
(ii) what are the similarities and differences in
the facies architectures between the Poplar Fan
and other fans around the world?
GEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND
Tectonic setting
The north-east/south-west trending Heshituoluo-
gai Basin is located in north-western China with
a length of 230 km, a maximum width of 50 km
and an area of 9500 km2 (Fig. 1A). The forma-
tion of the basin was initiated through the
thrust–nappe tectonic movement involving the
northern Xiemisitai Fault and southern Darbut
Fault (Fig. 1A) during the Triassic (He et al.,
2006; Ma et al., 2009). From the Jurassic to Cre-
taceous, the basin experienced a switch from an
extensional to depressional regime (Hu et al.,
2011; Ma et al., 2015). Since the Palaeogene,
reactivations of the northern Xiemisitai Fault
and the southern Darbut Fault gave rise to exten-
sive thrust movements of pre-existing faults
(Fig. 1B), turning the basin into an intermoun-
tain basin bounded by the Xiemisitai and Shar-
burt mountains to the north, and the Zhayier,
Ha and Delun mountains to the south (Fig. 1A)
(Qu et al., 2008; Hu et al., 2011; Sun, 2015). The
Poplar Fan which debouches from the Xiemisi-
tai Mountain front is one of the major deposi-
tional elements along the northern margin of the
basin (Fig. 1B and C). The age of the Poplar Fan
spans from Late Pleistocene to Holocene
(<2
58 Ma), which is constrained through the
regional geological survey based on biostratigra-
phy and lithostratigraphy (Du et al., 2013),
together with the Late Cenozoic magnetostratig-
raphy documented from outcrops just located at
the apex and the proximal fan area (Ai & Ji,
2015).
The Heshituoluogai Basin is presently under a
regionally NNW-oriented compressional tectonic
regime (Fig. 2) due to the far-field effect of con-
tinuous India–Eurasia collision (Xie et al., 2004;
Xu et al., 2008; Gao et al., 2010). A GPS (global
 Alluvial fan dominated by episodic flood events 1753

Fig. 1. (A) Regional tectonic setting of the intermontane Heshituoluogai Basin in north-western China (modified
from Ma et al., 2015; Sun, 2015). (B) Regional geological map (modified from Qu et al., 2008; Ma et al., 2015;
Shen et al., 2015) showing the various lithological units and major thrust fault planes surrounding and within the
basin and the modern Poplar River and Poplar Fan. The inset cross-section shows that the basin was formed by
compressional tectonic movements and that the thrust faults can cut even through to the surface (modified from
Ma et al., 2009). (C) Satellite image of the modern Poplar Fan, Poplar River, and parts of their catchment.

positioning system) derived velocity model indi-
cates that the regional deformation is occurring
at a rate of 5 mm year 1 in the basin (Chen,
2008). The frontal faults of the Zhayier and
Xiemisitai mountains (Fig. 1B) have remained
tectonically active from the Late Pleistocene to
the present day, resulting in the formation of
numerous secondary faults (Zhao et al., 1997;
Ma et al., 2009; Qin et al., 2013; Fan et al.,
2014). The estimated average vertical slip-rate of
the Xiemisitai Fault during the Late Pleistocene
to Holocene is around 0
28 mm year 1 (Chen,
2008). The average vertical and lateral slip-rate
of the Darbut Fault during the Pliocene to Qua-
ternary is around 0
011 mm year 1 and 0
20 to
0
22 mm year 1, respectively (Zhao et al., 1997;
Fan et al., 2014). The ongoing neotectonic
movements of these faults resulted in frequent
seismic activities up to magnitude 6 in the
basin (Fig. 2) (Zhao et al., 1997; Gao et al.,
2010; Wu, 2010; Fan et al., 2014). The neotec-
tonic activities throughout the basin can have a

© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
1754 C. Gao et al.
significant influence on the geomorphology of
the alluvial fans. A number of thrust faults cut
through the surface of the Quaternary deposits
(Fig. 1B).
Climate and hydrogeological conditions
Situated in the hinterland of the Eurasian conti-
nent and beyond the limit of summer monsoon
influence (Fig. 3A), north-western China has
been dominated by arid to semi-arid conditions
since the Late Pleistocene (Lin et al., 1996;
Rhodes et al., 1996; Zhao et al., 2009). However,
due to the circulation of westerlies (Fig. 3A),
several wet–dry oscillations also operated in the
region (Rhodes et al., 1996; Feng et al., 2006;
Zhao et al., 2009). A wet condition dominated
during the Late Pleistocene, which was followed
by a period of extreme aridity due to the Last
Glacial Maximum (Rhodes et al., 1996; Yang
et al., 2004; Zhao et al., 2009). Later, climate
changed from dry conditions during early Holo-
cene, to wet conditions during mid-Holocene,
and to more fluctuating but overall dry condi-
tions during Late Holocene (Rhodes et al., 1996;
Zhao et al., 2009; Jia et al., 2017). Currently, the
area experiences the driest conditions in China,
large proportions of the basin are presently cov-
ered by the Gobi Desert, with an annual average
rainfall of 144
3 mm and annual average evapo-
ration of 1841
6 mm (Tang, 2010).
The main drainage of the Poplar Fan is the
south-east-trending axial Poplar braided river
which carries detritus originating from the
Xiemisitai Mountains (Fig. 1B and C). The
© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
Fig. 2. Neotectonic map of north-
western China and the distributions
of historical seismic activities
(modified from Gao et al., 2010;
Chen, 2017). The yellow arrows
indicate the present-day
orientations of tectonic stress field
(modified from Xie et al., 2004; Xu
et al., 2008).
annual discharge of the Poplar River mainly
comes from seasonal snow melting and rainfall
during the flood seasons, rather than rainfall
and phreatic water during drought periods (Li,
2008; Ran et al., 2010). According to a 46-year
(1962 to 2007) monthly runoff data set recorded
at the hydrological station near the apex of the
fan (Fig. 1C) (Ran et al., 2010), an average of
77
9% of the total annual runoff was generated
during three months (April to June), whereas
only 4
5% and 17
6% were from January to
March and July to December, respectively
(Fig. 3B). The high-magnitude episodic flood
events of the Poplar River, which typically last a
few days or less, usually result from heavy rain-
fall, snowmelt or a combination of the two
(Fig. 3C to E) (Ran et al., 2010). Despite the rela-
tively high precipitation, the significant loss of
water through intensive evaporation/infiltration
under high temperature conditions during sum-
mer time (July to September) results in a
decrease of total runoff of the rivers (Fig. 3B)
(Ran et al., 2010). Thus, rivers across the fan
typically show a decrease in size downstream
due to the continuous water loss and ultimately
give way to piedmont plains (Li, 2008).
OVERVIEW OF THE CATCHMENT AND
THE POPLAR FAN
Catchment
The sediments of the Poplar Fan are derived
from a large catchment with an area of
 Alluvial fan dominated by episodic flood events 1755

Fig. 3. (A) Map showing the modern wind system and climate conditions in north-western China (modified from
Feng et al., 2006; Zhao et al., 2009). (B) Monthly variations in regional mean precipitation and mean runoff of the
Poplar River based on 46 years of data (1962 to 2007) from meteorological and hydrological stations within the
basin area (modified from Ran et al., 2010). (C) Hydrography recorded by hydrological station on the upper
reaches of the Poplar River (see Fig. 1C for location of the hydrological station) during the single flood event of 19
July 1996, which was initiated by intense rainfall (modified from Ran et al., 2010). (D) Hydrography recorded by
hydrological station on the upper reaches of the Poplar River during the single flood event of 6 May 1995, which
was initiated by rapid snowmelt (modified from Ran et al., 2010). (E) Hydrography recorded by hydrological sta-
tion on the upper reaches of the Poplar River during the single flood event of 2 May 1988, which was initiated by
the combined effect of intense rainfall and rapid snowmelt (modified from Ran et al., 2010).

2008 km2, maximum elevation of 2600 m above
sea level and an average slope of 2
1° (Ran et al.,
2010) (Fig. 1B). The catchment is mostly under-
lain by Devonian to Permian volcanic and pyro-
clastic rocks (for example, andesite, rhyolite,
felsite, basalt porphyrite, tuffaceous breccia and
their pyroclastic equivalents), and is locally
underlain by Cenozoic and Jurassic sedimentary
rocks in the piedmont zones (Fig. 1B) (Ma et al.,
2015; Shen et al., 2015). The Cenozoic and
Jurassic clastic sedimentary rocks are composed
of piedmont conglomeratic deposits and distinc-
tive successions of fluvial conglomerates and
sandstones with interbedded coal beds (Qu
et al., 2008; Hu et al., 2011; Sun, 2015). These
rock complexes are intruded by the Late Silurian
to Early Permian granites and granite porphyries
(Fig. 1B) (Zhou et al., 2008; Chen, et al., 2010).
In general, the catchment of the Poplar Fan is
© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
largely characterized by complex lithologies that
are susceptible to erosion and a lack of fine-
grained rocks (for example, pelitic metamorphic
rocks or mudstone). Moreover, only sporadic
xerophytic shrubs appear in the catchment so
that surfaces of the mountains are largely free of
vegetation.
Geomorphology of the Poplar Fan
Covering an area of about 730 km2, the Poplar
Fan is one of the largest fan systems along the
basin margins (Fig. 1C). Distinctive rock-pave-
ment clasts with dark desert varnish formed by
weathering in arid conditions (Blair & McPher-
son, 2009; Harvey, 2011; Bahrami et al., 2015)
are developed on the older or abandoned sur-
faces of the fan. Younger or active surfaces
show a lighter tone on satellite images
1756 C. Gao et al.

Fig. 4. (A) Google EarthTM satellite imagery showing the study area and locations of measurements. Both the longi-
tudinal and transverse sections were available from these studied locations. (B) Schematic geomorphological map of
the Poplar Fan based on the satellite imagery. See text for details. (C) Transverse sections at various positions along
the modern Poplar River showing the valley characters and the differences in elevation between the opposing banks.
The red triangles represent the present locations of the active channels. (D) Photograph (section 17 for example)
showing an excavated trench that exposes a 50 m long, 4 m high and 4 m wide transverse section.

(Fig. 4A) due to the exposure of more recent, fault lines in the eastern part of the fan
less-weathered deposits. In response to neotec- (Fig. 4A and B). In contrast, the western part
tonic activities, a series of small-scale sec- does not show any distinguishable faults that
ondary fan systems is developed in the could be related to neotectonics. Furthermore,
downthrown blocks along the intra-fan thrust- coalescing piedmont fans or piedmont deposits
© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
 Alluvial fan dominated by episodic flood events 1757

Fig. 5. (A) Digital elevation model of the Poplar Fan. Two distinct paired terraces (T1 and T2) can be recognized
within the incised Poplar River valley, and the T1 terrace at the west side of the valley appears to be much nar-
rower compared to the east side. The eastern part of the fan is highly reworked by tectonic movements along
thrust faults. (B) Downslope profiles of the western (P1) and eastern parts (P2) of the fan. Locations of the profiles
are marked in (A). (C) Topographic transverse sections across the Poplar Fan showing the variations in valley
depth and surface elevation from proximal to distal fan. (D) Comparison of the gradients of the Poplar Fan and
other modern fans around the world, which are dominated by different primary processes.

are superimposed on the surface of the Poplar
Fan at the proximal zones, particularly in the
eastern part (Fig. 4A and B).
The Poplar Fan has a symmetrical form with
an arc of about 140°, a maximum radial length
of 31 km and a maximum width of 37 km
(Fig. 4A and B). The present elevation map
(Fig. 5A) reveals asymmetrical relief characters
throughout the whole fan region, with the low-
est elevation in the south-east. Due to the uplift
through reverse faulting, the elevation of the
apex of the eastern fan is about 900 m, whereas
that of the western fan is 820 m (Fig. 5B). At
the toe of the fan, the elevation ranges from
about 490 m in the south-east to about 640 m in
the north-west (Fig. 5A to C). The average depo-
sitional slope of the western part is about 0
6°
© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
with very little variation (Fig. 5B). In contrast,
the slope in the proximal zone of the eastern
fan is more variable due to the presence of
faults, and the average slope from the mid fan
to distal fan is around 0
7° (Fig. 5B). The Poplar
Fan is generally considered to be an intermediate-
sized fan in contrast to other modern small-scale
alluvial fans (Boothroyd & Ashley, 1975; Blair,
1999c; Krapf et al., 2005; Shukla, 2009) and
large-scale megafans (Stanistreet & McCarthy,
1993) (Fig. 5D) in terms of size, gradient and
geometry.
Based on the differences in morphology and
drainage pattern, the active fluvial systems on
the Poplar Fan can be categorized into four
types: (i) incised Poplar gravelly braided river
with longitudinal bars; (ii) drainage streams of
1758 C. Gao et al.
secondary fans; (iii) distributary/braided streams
extending from secondary fans or piedmont
fans; and (iv) headward-eroding tributaries/iso-
lated gullies (Fig. 4A and B). Transverse sec-
tions at various positions along the length of the
Poplar River (Fig. 4C) and the elevation map
(Fig. 5A) reveal a U-shaped valley form and
three distinct terraces (T0 to T2 in Fig. 5A).
However, the morphology of terraces becomes
less distinct towards the apex (Figs 4C and 5A).
Additionally, entrenchment of the river valley is
greater (28 to 40 m) in the proximal fan than in
the mid or the distal fan (0 to 20 m) (Figs 4C
and 5C) and the total valley width increases
gradually downslope from around 520 m to
2
2 km (Fig. 5A).
DATA AND METHODS
In total, 34 locations within the Poplar Fan were
logged and analysed to study the depositional
architecture and morphology of the fan. The
studied locations are mainly distributed along
the western cliff sections of the incised valley
and in the western part of the fan where the fan
body is less disturbed by faults compared to the
eastern side (Fig. 4A and B). Exposures across
the fan include a longitudinal outcrop belt along
the 25
8 km long and 3 to 20 m high walls of
incised valley, and transverse sections from spo-
radically distributed quarries within the distal
fan areas, which range from 50 to 200 m in
length and 3 to 6 m in height. Additionally,
eight trenches were excavated to expose trans-
verse sections from the proximal to the distal fan
(sections 13 to 20 in Fig. 4A and D) to better
characterize the downslope and lateral variabil-
ity of fan architectures and facies. Each trench is
around 4 m in height, 50 m in length and 4 m in
width. Trenches are separated, being 1 km apart
from one another. Lithofacies were documented
based on methods of Went (2005), Shukla (2009)
and Cain & Mountney (2009) while typical sam-
ples were collected for grain-size and grading
analyses. A total of 273
7 m of sedimentary logs
were measured at a 10 cm resolution and corre-
lated to understand the spatial changes in the
style of sedimentation. Moreover, the maximum
clast diameter of specific facies, components (i.e.
gravel, sand and silt/clay contents) and sizes (i.e.
width and thickness) of preserved scour pool fill
deposits, and the occurrence frequency of ero-
sional lags were measured throughout all of the
studied locations.
© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
LITHOFACIES AND FACIES
ASSOCIATIONS
The Poplar Fan is dominated by coarse conglom-
erates from its proximal to distal parts. Fourteen
lithofacies were identified in the outcrop sec-
tions based on the lithology, clast texture, sedi-
mentary structure and architecture. Nine facies
associations were identified based on the pro-
cesses of deposition. The lithofacies and facies
associations are summarized in Tables 1 and 2,
respectively.
Facies Association 1: Incised channel flood
deposits
Description
This facies association consists exclusively of
lithofacies C1 and forms the coarsest deposits of
the fan. Lithofacies C1 (Fig. 6A to C) is disorga-
nized cobble to boulder conglomerate with a max-
imum gravel diameter of more than 80 cm. The
conglomerates are matrix to clast-supported, and
the interclast matrix is mostly fine pebbles and
sands. Grain-size data of typical samples show
that fractions finer than the cobble size (<6
4 cm
or 6 Ф) are dominated by gravels (76 to 95 wt%)
and are poorly to very poorly sorted (Fig. 7A and
B, sample-02). There are 4 to 22 wt% sand frac-
tion, 1 to 2 wt% silt fraction, and an absence of
clay content. The grain-size distribution shows a
prominent pebble mode with a weak sand mode
(Fig. 7D). Clasts are mostly sub-rounded to
rounded and outsized clasts are commonly dis-
tributed throughout (Fig. 6A to C). Moreover, the
larger boulders commonly appear without appar-
ent order. The conglomerates are largely massive
and structureless, but may show a fining-upward
trend (Fig. 6A to C). Elongate boulders at the bot-
tom of each depositional unit are typically imbri-
cated (Fig. 6A).
Massive, thick conglomerate beds in this
facies association are dominantly sheet-like and
bounded by erosional bases that locally incise
into the underlying Jurassic basement (Fig. 6A
and B). Weak stratifications resulting from grain-
size variation can be discernible locally. These
grain-size variations delineate individual units
ranging from 0
9 to 5
0 m in thickness, but with
irregular geometries and discontinuous stratifica-
tion. Vertically, stacked beds commonly occur
superimposed (Fig. 8A and B), forming compos-
ite successions up to more than 10 m thick. The
lateral extent of this facies association can be
several tens to hundreds of metres.
 Table 1. Lithofacies definitions, descriptions and interpretations
Code Lithology
C1 Disorganized boulder to cobble con-
glomerate, subrounded to rounded
clasts, poorly sorted, matrix to clast-
supported, coarse sand to fine pebble
matrix, common appearance of
outsized clasts up to 0
8 m
C2 Stratified, rhythmic couplets of boul-
der and cobble conglomerates or of
cobble conglomerates and sandy,
pebble conglomerates, poorly sorted,
clast-supported, subrounded to
rounded clasts, occasional appear-
ance of outsized clasts
C3 Backset wedges of cobble to sandy
pebble conglomerate, poorly to mod-
erately sorted, clast-supported, sub-
rounded to rounded clasts,
associated and interstratified with
Lithofacies C2
C4 Crudely stratified to unstratified,
moderately organized cobble to peb-
ble conglomerate, poorly sorted,
clast-supported, subrounded to
rounded clasts, coarse sand matrix,
no appearance of outsized clasts
© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
Sedimentary structures
Massive, structureless or normal-
grading, bottom boulders locally
show indistinct imbrications, 0
9 to
5
0 m thick individual units with an
erosive base, tens to hundreds of
metres in lateral extent
Planar stratification or low angle
cross-stratification (<5°), 10 to 50 cm
thick individual couplet beds, sharp
or low-relief scouring base, imbri-
cated elongate gravels, laterally con-
tinuous for tens to hundreds of
metres with lateral subtle pinch-outs
of the couplet beds
Upfan-dipping cross-bedding, lentic-
ular to wedge-planar sets 20 to
50 cm thick, normal-grading within
individual backsets, sharp but
unscoured planar base, planar or
erosional top surface, 1 to 3 m in
lateral extent
Massive, ungraded to normally
graded, wedge-shaped/lensoid or
tabular bedded units, locally indis-
tinct cross-laminae, individual unit
thickness of 0
2 to 0
8 m, multi-
storey stacking pattern, erosive to
irregular bases, well to weak imbri-
cations of basal gravels
Environmental
Depositional processes interpretation Figures
Hyperconcentrated flood flows, Confined incised Fig. 6
clasts in different sizes are sup- channel flood A to C
ported by the combination of trac- deposits
tion shear stresses, buoyancy, and
dispersive pressures (Pierson &
Scott, 1985; DeCelles et al., 1991;
Blair, 1999c)
Sediment-charged, upper flow Sheetflood deposits Fig. 6D
regime sheetflood (Froude number on active fan lobe and E
1
4 to 2
8), couplet facies is formed
by the violent destruction and
washout processes of supercritical
standing waves (Simons & Richard-
son, 1966; Blair, 2000; Blair &
McPherson, 2009)
Sediment-charged, upper flow Antidune deposits Fig. 6F
regime, supercritical flows, sedi- within sheetflood on
mentation of backset beds is during active fan lobe
the growth phase of a standing
wave cycle, and preserved by the
gentle destruction of standing
waves (Kennedy, 1963; Blair, 2000;
Blair & McPherson, 2009)
Unconfined, persistent turbulent Flashy unconfined Fig. 9
flows with high sediment concen- streamflood deposits A to C
tration and high discharges, clasts consist of longitudi-
are typically transported as bed- nal/sheet bar and
load sheets or traction carpet, and numerous shallow
rapid vertical deposition hindered channel complexes
development of bedforms (Reid &
Frostick, 1987; Jo et al., 1997;
Suresh et al., 2007)
Alluvial fan dominated by episodic flood events
1759
 Table 1. (continued)
Code Lithology
C5 Well-organized, horizontal-stratified,
cobble to pebble conglomerate,
poorly to moderately sorted, clast-
supported, subrounded to rounded
clasts
C6 Trough-shaped, cross-stratified, well-
organized, cobble to pebble conglom-
erate, poorly to moderately sorted,
clast-supported, subrounded to
rounded clasts
C7 Trough-shaped, sigmoidal-stratified,
well-organized, cobble to pebble con-
glomerate, poorly to moderately
sorted, clast-supported, subrounded
to rounded clasts
C8 Organized, unstratified boulder to
cobble conglomerate, poorly sorted,
clast-supported, subrounded to
rounded clasts
C9 Openwork, cobble to pebble grade
conglomerate, moderately sorted,
clast-supported, lack of matrix fines,
subrounded to rounded clasts
© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
Sedimentary structures
Parallel bedding or massive, normal
grading, 4 to 10 cm thick of individ-
ual planar or low angle wedge
shaped beds, bounded by erosive
bases and truncation tops, metres of
lateral extent distance, coarse-
grained basal lags
Trough and planar cross-bedding,
normal grading, well-developed reac-
tivation surfaces, lenticular units
with erosive base, individual beds
average 3 to 10 cm thick, with
bedsets 0
5 to 1
8 m thick, coarse
basal lags
Sigmoidal cross-bedding, each single
bed with normal grading, 4 to 10 cm
thick individual sets dipping at
angles of 7 to 15° by well-defined
boundaries, forming 0
2 to 1
0 m
thick lenticular unit with erosive
and concave-up bases
Massive, structureless but boulder to
cobble sized gravels are distinctively
and highly imbricated, normal grad-
ing, erosive base, hundreds of metres
in lateral extent and a stable thick-
ness of about 2 to 3 m
Massive, structureless, occasionally
normal grading, 4 to 14 cm thick
lenticular or horizontally thin-
layered units, sharp or scour bases,
lateral extent of 0
5 to 4
5 m, local
imbrications of basal elongate
gravels
1760
Environmental
Depositional processes interpretation Figures
Bedload, upper-flow regimes with Braided channel Fig. 9D
high velocity (Froude number 1 to deposits
1
3), but weaker hydrodynamic con-
C. Gao et al.
ditions than lithofacies C2, C3 and
C4 (Ori, 1982; Parkash et al., 1983;
Cain & Mountney, 2009)
Bedload, lower-flow regimes within Channel and scour Fig. 9D
confined channels (Froude number pool fill deposits and E
<1), formed by migrations of two to
three-dimensional bedforms under
sustained flows (Miall, 1977; Tun-
bridge, 1984; Shukla, 2009)
Lateral accretion along the flanks of Scour pool fill Fig. 9F
the scour pools (Ori, 1982; DeCelles deposits
et al., 1991; Siegenthaler &
Huggenberger, 1993)
Only found in the profiles along the Poplar River terrace Fig. 10D
incised valley and mantling the fan deposits
sequence, typical facies of channel
deposition (Miall, 1977; Suresh
et al., 2007) of present Poplar
incised river
Deposits formed through fine frac- Erosional lag deposits Fig. 10
tion winnowing of the initial depos- on surface or in local E and F
its by clearwater flows or by flows channel base
with low sediments content (Blair,
1999c; Blair & McPherson, 2009;
Antronico et al., 2015)
 Table 1. (continued)
Code Lithology
S1 Horizontal-stratified, (pebbly) med-
ium to coarse sandstone, poorly to
moderately sorted
S2 Trough-shaped, cross-stratified, Sig-
moidal-stratified, (pebbly) medium
to coarse sandstone, poorly to mod-
erately sorted
S3 Irregularly stratified, medium to
coarse sandstone, moderately to
well-sorted
S4 Irregularly stratified, (silty) fine
sandstone, occasionally interbedded
with thin pebble beds, poorly to
moderately sorted
M1 Unstratified (muddy) siltstone and
(silty) mudstone, commonly
interbedded with fine-grained sand
components, occasional appearance
of pebble clusters
© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
Sedimentary structures
Parallel bedding or massive, lami-
nated or lenticular units, thickness
ranging from 10 to 50 cm, lamina-
tion may show slight irregular undu-
lations, erosive base, bioturbation
burrows
Trough, planar and sigmoidal cross-
bedding, individual beds with aver-
age thickness of 4 to 10 cm and bed-
sets up to 0
5 m, lenticular units,
erosive bases, bioturbation burrows
and occasional sediment deforma-
tion
Planar pin-stripe laminations with
low angle (3 to 7°) foresets, sharply
bounded, 5 to 10 cm thick lens-
shaped or tabular units, laterally
discontinuous
Ripple or indistinct small-scale
cross-bedding, imbrications of bot-
tom gravel lags, local sediment
deformation and bioturbation, 10 to
80 cm thick irregular to lenticular
units with erosive bases
Massive or small-scale ripple and
horizontal laminations, sharp and
non-erosive base, common sediment
deformation, local bioturbation, tab-
ular or irregular units with variable
thickness (0
1 to 1
0 m)
Environmental
Depositional processes interpretation Figures
Bedload, upper-flow regimes Braided channel Fig. 10A
(Froude number 1 to 1
3), plane bed deposits
sedimentation (Parkash et al., 1983;
Jo et al., 1997; Cain & Mountney,
2009)
Bedload, lower-flow regimes, verti- Channel and scour Fig. 10
cal and lateral accretions and migra- pool fill deposits B and C
tions of two to three-dimensional
bedforms in confined channels and
scour pools (Siegenthaler & Huggen-
berger, 1993; Jo et al., 1997)
Wind winnowing, reworking, and Aeolian sand dunes Fig. 12
deposition of relatively fine clasts or sand sheets A and B
of the fan surface (Blair, 1999c;
Blair & McPherson, 2009; Harvey,
2011)
Bedload, lower-flow regimes, two- Fan surface gully Fig. 12
dimensional migration of sandy deposits C and D
ripples or dunes within confined
channels (Kennedy, 1963; Blair &
McPherson, 2009; Shukla, 2009)
Suspended load fallout deposition Ephemeral ponds in Fig. 12
in a standing water environment distal portion of the E and F
(Ridgway & Decelles, 1993; Hillier, fan or wetland adja-
et al., 2011; Trendell et al., 2013) cent to the fan
Alluvial fan dominated by episodic flood events
1761
 1762

Table 2. Facies associations identified within the Poplar Fan

Occurrence across the

Facies Association (FA) Occurring stage Lithofacies types Architectural elements fan

FA 1: Incised channel Lobe building stage Lithofacies: C1 No further architecture Observed in outcrops
C. Gao et al.

flood deposits elements from the proximal fan

FA 2: Sheetflood deposits Lobe building stage Lithofacies: C2 Couplet facies and anti- Observed in outcrops
and C3 dunes from the proximal to mid
fan

FA 3: Unconfined stream- Lobe building stage Lithofacies: C4 Sheet-like channels and Observed in outcrops
flood deposits sheet/longitudinal bars from the mid to distal fan

FA 4: Gravelly braided Channel building Lithofacies: C5, Braided channels and Observed in outcrops
river deposits stage C6, C7, S1, S2 scour pool fills through the whole fan

FA 5: Poplar River Abandonment stage Lithofacies: C8 Braided channels with Only observed in out-
terrace deposits highly imbricated coarse crops along the incised
gravels throughout the valley walls
beds

FA 6: Erosional lag Abandonment stage Lithofacies: C9 Sheet-like lag and chan- Randomly observed in
deposits nel lag local outcrops through
the whole fan

FA 7: Aeolian deposits Abandonment stage Lithofacies: S3 Aeolian sand dunes and Randomly observed in
sand sheet local outcrops through
the whole fan

FA 8: Gully deposits Abandonment stage Lithofacies: S4 No further architecture Randomly observed in

elements, but can be local outcrops within the
various sizes distal fan

FA 9: Ephemeral pond Lobe building stage Lithofacies: M1 No further architecture Observed in outcrops in
deposits elements, but can be the distal fan
various sizes

© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
 Alluvial fan dominated by episodic flood events 1763

Fig. 6. Representative views of the incised channel flood and sheetflood deposits of the Poplar Fan. (A) Longitu-
dinal profile (studied location 1) showing the basal imbricated elongate boulders within the disorganized con-
glomerates of the incised channel flood (lithofacies C1) (person 175 cm tall for scale). (B) Transverse section
(studied location 2) showing the erosional contact between the incised channel flood conglomerates (lithofacies
C1) and underlying Jurassic basement. (C) Longitudinal profile (studied location 3) showing fining-upward units
bounded by erosion surface (marked by white arrows) in the incised channel flood conglomerates (lithofacies C1).
Note the occurrence of outsized boulders within the conglomerates. (D) and (E) Longitudinal profiles (studied
location 6 and 7) showing planar-interstratified coarse and fine cobble (pebble) gravel couplets of sheetflood
deposits (lithofacies C2). Note the local occurrence of outsized boulders. (F) Longitudinal profile (studied location
8) showing couplets of coarse cobble and fine-cobble/coarse-pebble conglomerates (lithofacies C2) with a 30 cm
thick wedge-planar antidune unit with backsets dipping upfan to the right (lithofacies C3). Note the sharp base
and sharply truncated top of these units. See Fig. 4A for each of the studied locations.

Interpretation in the catchment. The overall unstratified litho-

This facies association is interpreted to be the facies, poorly organized and chaotic fabric, com-
deposits of gravel-concentrated flash floods, con- mon appearance of ‘floating’ outsized boulders
fined within deeply incised channels (fan head and the absence of tractional structures indicate
trench) on the fan or within the feeder channels the en masse and non-selective nature of the
© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
1764 C. Gao et al.

Fig. 7. Grain-size distribution of nine representative samples of nine facies associations identified within the
Poplar Fan. Cobble to boulder grade clasts are not included. (A) Cumulative grain-size distribution showing
the variations in the pebble, sand, silt and clay content of each samples. (B) Sorting coefficient in each sam-
ple. (C) Grain-size distribution of sample from erosion lags (lithofacies C9). (D) Grain-size distribution of sam-
ple from incised channel flood deposits (lithofacies C1). (E) Grain-size distribution of sample from sheetflood
couplet beds (lithofacies C2). (F) Grain-size distribution of sample from unconfined streamflood conglomerates
(lithofacies C4). (G) Grain-size distribution of sample from braided river conglomerates (lithofacies C7). (H)
Grain-size distribution of sample from braided river sandstones (lithofacies S2). (I) Grain-size distribution of
sample from aeolian sandstones (Lithofacies S3). (J) Grain-size distribution of sample from gully (silty) fine
sandstones (lithofacies S4). (K) Grain-size distribution of sample from ephemeral surficial ponds (lithofacies
M1).

© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
 Alluvial fan dominated by episodic flood events
depositional processes. Clasts within the flows
were likely supported predominantly by the
combination of buoyancy and dispersive pres-
sure (DeCelles et al., 1991; Blair & McPherson,
2009; Harvey, 2011). This facies association is
likely to represent hyperconcentrated flow close
to the threshold between plastic and turbulent
flow (Pierson & Scott, 1985; Harvey, 2011) rather
than debris flow, as evidenced by the erosive
base, locally developed gravel imbrication, lack
of basal inverse grading and the absence of clay
content. The erosive base and localized imbrica-
tion of bottom boulders indicate that the floods
were characterized by turbulent flows with
strongly sheared, laminar flow properties in the
earlier phases (DeCelles et al., 1991; Went,
2005). However, immediately prior to deposi-
tion, the flows were prone to be gravity-domi-
nated, with high sediment concentration and
considerable matrix strength (Went, 2005; Kall-
meier et al., 2010; Harvey, 2011). Furthermore,
the fining-upward trend and poorly developed
stratification suggest that fluidal flow may
develop during deposition (Went, 2005). The
complex alternation between turbulent-erosive
and viscous-depositional behaviours in hyper-
concentrated flows commonly occurs in modern
flood events (Scott, 1973; Pierson, 1980; Wells &
Harvey, 1987; Went, 2005).
The high concentration of the coarsest clasts
in this facies association reflects the high sedi-
ment transport capacity of the formative floods.
The lateral confinement provided by the
incised-channel walls prevented the floods
from expanding, and this may have facilitated
maintenance of flow depth, clast concentration,
and sediment transport capacity (Blair, 1999c;
Went, 2005; Blair & McPherson, 2009), leading
to the thick accumulation of this facies associ-
ation.
Facies Association 2: Sheetflood deposits
Description
This facies association consists of lithofacies C2
and C3. Lithofacies C2 is stratified conglomerate
composed of rhythmically interbedded 10 to
50 cm thick planar fine boulder and cobble to
very coarse pebble conglomerate beds with 10 to
30 cm thick planar laminated coarse to medium
pebble or sandy, medium to fine pebble con-
glomerate beds. These alternating beds form a
well-developed couplet appearance (Figs 6D to
F, 8C and 8E). The beds of the couplet facies
contain subrounded to rounded gravels that are
© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
1765
poorly to very poorly sorted (sample-03 in
Fig. 7B) and clast-supported. Outsized clasts
and gravel imbrications are distributed sporadi-
cally. Grain-size distribution of lithofacies C2 is
bimodal (Fig. 7E) and higher in sand content (9
to 30 wt%) (Fig. 7A, sample-03) compared to
lithofacies C1, reflecting the rhythmic nature of
the strata. Lithofacies C3 is commonly interbed-
ded with lithofacies C2 and characterized by
poorly sorted, fine-cobble to pebble conglomer-
ate with upslope-dipping cross-beds (backsets)
developed in lenticular to wedge-shaped sets
that are 20 to 50 cm thick (Fig. 6F). The elongate
gravel clasts are typically parallel to the strike of
the backset and the grain size is generally finer
than the couplet facies. The individual cross-
laminae and reactivation surfaces in the backsets
are discernible due to variations in grain size
and angle of dipping within the beds. Laterally,
the backsets usually extend for 1 to 3 m before
pinching out by merging along the couplet bed-
ding planes (Fig. 6F). Overall, lithofacies C3 is
much less common than lithofacies C2.
This facies association can reach 350 m in lat-
eral extent in individual section and form
metres to tens of metres thick sheet-like con-
glomerate bodies. Truncation surfaces are not
present in this facies association, but localized
low-relief scourings can be observed in the strat-
ification, while the parallel bedding planes are
mostly sharp-based (Figs 6D to F and 8C to E).
Both the top and base of the backsets (lithofacies
C3) are typically parallel to the associated cou-
plet facies (lithofacies C2) (Fig. 6F). Moreover,
close inspection reveals that the occurrence of
lateral pinch-out of individual couplet beds and
the variable pinch-out angles in lithofacies C2
can result in an overall appearance of low-angle
cross-stratification. However, the subtlety of
these lateral pinch-outs can eventually result in
great lateral continuity in the sections. Addition-
ally, the couplet stratigraphy is typically more
evident in longitudinal profiles than in trans-
verse sections.
Interpretation
The lithology, sedimentary structure and the
lack of internal truncation surface suggest that
this facies association is formed by sediment-
charged, upper-flow-regime sheetfloods that
expand across the active lobes of the fan (Blair,
1999c; Blair, 2000). Such sheetfloods are docu-
mented to be derived through high energy and
high sediment-laden turbulent flows, which
have been observed in many modern
1766 C. Gao et al.

© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
 Alluvial fan dominated by episodic flood events 1767

Fig. 8. Representative sedimentary logs showing vertical successions and downstream variations in the lithofa-
cies/facies associations identified within the Poplar Fan. Triangles to the left of the logs represent fining-upward
units that are bounded by erosional bases. Logs (A) to (C) are located in the proximal fan, logs (D) to (F) are
located in the mid fan, and logs (G) and (H) are located in the distal fan.

catastrophic flood events (Pierson & Scott, 1985;
Sohn, 1997; Blair & McPherson, 2009; Antronico
et al., 2015).
The couplets of lithofacies C2 and the backset
intervals of lithofacies C3 are interpreted to be
originated from the frequent generation and
destruction of supercritical standing waves
within the sheetfloods (Langford & Bracken,
1987; Blair, 1999c; Blair, 2000). The couplets in
lithofacies C2 are usually formed through break-
ing and downslope shooting destruction pro-
cesses of supercritical standing waves (Blair,
1999c; Blair, 2000); whereas the backsets in
lithofacies C3 were formed by antidunes during
the growth phase of a standing wave cycle and
then preserved by the gentle termination of the
standing wave train (Blair, 1999c; Blair, 2000).
Flume experiments show that water depth is
usually 1
5 to 2
0 times of the height of the anti-
dune (Simons & Richardson, 1966). Based on
this relationship, the flow depth during deposi-
tion of these 0
2 to 0
5 m high antidunes is esti-
mated to be around 0
3 to 1
0 m. However,
sheetflood deposits of the Poplar Fan are domi-
nated by the couplets of lithofacies C2, indicat-
ing that the supercritical standing waves
underwent destruction mainly by violent wash-
out (Blair & McPherson, 2009). The broad lateral
extent of the thick sheetflood deposit sequences
and the presence of low-relief scourings and
reactivation surfaces suggest that the amalga-
mated and laterally pinching-out couplet beds
are likely to be multiple stacked depositional
lobes (Blair, 2000; Antronico et al., 2015).
Facies Association 3: Unconfined streamflood
deposits
Description
This facies association is characterized by mod-
erately organized, clast-supported, pebble to
cobble conglomerates of lithofacies C4 (Fig. 9A
to C). Clasts are subrounded to rounded and
poorly sorted with no discernible outsized
clasts. Grain-size data (Fig. 7A and B, sample-
04) show that lithofacies C4 has relatively better
sorting and appears to have slightly finer gravel
size than sheetflood deposits, with a polymodal
grain-size distribution (Fig. 7F). However, the
© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
sand and silt contents of these two facies associ-
ations are almost identical (10 to 34 wt% in
lithofacies C4 and 9 to 30 wt% in lithofacies
C2/C3). Larger gravel clasts commonly occur in
clusters and closely packed along the base of
individual beds (Fig. 9A to C). Imbrication of
gravels is usually not well-developed in this
facies association but it appears occasionally
(Fig. 9A). Beds of this facies association are lar-
gely structureless and weakly stratified with
faint sub-horizontal planar stratification
(Fig. 9A). Moreover, clasts usually fine upward
within individual beds (Figs 8F, 8G, 9B and 9C).
An individual depositional unit of this facies
association is usually lenticular/wedge-shaped
with erosive bases or massive/tabular with irreg-
ular bases (Fig. 9A to C). The erosive bases
defined by trough surfaces typically show low
amplitude, while the irregular bases are com-
monly flat or gently concave. These fining-
upward individual units are generally 0
2 to
0
8 m thick and 0
5 to 2
0 m wide, forming ver-
tically amalgamated (Fig. 8F and G) and laterally
extensive (tens to hundreds of metres) sheet-like
conglomerate bodies up 3 to 5 m thick.
Interpretation
The sheet-like conglomerate bodies, with moder-
ately organized textures and fabrics of the con-
stituent lithofacies suggest that this facies
association is likely to be originated from uncon-
fined flash streamfloods, which are usually dom-
inated by fluvial processes (Olsen, 1987;
Abdullatif, 1989; Went, 2005). The sheet-like
multi-storey stacking pattern of massive, tabular
or lenticular conglomerate bodies (Figs 8F, 8G,
9B and 9C) indicates that this facies association
represents sheet to longitudinal bar, diffuse
gravel sheet or low-sinuosity multi-channel
stream complexes (Boothroyd & Ashley, 1975;
Allen, 1981; Miall, 1996; Suresh et al., 2007;
Chen et al., 2017). Clasts can be transported as
bedload sheets or as traction carpets in subcriti-
cal streamflood turbulent flows, which are usu-
ally characterized by high discharge and high
sediment concentrations (Reid & Frostick, 1987;
Todd, 1989; Jo et al., 1997; Shukla, 2009). The
rapid changes in discharge, prolonged high-mag-
nitude flood flows and rapid deposition caused
1768 C. Gao et al.

Fig. 9. Representative views of the unconfined streamflood and braided river deposits of the Poplar Fan. (A)
Sheetflood couplet facies (lithofacies C2) containing lenticular units of unconfined streamflood deposits (lithofa-
cies C4), which are defined by erosive bases (marked by arrows) and show indistinct stratifications. The contact
between these two facies is transitional and the lateral boundaries of the lenticular units are ambiguous (studied
location 9). (B) Sheet-like unconfined streamflood deposits (lithofacies C4) containing numerous vertically and lat-
erally amalgamated lenticular units with erosive bases (studied location 25). (C) Sheet-like unconfined streamflood
deposits (lithofacies C4) comprising both lenticular units and amalgamated massive/tabular beds with irregular
bases. Note the basal clusters of closely packed gravels and the fining-upward of gravel size within individual
units of unconfined streamflood deposits (studied location 24). (D) and (E) Parallel-bedded (lithofacies C5) and
planar/trough cross-bedded (lithofacies C6) conglomerates representing the confined gravelly braided channel and
scour pool fill deposits (studied locations 22 and 1). (F) Sigmoidal cross-bedded conglomerates (lithofacies C7)
within scour pool (studied location 19). See Fig. 4A for each studied location.

by dispersion of unconfined high-sediment-con- waning flow may have led to the fining-upward
centration flows might be responsible for the trend within individual beds. Nonetheless,
poor sorting, poorly developed stratification and slight fluctuations in the strength of the water
massive appearance of this facies association flow during the flood could have resulted in the
(Allen, 1981; Jo et al., 1997). Additionally, formation of faint cross-stratification.
© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
 Alluvial fan dominated by episodic flood events
The typical low relief erosive contacts, rapid
lateral fabric changes and absence of significant
variations in gravel size between individual
amalgamated units suggest that the unconfined
streamflood flows may have been formed by
numerous rapidly shifting narrow and shallow
channels (Ori, 1982; Blair, 2000; Hampton &
Horton, 2007; Cain & Mountney, 2009; Chen
et al., 2017). The massive architecture and lack
of stratification in the channel forms indicate
that the channels were generated from vertical
accretion rather than from migration of gravelly
dune bedforms (Allen, 1981; Jo et al., 1997;
Went, 2005). Moreover, the massive, sub-hori-
zontal packages with irregular but non-erosive
bases indicate that the bar growth was domi-
nantly from a diffuse gravel sheet rather than a
channel lag (Boothroyd & Ashley, 1975; Hein &
Walker, 1977; Miall, 1977). These predominant
characters of the unconfined streamflood
deposits compare well with the transformation
from channels into sheets of flood water within
modern ephemeral stream systems during peri-
ods of flash flood (Tunbridge, 1984; Olsen,
1987; Abdullatif, 1989), reflecting peak stages
of poorly channelized but laterally extensive
unconfined floods across active lobes of the
fan.
Facies Association 4: Channel and pool fill
deposits of gravelly braided rivers
Description
This facies association is characterized by an
overall dominance of conglomerate lithofacies
with subordinate sandstone lithofacies. Both the
conglomerates and sandstones in this facies
association are poorly sorted; however, the tex-
tures and fabrics of the conglomerates are orga-
nized.
Cobble to pebble conglomerates are clast-sup-
ported and well to moderately imbricated for this
facies association. Clasts are subrounded to
rounded and no discernible outsized clasts are
present. Compared with the gravelly lithofacies
mentioned above (lithofacies C1, C2/C3 and C4),
the sand content (22 to 45 wt%) of conglomerates
in this facies association is significantly higher
(Fig. 7A, sample-05) and the grain size shows a
polymodal distribution (Fig. 7G). Three types of
conglomerate lithofacies occur in this facies asso-
ciation: lithofacies C5 (Fig. 9D) is 0
5 to 1
5 m thick
parallel/massive bedded conglomerate; lithofacies
C6 (Fig. 9D and E) is 0
5 to 1
8 m thick trough/pla-
nar cross-bedded conglomerate; and lithofacies C7
© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
1769
(Fig. 9F) is 0
2 to 1
3 m thick sigmoidal cross-
bedded conglomerate with dip angles of 7 to 15°.
The sandstones in this facies association are
coarse to very coarse-grained and commonly
contain pebbles (Fig. 7A, sample-06). These
sandstones are usually poorly sorted (Fig. 7B,
sample-06) with a unimodal grain-size distribu-
tion (Fig. 7H). Two sandstone lithofacies types
can be further identified: lithofacies S1
(Fig. 10A) is 10 to 50 cm thick parallel/massive
bedded sandstone; and lithofacies S2 (Fig. 10B
and C) is 20 to 50 cm thick cross-bedded
(mostly trough/planar bedding and local sig-
moidal bedding) sandstone.
The cross-bedded conglomerate or sandstone
sets mostly show trough-shaped geometry with
an erosional concave-upward lower bounding
surface (Fig. 9E and F), which is discontinu-
ously overlain by a lag of coarse gravels. In sec-
tions approximately perpendicular to the
general flow direction (Fig. 11), the erosional
bounding surfaces usually display the shape of
circular arc segments, while the cross-beds are
strongly curved and tangential to the lower
boundaries, giving the whole structure an onion-
like or sigmoidal appearance (Figs 9E, 9F and
11). Moreover, abundant reactivation surfaces
are present. On the other hand, the wedge-
shaped parallel/massive bedded conglomerate
sets usually show fining-upward transition into
parallel/massive bedded sandstones (Fig. 10A),
and occasionally alternate with planar cross-
bedded sets (Fig. 9D). Particularly, burrows with
a diameter ranging from a few to tens of cen-
timetres can be identified in this facies associa-
tion, but they are much more common in the
sandstone units (Fig. 10A to C). Generally, these
units develop as isolated interlayers within
other gravelly facies associations throughout the
fan (Fig. 8B to D, G and H). However, the well-
defined trough-shaped geometries and the dis-
tinctive well-organized deposits of these units
make them texturally and structurally distin-
guishable from surrounding deposits (Fig. 11).
Interpretation
The common features of this facies association,
such as abundant parallel/cross-bedding, erosive
base, fining-upward sequence and trough-shaped
geometry, are strong evidence of bedload,
streamflow processes (Ridgway & Decelles, 1993;
Miall, 1996; Suresh et al., 2007). This facies
association is interpreted to represent gravelly
braided river deposits, as evidenced by the dom-
inance of conglomerates.
1770 C. Gao et al.

Fig. 10. Representative views of the braided river, Poplar River terrace, and erosional lag deposits of the Poplar
Fan. (A) Parallel-bedded coarse to medium sandstone (lithofacies S1) interpreted as braided channel deposits
(studied location 21). The fining-upward succession of the underlying parallel-bedded conglomerates (lithofacies
C5) reflects the gradually decreasing flow energy during the waning flood period (lens cap for scale, 77 mm). (B)
and (C) Planar and trough cross-bedded sandstones (lithofacies S2) interpreted as channel and pool fill deposits
(hammer for scale, 28 cm) (studied locations 21 and 24). Note the distinctive burrows developed within these
sandstones (marked by white arrows). (D) Massive and highly imbricated conglomerates of the terrace deposits
(lithofacies C8) with erosive base (marked by dashed line). Note the imbrication of gravels throughout the whole
beds and the normal grading of gravel size (studied location 12). (E) and (F) Distinctive open framework conglom-
erates of erosion lag deposits (lithofacies C9) showing both the lenticular-shaped and horizontal-lamination units
(lens cap for scale, 77 mm) (studied locations 9 and 10). See Fig. 4A for each studied locations.

The architectural elements in this facies asso- hierarchical order of preservation (Bristow &
ciation are interpreted to be the preserved chan- Best, 1993; Siegenthaler & Huggenberger, 1993;
nel and pool fill deposits. In a dynamic gravelly Heinz et al., 2003). The trough-shaped cross-
braided river system, architectural elements (i.e. bedded sets (Figs 9E, 9F and 11), comprising
pools, channels, bars and floodplains) develop at lithofacies C6, C7 and S2, represent scour pool
different topographic levels, suggesting a definite fill deposits formed at the channel confluences
© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
 Alluvial fan dominated by episodic flood events
or the channel bends. These scour pools are
characterized by the lowest topographic, deepest,
depositional levels (Ashmore, 1982; Ashmore &
Parker, 1983; Bristow et al., 1993). Therefore, the
pool fill deposits have an excellent chance of
being preserved in a dynamic gravelly braided
river environment (Bristow & Best, 1993; Siegen-
thaler & Huggenberger, 1993; Huber & Huggen-
berger, 2015). The distinctive onion-like and
sigmoidal structure together with abundant reac-
tivation surfaces identified in the trough deposits
(Figs 9E, 9F and 11) result from two processes:
(i) foreset deposition at the upstream ends of the
pool; and (ii) lateral accretion along the flanks of
the pool (Siegenthaler & Huggenberger, 1993;
Ashmore & Gardner, 2008). Under such circum-
stances, it is common to see different set types
develop in the pool fills with different textural
types and apparently opposite or varied growth
directions (Fig. 11). However, it is noteworthy
that the geometrical forms of the pool fill struc-
tures can be quite variable due to the different
positions of sections with reference to the palae-
oflow direction (Siegenthaler & Huggenberger,
1993). In contrast, the fining-upward parallel or
massive bedded sets (Fig. 10A), which are occa-
sionally coupled with planar cross-bedded sets,
are interpreted to be the in-channel deposits dur-
ing waning stage. The parallel bedded sets repre-
sent deposition under upper flow regime when
the high-velocity and plane-bed conditions are
developed in fluvial channels (Olsen, 1987;
Abdullatif, 1989; Miall, 1996; Shukla, 2009). The
planar-bedded units reflect the accretion of 2D
bedforms (i.e. linguoid crested dunes) within
confined channels under lower flow regime con-
ditions (Tunbridge, 1984; Bristow, 1993; Miall,
1996; Cain & Mountney, 2009). Notably, these
channel accumulations are deposited at elevated
topographic levels and experienced extensive
erosion, resulting in their wedge-shaped geome-
try (Figs 9D, 10A and 10B). Moreover, the abun-
dant burrows in this facies association likely
resulted from complete or partial channel-bed
exposure in periods of waning flows, reflecting
ephemeral streams with a highly fluctuating
water table (Saez et al., 2007; Plink-Bj€ orklund,
2015).
Facies Association 5: River terrace deposits
Description
This facies association mainly comprises lithofa-
cies C8 and can only be identified in
© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
1771
longitudinal profiles along the middle and
downstream reaches of the incised valley. Litho-
facies C8 is massive, well-organized, clast-sup-
ported, cobble to fine-boulder conglomerate.
This facies association can be readily identified
by the widespread and well-developed imbrica-
tion of gravels (Fig. 10D). No outsized clasts can
be identified. Gravel size varies, resulting in a
poorly sorted character. Generally, these con-
glomerates are massive and unstratified. Beds
commonly show normal grading with sub-
rounded to rounded clasts, and basal contacts
are typically erosive and sharp. Thus, faint mul-
ti-storey stacking patterns can still be recognized
by distinguishing individual fining-upward suc-
cessions. This facies association is laterally con-
tinuous and can be traced for tens to hundreds
of metres in individual exposures, with a thick-
ness ranging from 2 to 3 m. Moreover, this facies
association only occurs at the top of individual
exposures (Fig. 8D to F) and is occasionally
capped by thin silty soil horizons (Fig. 10D).
Interpretation
The well-organized, highly imbricated and ero-
sive conglomerates of this facies association
with a fining-upward trend are apparent indica-
tors of fluvial processes with unidirectional
streamflow. These characters suggest gravel
transport through bedload and deposition
through accretion of progressively smaller clasts
in braided channels and on longitudinal bars
(Ridgway & Decelles, 1993; Miall, 1996; Jo et al.,
1997; Suresh et al., 2007). The development of
massive, sheet-like beds with imbricated gravels
throughout and the lack of internal bedding
could be the result of reworking of previous
deposits through repeated avulsion of channels
across active braided belts (Miall, 1996; Cain &
Mountney, 2009).
The restricted distribution close to valley
walls and the vertical position at the top of
observed sections strongly indicate that this
facies association represents river terrace depos-
its confined within the valley; since traditional
alluvial fan models usually do not incorporate
terrace facies. The formation and preservation of
these terrace deposits can be tentatively
explained using the ‘cut and cover’ evolution
model of incised rivers (Holbrook & Bhat-
tacharya, 2012), despite the difference in deposi-
tional environment that this model is intended
for. This model suggests that the rivers can pre-
serve their own sediments as they migrate
1772 C. Gao et al.

© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
 Alluvial fan dominated by episodic flood events 1773

Fig. 11. Photographs with annotations showing the external form and internal architecture of scour pool fill
deposits from the proximal to distal fan. Compared with the surrounding deposits, the overall finer grain size and
more organized characters of these pool fill deposits indicate the significant differences in the hydrodynamic con-
ditions. (A) Trough-shaped gravelly pool fill unit developed within incised channel flood conglomerates (studied
location 1). (B) Trough-shaped gravelly and sandy pool fill units developed within the sheetflood couplet deposits
(studied location 15). (C) Trough-shaped gravelly pool fill units developed within the sheetflood couplet deposits
(studied location 9). (D) Trough-shaped gravelly pool fill units developed within the unconfined streamflood con-
glomerates (studied location 18). (E) Trough-shaped gravelly pool fill units developed within the unconfined
streamflood conglomerates (studied location 25). Note the erosion contact with the overlying gully deposits (F)
Trough-shaped sandy pool fill and channel units developed within the unconfined streamflood conglomerates.
Burrows are visible (studied location 25). See Fig. 4A for each of the studied locations.

within a valley (Holbrook & Bhattacharya, 2012;
Li & Bhattacharya, 2013).
Facies Association 6: Erosional lag deposits
Description
This facies association is dominantly composed
of lithofacies C9 (Fig. 10E and F) and has been
locally found to be interbedded with other grav-
elly facies associations throughout most parts of
the fan (Fig. 8C to E). Lithofacies C9 is clast-sup-
ported, pebble to fine-cobble conglomerate.
These conglomerates are distinctively character-
ized by an openwork texture due to the lack of
matrix fines and high percentage of gravel con-
tent. Therefore, the conglomerates are moder-
ately sorted (Fig. 7A and B, sample-01) and the
grain-size distribution shows a prominent peb-
ble mode with no sand content (Fig. 7C). Beds
commonly show centimetre-thick gravel lenses
with erosive bases (Fig. 10E) or horizontal lami-
nations with irregular bases (Fig. 10F). The
width of the beds ranges from tens of centime-
tres to over 4 m. Additionally, imbrication and
fining-upward successions of this facies associa-
tion are distributed locally.
Interpretation
This facies association is interpreted to be ero-
sional lag deposits which are very common on
modern fan surfaces (Blair, 2000; De Haas et al.,
2014; Antronico et al., 2015). The open clast-
supported and matrix-poor fabric is probably
formed through winnowing of fine fractions on
the surface of original conglomerate deposits by
clearwater flow events. Such events can occur
during recessional flood stage or take place dur-
ing subsequent secondary processes of low-
energy overland flows across the fan surface
(Blair & McPherson, 2009; Waters et al., 2010;
Antronico et al., 2015). These clearwater flows
are capable of winnowing sand, silt and clay,
and reorienting the coarser clasts, leading to the
concentration of gravels and the locally imbri-
cated character (Blair & McPherson, 2009; Har-
vey, 2011; Antronico et al., 2015). Alternatively,
the overland clearwater flows can be laterally
sheet-like or form rills initiated through topogra-
phy-induced flow convergence (Blair & McPher-
son, 2009), thereby forming the thin-layered or
lenticular beds, respectively (Fig. 10E and F).
Facies Association 7: Aeolian deposits
Description
This facies association consists of fine to med-
ium-grained sandstones of lithofacies S3 and
usually develops as thin interlayers within con-
glomerate beds in local sections of the fan
(Figs 8C, 12A and 12B). These sandstones, occa-
sionally containing fine pebble-sized gravels,
exhibit high textural maturity with moderate to
good sorting (Fig. 7A and B, sample-07) and
show a distinct unimodal grain-size distribution
(Fig. 7I). Internally, 0
1 to 0
2 cm thick wedge-
shaped pin-stripe laminations and small-scale
low-angle (3 to 7°) foresets toed by tangential
transitions into planar bed can be identified
(Fig. 12B). This facies association is usually pre-
sent as a 5 to 20 cm thick individual sandstone
bed with tubular or convex-up shape, which is
defined by sharp bounding surfaces (Fig. 12A
and B). The sandstone beds of this facies associ-
ation are usually developed on top of irregu-
larly-scoured surfaces and are usually truncated
on top. This results in very limited lateral extent
of individual beds, which are usually less than
2 m.
Interpretation
Notably different from other facies associations,
due to a dominance of moderately to well-sorted
sand-sized clasts and the presence of pin-stripe
laminations of varying dip directions, this facies

© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
1774 C. Gao et al.

Fig. 12. Representative views of the aeolian, gully and surficial pond deposits of the Poplar Fan. (A) Convex-up
shaped aeolian sandstones (lithofacies S3) developed within the sheetflood couplet beds (lithofacies C2). The unit
shows sharp but unscoured planar base (studied location 8). (B) Tabular bed of aeolian sandstone (lithofacies S3)
developed within unconfined streamflood conglomerates (lithofacies C4). Wedge-shaped pin-stripe laminations and
low-angle sets of variable dip direction can be identified internally (studied location 20). (C) and (D) Lenticular-
shaped units of gully (silty) fine sandstones (lithofacies S4), with erosive base and ripple or small-scale cross-bed-
ding. Note the sharp contacts with underlying and overlying unconfined streamflood conglomerates (lithofacies C4)
(studied location 24 and 22). (E) Massive silty mudstones of surficial ponds (lithofacies M1) containing distinctive
irregular conglomerate pillows (marked by arrows) and showing a sharp base (studied location 23). Note that the con-
glomerate pillows are composed of the same components as in the overlying unconfined streamflood deposits.
(F) Photograph showing the lateral and vertical contacts between massive silty mudstones of surficial ponds (lithofa-
cies M1) and unconfined streamflood conglomerates (lithofacies C4) (studied location 25). Note the soft-sediment
deformation structures (marked by arrows) of the surficial pond silty mudstones and the mud gravels originated from
this facies within the overlying conglomerates (lens cap for scale, 77 mm). See Fig. 4A for each studied location.

association is interpreted to be aeolian deposits of selective erosion and winnowing of sand-

in the form of sand drift or sand dunes. The sized fractions over the fan surface (Blair &
high textural maturity is likely to be the result McPherson, 2009; Kallmeier et al., 2010; Harvey,
© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
 Alluvial fan dominated by episodic flood events
2011). Aeolian sands can be trapped by shel-
tered zones, such as gullies and plants, where
topographic irregularities cause wind decelera-
tion (Blair, 2000; Krapf et al., 2005). Specifi-
cally, the low-angle foresets are diagnostic of
low-relief aeolian bedforms formed by migration
of wind ripples (Fryberger et al., 1979; Ielpi &
Ghinassi, 2016) and the wedge-shaped pin-stripe
laminations of variable dip orientations may rep-
resent the coppice dunes built by wind ripples
aggrading around desert shrubs (Blair, 2000;
Blair & McPherson, 2009).
Facies Association 8: Gully deposits
Description
This facies association mainly consists of iso-
lated lenticular beds of lithofacies S4 (Fig. 12C
and D), bounded by concave-up and erosive
contacts. The beds are usually tens of centime-
tres to more than a metre thick and mostly up to
a few metres wide. Lithofacies S4 is composed
of silty fine to coarse-grained sandstones, which
are occasionally interbedded with fine-pebble
gravel laminations. The beds of this facies asso-
ciation commonly occur as thin interlayers
within other coarse-grained deposits (Figs 8G,
8H, 12C and 12D). Lithofacies S4 is poorly to
very poorly sorted with a wide range of clast
sizes (Fig. 7A and B, sample-08). The grain-size
distribution shows a prominent sand mode with
substantial amounts of silt content and a small
amount of fine-pebble gravel (Fig. 7J). Individual
beds are commonly current ripple cross-lami-
nated, whereas massive or irregularly bedded
stratification is less common (Fig. 12C and D).
Grading and imbrication of the pebble gravels
are absent. Moreover, burrows and fragments of
plant remnants can be identified in these beds.
Interpretation
The presence of fine-grained sediments, ripple
cross-laminations, scour bases, lenticular geome-
try of the beds and the immature texture are evi-
dence of deposition by low-energy lower flow
regime bedload and suspension-dominated
stream processes (Miall, 1996; Went, 2005; Cain
& Mountney, 2009). These characters further
suggest that this facies association is gully fills
formed by streams that head onto the fan surface
and rework abandoned or inactive fan segments
(Went, 2005; Blair & McPherson, 2009; Antron-
ico et al., 2015). The dominant silty and sandy
content is interpreted to be the result of selec-
tive winnowing and transportation of fines by
© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
1775
overland flows, and the deposition of these sedi-
ments is probably driven by the decrease of
slope or the loss of water in a downstream direc-
tion (Blair, 2000; Blair & McPherson, 2009;
Antronico et al., 2015). Hence, this facies associ-
ation could be associated with erosional lag
deposits formed within more upstream reaches
of the gullies (De Haas et al., 2014). The pebble
laminations or clusters could be sourced from
thin lags of coarse clasts through winnowing or
from the bank collapse derived coarse sediments
(Blair & McPherson, 2009; De Haas et al., 2014).
In addition, such gullies can occur ephemerally
and their associated fine-grained deposits are
likely to have been vegetated, which is sup-
ported by the presence of burrows and plant
fragments.
Facies Association 9: Ephemeral surficial
pond deposits
Description
Sediments of this facies association are the fin-
est part of the Poplar Fan and consist of unstrat-
ified (muddy) siltstone or (silty) mudstone of
lithofacies M1 (Fig. 12E and F), which usually
contains fine-grained sand components. Inter-
beds of this facies association with other coarse-
grained deposits are common (Figs 8H, 12E and
12F). Sediments in this facies association can
be poorly sorted (Fig. 7A and B, sample-09);
however, the fine-grained nature (Fig. 7K) makes
it easily distinguishable from other facies associ-
ations. The siltstones and mudstones are com-
monly massive and structureless, but wavy
bedding or horizontal bedding can be recognized
locally. In addition, burrows, plant fragments
and mudstone desiccation cracks or curls are
common. Significantly, ‘ball and pillow’ struc-
tures and synsedimentary soft-sediment defor-
mations occur exclusively in this facies
association (Fig. 12E and F). The gravelly pil-
lows encased in silty or muddy sediments are
usually identical to the overlying conglomerates
in terms of sediment size and lithology, and can
even be in contact with the conglomerates in
some cases (Fig. 12E). Individual beds are usu-
ally 0
1 to 1
0 m thick and can be traced later-
ally for metres to tens of metres. The beds
usually have tabular or irregular geometry with
sharp non-erosive bases (Fig. 12E). However, lat-
eral pinch-out of these beds with irregular con-
tacts and the gravel-sized ripped-up clasts
originated from this facies association can be
identified in sections (Fig. 12F).
1776 C. Gao et al.

Interpretation related to the secondary processes (i.e. erosional

The distinct massive silty/muddy lithofacies is
interpreted to originate from a low-energy
depositional environment with sediments
sourced mainly from suspension fall-out. The
local occurrences of wavy bedding and horizon-
tal bedding are likely to be generated through
subaqueous traction processes, such as lower
regime flow (Ridgway & Decelles, 1993; Cain &
Mountney, 2009; Hillier et al., 2011). The non-
erosive bases further suggest that this facies
association is formed in ponded water on the
fan surface (Tunbridge, 1984; Hillier et al.,
2011; Trendell et al., 2013). The laterally irreg-
ular contact with gravelly deposits, synsedi-
mentary deformation structures and inner
gravelly pillows are probably induced by over-
pressure through rapid and coeval sedimenta-
tion of fine-grained sediments followed by
gravels on top (Ridgway & Decelles, 1993; Mor-
etti et al., 2002). Therefore, this facies associa-
tion likely formed during the flooding period.
However, if the deposits were not covered by
flood transported gravels, burrows and plants
will develop during subsequent protracted peri-
ods of dry-out and non-deposition. Alterna-
tively, this facies association could be
intensively eroded by later or coeval flood pro-
cesses, forming ripped-up mud/silt clasts of
various sizes.
REGIONAL VARIATIONS IN
DEPOSITIONAL FACIES
Lateral and longitudinal profiles along the valley
walls and transects (Fig. 13) show that deposi-
tion of the Poplar Fan was dominated by three
types of sheet-like facies: incised channel flood;
sheetflood; and unconfined streamflood. In con-
trast, gravelly braided river deposits are less
common but are still developed throughout the
fan (Figs 8B to D, 8G, 8H, 11 and 13). Facies
lag, aeolian and gully) only make up a small
percentage of the fan and are sparsely scattered
throughout the fan (Figs 8 and 13).
Regional variability in sheet-like facies
associations
The sheet-like facies associations of the Poplar
Fan show a progressive and systematic change
in depositional regime, such that proximal, mid
and distal sub-environments can be recognized
(Fig. 13). The proximal fan region is dominated
by incised channel flood and sheetflood deposits
(Figs 8A to C, 13A and 13C). The incised chan-
nel flood conglomerates can alternatively overlie
the Jurassic basement (Fig. 14A) or the previous
sheetflood deposits (Fig. 14B). The local weak
stratifications defined by a fining-upward trend
within the incised channel flood deposits
(Fig. 14) may suggest multi-phase filling pro-
cesses (Went, 2005; Blair & McPherson, 2009).
Both the regional stratigraphic correlation
(Fig. 13A) and outcrops (Fig. 15A) show an
upstream migration of sheetflood deposits as
evidenced by the contact relationship with
underlying incised channel flood deposits, indi-
cating that the valley was completely filled and
that the locus of sedimentation (intersection
point) gradually moved up to the fan apex.
Sheetflood deposits dominate the mid fan
region as well (Figs 13B and 8D). Channel forms
can be locally identified from the extensive
sheet-like couplet beds (Fig. 15B). These pre-
served scour hollows are tens of centimetres
deep with lateral boundaries that gradually turn
into horizontal stratification. These lenticular
forms may have been formed by local anasto-
mosing flow during sheetflood (Blair, 1987;
Went, 2005) or they may have resulted from
local topographic obstructions to the sheetflood
(Heward, 1978a). Notably, there is a transitional
zone comprising interbedded sheetflood deposits

Fig. 13. Regional stratigraphic framework showing the spatial variations in facies distribution from the outcrop of
the Poplar Fan. (A) and (B) The panel forms a nearly 21 km continuous longitudinal profile from the proximal to
the distal region of the Poplar Fan with representative sedimentary logs (C) Transverse panel based on correlations
between typical sedimentary logs of the proximal fan. (D) Transverse panel of the mid fan. (E) and (F) Transverse
panels of the distal fan. (G) Drilled cores showing the progradation of the fan body and the khaki colour of the
underlying wetland (silty) mudstones. Note the incised channel flood deposits (IF) develop around the proximal
to the mid fan and the sheetflood deposits (SF) develop around the mid to distal fan. The gravelly braided river
deposits (BR) can be recognized by sedimentary logs throughout the entire fan, but show various sizes and thick-
nesses. Erosional lags (EL) and aeolian sands (ES) occur randomly but account for only a small proportion of the
deposits. The gully deposits (EG) and surficial pond deposits (SP) can be identified only within the distal fan,
and the Poplar River terrace deposits (RT) are developed only along the valley walls.

© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
 Alluvial fan dominated by episodic flood events 1777

© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
1778 C. Gao et al.

Fig. 14. Photomosaic and bedding diagram of the outcrop sections of the proximal fan region. (A) Sheet-like beds
of massive, disorganized conglomerates of incised channel flood deposits (lithofacies C1) that rest on Jurassic
basement with typical erosion surface. Note the locally present weak internal stratifications, which are evidenced
by variations in gravel size, and the interbedded scour pool fill deposits (lithofacies C5 and C7), which are charac-
terized by a trough shape and erosive base. (B) Incised channel flood deposits (lithofacies C1) show incision/ero-
sion contact with underlying sheetflood couplet facies (lithofacies C2). River terrace deposits (lithofacies C8) are
developed at the uppermost part of the section. The larger images of the red rectangle boxes in Fig. 14A can be
seen in Fig. 11A. Note that the steep angle of the sheetflood couplet beds indicate tectonic tilted processes before
the sedimentation of overlying incised channel flood deposits.

© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
 Alluvial fan dominated by episodic flood events
at upstream and unconfined streamflood con-
glomerates towards downstream in the lower
region of the mid fan (Figs 8E, 13B, 13D and
15C). The boundary between these two facies
associations is hardly distinguishable (Fig. 15C).
In addition to the dominant unconfined
streamflood conglomerates, the distal fan shows
muddy siltstones or silty mudstones that were
deposited in the ephemeral ponds (Figs 8H, 13F
and 16). Interbedding of conglomerates with
fine-grained beds of the surficial ponds and the
distinct syndepositional deformation structures
demonstrate the time-equivalent juxtaposition of
the ponds and the unconfined streamflood
(Fig. 16). However, these ponds varied in scale
and preservation potential, which is reflected by
their different geometries in the outcrops
(Fig. 16).
In general, the maximum clast sizes of sheet-
flood and unconfined streamflood deposits
decrease from the proximal to the distal fan
(Fig. 17A). The most significant decrease in
gravel size occurred at the transition from
incised channel flood to sheetflood deposits
(Fig. 17A). Moreover, the maximum clast sizes
of sheetflood and/or unconfined streamflood
deposits show large variabilities from the mid-
fan to the distal fan, which may reflect the amal-
gamated nature of the active depositional lobes
that were formed during multi-stage episodic
flash-floods (Krapf et al., 2005).
Regional variability in deposits of the braided
river system within the Poplar Fan
Overall, the dimensions of both the channel and
pool fill deposits can be highly variable (Figs 11
and 14 to 16). Figure 17B shows the down-
stream variations in the average gravel, sand and
silt/clay contents measured from typical samples
of channel and pool fill deposits (i.e. lithofacies
C5, C6, C7, S1 and S2) throughout the fan. The
grain-size distribution suggests that the braided
streams are primarily characterized by gravel
bedload. However, the gravel content decreases
sharply from the proximal to the mid fan
(Fig. 17B), while silt/clay content gradually
increases towards downstream. Furthermore, the
field measurements of thickness, width and
maximum particle size of the well-preserved
trough-shaped pool fill deposits all show a
decreasing trend from proximal to distal fan
(Fig. 18). In particular, the downstream
decreases in both gravel content (Fig. 17B) and
maximum particle size (Fig. 18C), together with
© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
1779
an increase in sand and silt/clay content
(Fig. 17B) of the channel and pool fill deposits,
indicate the downstream reduction in sediment
transport capacity of the channel flows. How-
ever, abnormally high values of pool fill thick-
ness and width can be identified in the distal
(Fig. 18A) and mid fan (Fig. 18B), respectively.
These abnormally high values can be interpreted
to reflect enlarged scale of the scour pools,
which can be attributed to certain extraordinary
flood events with extreme discharges and sedi-
ment supplies.
Regional variability in depositional facies
related to secondary processes
Both the erosion-lag and gully deposits are
related to the secondary surficial reworking by
overland flows (Blair & McPherson, 2009; De
Haas et al., 2014). To investigate the distribution
of erosional lags, the vertical cumulative thick-
ness of lags per metre and the vertical occur-
rence count of lags per metre were calculated
through the whole sections of the fan to charac-
terize the frequency of occurrence. The varia-
tions of both variables (Fig. 19) show a gradual
increase from the proximal to the mid fan and,
subsequently, a gradual decrease from mid to
distal fan, indicating that the winnowing pro-
cesses by overland flows were most prominent
in the mid-fan region. The relatively fine-grained
gully deposits can only be observed in the distal
fan sections (Figs 8G, 8H, 13, 16B and 16C). In
contrast, the aeolian deposits are much less
common throughout the fan, and no certain dis-
tribution pattern can be perceived due to
absence of quantitative data.
DEPOSITIONAL MODEL OF THE POPLAR
FAN
A new depositional model is proposed based on
the diagnostic lithofacies, facies architecture,
facies distribution and associated ephemeral
flood conditions. Although the data used to
derive the model are mainly from the Poplar
Fan, the model is grounded in analysis of physi-
cal depositional processes and thus can be
extended to other non-debris flow originated
alluvial fan systems. Three depositional stages
are established based on the sedimentation of
the Poplar Fan to depict the variabilities in
water and sediment concentrations of the
ephemeral flood flows (Fig. 20).
1780 C. Gao et al.

© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
 Alluvial fan dominated by episodic flood events 1781

Fig. 15. Photomosaic and bedding diagram of the outcrop sections of the mid fan region. (A) Sheetflood couplet
facies (lithofacies C2) overlies disorganized incised channel flood conglomerates (lithofacies C1). Note the pre-
served scour pool fill and channel deposits (lithofacies C7 and S1), aeolian sandstones (lithofacies S3) and ero-
sional lags (lithofacies C9) interbedded within these two facies associations, and the river terrace deposits
(lithofacies C8) developed at the uppermost part of the section. (B) Sheet conglomerate body of distinctive sheet-
flood couplet beds (Lithofacies C2) together with overlying terrace deposits (lithofacies C8). Note the local chan-
nelization of the sheetflood conglomerates and their lateral boundaries with wide widths showing gradual
transitioning into horizontal stratification. (C) Interbedding of sheetflood couplet deposits (lithofacies C2) and
unconfined streamflood organized conglomerates (lithofacies C4) showing that the facies boundary can be indis-
tinct and indicating that these two facies associations can be transformed between each other to some extent. Note
the local faint cross-laminae within the unconfined streamflood deposits.

Lobe building stage streamflood (Figs 8E, 13B, 13D, 15C and 20A) is
likely to be the result of a gradual decrease in
The main depositional processes (i.e. incised
flow depth, which is consistent with the experi-
channel flood, sheetflood and unconfined
mental work by Clarke et al. (2010). A sheet-
streamflood) during the lobe building stage can
flood cannot be maintained and ultimately
be attributed to the high energy and high sedi-
develops into unconfined streamflood beyond
ment concentrated ephemeral flash floods,
the transitional zone (Figs 13E, 13F, 16 and
which usually produce coarse-grained, thick and
20A). The downslope extent of the sheetflood
sheet-like deposits (Figs 14 to 16). Based on the
zone in the Poplar Fan is around 36
7% of the
regional variations in sheet-like facies (Figs 8
axial length of the fan from the intersection
and 13), four distinctive zones – namely incised
point to the fan toe (see Fig. 13A, from section 3
channel zone, sheetflood zone, transitional zone
to section 9). This length-scale matches the theo-
and unconfined streamflood zone – can be dis-
retical predictions from the numerical model of
tinguished from the proximal to the distal fan
Parker et al. (1998), which suggests that in both
(Fig. 20A).
gravelly and sandy fans sheetflood will be too
During the lobe building stage, sediments in
shallow to be sustainable beyond 30% or 40%
the catchment area can be significantly eroded
of the fan length from the intersection point.
through undercutting and entrainment by the
Both the down-fan expansion of the depositional
catastrophic floods, resulting in hyperconcen-
lobes and water infiltration can be responsible
trated flood flows (Blair & McPherson, 2009).
for the flow thinning.
The sharp erosional contact between the hyper-
In addition, the water table rises gradually
concentrated flood deposits, the underlying
due to the precipitation and abundant fan lobe-
Jurassic basement (Fig. 14A) and the early
related water infiltration (Fig. 20A). As a conse-
formed sheetflood deposits (Fig. 14B) suggests
quence, the water table intersects the fan surface
that the confined and hyperconcentrated flood
at the toe of the slope (Hillier et al., 2011; Tren-
flows extend from the catchment feeder channel
dell et al., 2013) and forms surficial ponds in
to the incised channel of the fan. Upon reaching
the unconfined streamflood zone (Figs 8H, 13F,
the intersection point, the hyperconcentrated
16 and 20A). The locations of these ponds may
incised channel flood transforms into sheetflood
be related to the distribution of the spring line;
(Figs 13A and 20A), reflecting a typical flow
however, the localized underlying aquifers and
behaviour as the degree of valley confinement
the topographic limitations can lead to varia-
and sediment transport capacity decrease simul-
tions in the water depth and size of these ponds
taneously (Blair, 1999a, 1999b, 1999c, 1999d;
(Fig. 16). Little evidence from the surface or the
Blair & McPherson, 2009). The resulting depos-
drilled wells (Fig. 13G) (for example, shoreface
its show a significant downslope decrease in
reworking of fan deposits or dark lacustrine
gravel size (Fig. 17A) and the amount of out-
mudstones) can be identified in support of the
sized boulders (Figs 14B and 15A).
development of adjacent lacustrine environment.
The supercritical condition of sheetflood is
Nevertheless, a subordinate wetland environ-
typically influenced by flow depth and slope
ment with abundant vegetation (Fig. 21A and B)
(Fisher et al., 2007; Blair & McPherson, 2009).
can be formed, pointing to the ephemeral and
Since the slope of the Poplar Fan maintains a
fine-grained nature of this environment. The
constant value of about 0
6° from the apex to the
wetland can be sustained by groundwater
toe (Fig. 5B), the gradual downslope change
inflow, precipitation and even flow from the fan
from sheetflood to fluvial-dominated unconfined
© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
1782 C. Gao et al.

© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
 Alluvial fan dominated by episodic flood events 1783

Fig. 16. Photomosaic and bedding diagram of the outcrop sections of the distal fan region. (A) Sheet-like uncon-
fined streamflood conglomerates (lithofacies C4) containing distinctive non-erosive silty mudstones (lithofacies
M1) of surficial pond. Note the distinctive ‘ball and pillow’ structure and the synsedimentary soft-sediment defor-
mation developed within the pond mudstones. (B) and (C) Sheet-like unconfined streamflood conglomerates
(lithofacies C4) containing mudstones (lithofacies M1), pool fill and channel deposits of gravelly braided river
(lithofacies C6, C7, S1 and S2) and gully deposits (lithofacies S4). Note the synsedimentary deformation structure
of the pond mudstones and the corresponding mud/silt gravels that resulted from intensive erosion by the uncon-
fined streamflood flows, which is further evidenced by the irregular form of the scour pool fills and gully deposits.
The larger images of the red rectangle boxes can be seen in Fig. 12E, Fig. 12C and Fig. 11F, respectively.

lobe (Hillier et al., 2011) (Fig. 20A). Particularly,
proximal fan incision, evidenced by the incised
channel flood deposits (Fig. 13A), promoted
progradation of the Poplar Fan through further
distal deposition from the intersection point
(Blair & McPherson, 2009; Harvey, 2011). This
can be also supported by drill cores in the distal
fan (Fig. 13G), showing that the fan progrades
continuously and downlaps onto the distal clay
wetland.
Channel building stage
The gravelly braided river flows dominate the
channel building stage with much finer and
more organized deposits than the lobe building
processes due to the significant decrease in
energy, water and sediment concentrations of
the ephemeral floods (Fig. 20B). The hydrologi-
cal regime of arid ephemeral braided rivers asso-
ciated with flash floods (for example, Poplar
braided river in the Poplar Fan) is characterized
by short-lived, intense ‘needle’ hydrographs
with rapid recessions (Fig. 3C to E) (Hjellbakk,
1997; Storz-Peretz & Laronne, 2013) and a down-
stream reduction in flow volume through infil-
tration into the riverbed alluvium (Hughes &
Sami, 1992; Nichols & Fisher, 2007; Storz-Peretz
& Laronne, 2013). The temporal and spatial vari-
abilities in discharge of such ephemeral braided
rivers can result in changes in morphology, tex-
ture and scale of the essential elements (Olsen,
1987; Bristow et al., 1993; Heinz et al., 2003;
Cain & Mountney, 2009). Scour pools commonly
control the pattern of bar construction and chan-
nel migration (Ashmore & Parker, 1983; Dixon
et al., 2018). The absolute depth of the pools
has been shown to have a clear positive relation-
ship with total discharge at confluences in grav-
elly braided rivers (Laronne & Shlomi, 2007;
Ashmore & Gardner, 2008). Therefore, the down-
stream decreasing trend in thickness of the pool
fills (Fig. 18A) can be attributed to the down-
stream decrease in the scale of confluent chan-
nels due to the loss of total discharge through
© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
infiltration. Moreover, within a multi-channel
braided belt, the migration of tributary channels
will cause a commensurate migration of the con-
fluence scour pools (Best & Ashworth, 1997;
Dixon et al., 2018). Particularly, sedimentation
in the pool is primarily initiated by a lateral or
longitudinal shift of the pool (Siegenthaler &
Huggenberger, 1993) and the changes in conflu-
ence morphology can result from sediment
deposition in the pool zone (Grant et al., 2003;
Phillips et al., 2005; Dixon et al., 2018). There-
fore, the downstream decreasing trend in widths
of the pool fills (Fig. 18B) can be evidence for a
downstream reduction in mobility of the pools
and the associated confluent channels.
Accordingly, three discharge areas (i.e. ‘main’,
‘intermediate’ and ‘minor’ discharge areas) from
the proximal to distal fan can be distinguished
for the gravelly braided river building processes
of the Poplar Fan (Fig. 22). The main discharge
area is characterized by wide and deep scour
pools associated with large and mobile chan-
nels, which show frequent changing positions
in time (migration). In contrast, through the
intermediate to minor discharge zone, channels
and scour pools gradually become less mobile
and smaller in size (Fig. 22). The sharp decrease
in gravel content of river deposits from the
proximal to mid fan (Fig. 17B) indicate that the
confined valley topography at the proximal fan
may restrict the lateral bifurcation of the chan-
nels, and facilitate the migration of trunk chan-
nels and maintain the hydrodynamic condition
and sediment transport capacity (Wakefield &
Mountney, 2013). However, beyond the incised
valley, the braided channel belts may become
wider downstream due to the enhanced channel
bifurcation/braiding through more rapid channel
bed aggradation and to the distinct effect of
topographic obstruction (Fig. 22), as a result of
the downstream decrease in the river discharge
(Bristow & Best, 1993; Kelly & Olsen, 1993; Petit
et al., 2005; Plink-Bj€ orklund, 2015; Yochum
et al., 2017). Therefore, the wide range in the
measured width and thickness of the pool fills
1784 C. Gao et al.

Fig. 17. (A) Downslope variations in maximum clast diameters (da-b) of incised channel flood, sheetflood and
unconfined streamflood deposits developed during lobe building stage. The overall maximum clast diameter
decreases from proximal to distal fan, with a significant decrease from incised channel flood to sheetflood depos-
its. (B) Downslope variations in average percentages of gravel, sand and silt/clay contents of the preserved chan-
nel and pool fill deposits developed during channel building stage.

(Fig. 18A and B) can be interpreted as the result
of highly random confluence angles and dis-
charge ratios between anabranches (Best, 1988;
Ashmore & Gardner, 2008). Particularly, individ-
ual channels can gradually disappear towards
downstream, and distinctive tabular and lami-
nar units of terminal splays are typically formed
around the distal reaches of these ephemeral
aggrading channels due to downstream water
loss (Fig. 20B) (Tooth, 1999; Hampton & Horton,
2007; Nichols & Fisher, 2007). These terminal
splays are likely to be preserved in the fine-
grained wetland environment (Fig. 21C). Fur-
thermore, topographic surveys and numerical
models (Pelletier et al., 2005; Bertoldi et al.,
2010) have demonstrated that a robust relation-
ship exists between peak flood discharge and
active width of gravelly braided channel belts,
and multiple separate paths of river flows can
be initiated in each flood. Therefore, multiple
coevally active braided channel belts can be
expected to develop as peak flood magnitude
increases (Fig. 20B). This hypothesis may be
supported by the distributary channel forms
developed on the secondary and piedmont
stream-dominated alluvial fans (Fig. 4A and B)
and the experimental work by Clarke et al.
(2010).
It is noteworthy that the anabranches in
ephemeral gravel-bed braided systems are
mostly unarmoured, leading to greater mobility
and a greater morphological change compared
with armoured anabranches of humid condi-
tions (Cohen & Laronne, 2005; Storz-Peretz &
Laronne, 2013). Therefore, the pool fills, which
developed at the lowest geometric level (Ash-
more, 1982; Bristow et al., 1993; Huber &
Huggenberger, 2015), are preserved preferen-
tially in the sedimentary record of the Poplar
Fan (Fig. 11). In contrast, channel deposits at
an elevated topographic level remain only as
relics (Figs 9D, 10A and 10B). None of the

© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
 Alluvial fan dominated by episodic flood events
Fig. 18. Variations in the dimension and sedimenta-
tion of the scour pool fill deposits preserved within
the Poplar Fan. (A) Downslope variations in thick-
ness. (B) Downslope variations in width. (C) Down-
slope variations in maximum particle size.
preserved and outcropped sedimentary units
show floodplain or bar features in the Poplar
Fan. These two elements usually develop at
the highest topographic levels and thus are
probably completely eroded during high magni-
tude floods (for example, lobe building pro-
cesses). Moreover, surficial ponds are less
developed during the river building stage due
to significant decrease in water infiltration and
lowering of the water table (Fig. 20B). The
intensity of biological activity increases
because the ephemeral river flows are less
catastrophic compared to the flood flows that
occurred during lobe building stage, resulting
in extensive burrowing of the channel deposits
(Fig 10A to C).
© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
1785
Abandonment stage
During the abandonment stage, the entire fan is
abandoned and subjected to rework by the sec-
ondary processes (i.e. wind, overland flow, weath-
ering, pedogenesis and biological reworking)
(Fig. 20C). Aeolian systems develop during this
stage; however, the associated deposits are limited
in space and scale (Fig 13). This is partly due to
the dominant grain size of the fan deposits (coarse
pebble to cobble) which are too large to be remobi-
lized and transported over long distances by wind.
Overland flows, on the other hand, are commonly
developed during this stage, forming erosional
lags and gullies through headward erosion
(Figs 20C, 21D and 21E) (Field, 2001; Blair &
McPherson, 2009). The increased thickness and
occurrence frequency of the erosional lags from
the proximal to the mid fan (Fig. 19) is likely to
be the result of overall down-fan decrease in
clast sizes of the primary deposits, which lead to
favourable conditions for winnowing by over-
land flows. Alternatively, these winnowed sedi-
ments can be transported and deposited due to
the reduction in flow strength further down-
stream. Therefore, a decrease in thickness and
occurrence frequency of the erosional lags from
the mid to distal fan (Fig 19) and the develop-
ment of fine-grained gully facies only in the dis-
tal fan region (Figs 8G, 8H, 13F and 16) are
likely to be the result of sedimentation through
overland flows. These features are in accordance
with the modern surficial runoff reworking pro-
cesses documented by De Haas et al. (2014), who
suggest a transition from entrainment of fines by
channelized overland flows on the proximal to
mid domains of the inactive fan surface to rede-
position within gullies on the distal region. The
gullies can also erode into the original river
deposits (Fig 11E), resulting in a complex amal-
gamated appearance of channel and gully facies
(Field, 2001) (Fig. 20C).
As a result of limited water and sediment
supply from the catchment, few ephemeral
floods can be initiated. Channel avulsion and
bifurcation rarely occur due to the low water
discharge and sediment concentrations (Par-
kash et al., 1983; Miall, 2014; Plink-Bj€ orklund,
2015). Moreover, the channel could gradually
disappear downstream due to the intense infil-
tration and evaporation under extremely dry
conditions (Nichols & Fisher, 2007; Plink-
Bj€orklund, 2015). Alternatively, the river/chan-
nel system can be absent on the fan surface
during the abandonment stage.
1786 C. Gao et al.

Fig. 19. Downslope variations in (A) the vertical cumulative thickness per metre and (B) the cumulative number
per metre of erosional lag deposits throughout the fan. There is an increasing trend in the occurrence frequency
from proximal to mid fan, but a decreasing trend from mid to distal fan.

DISCUSSION Sedimentation of ephemeral floods in

Allogenic controlling factors on the
development and morphology of the Poplar
Fan
Recent developments in numerical and experi-
mental modelling studies (Clevis et al., 2003,
2004; Clarke et al., 2010; Salcher et al., 2010;
Reitz & Jerolmack, 2012; Van Dijk et al., 2012)
have demonstrated that independent extrinsic
forcings can trigger similar morphodynamic
feedbacks in alluvial fans. However, at the time
of deposition of the Poplar Fan, the Heshituolu-
ogai Basin was an endorheic basin (Qu et al.,
2008; Ma et al., 2009; Sun, 2015) without con-
nection to external depocentres or downstream
control through fan toe processes (for example,
axial river and lacustrine coastlines). The topo-
graphic closure and endorheic drainage charac-
ters of the basin will promote internal forced
base-level rise, positive accommodation and
continuous aggradation (Nichols, 2004, 2012;
Harvey, 2011; Fisher & Nichols, 2013). There-
fore, for fans within endorheic basin margins,
the morphodynamics can be independent from
the base-level (Casas-Sainz & de Vicente, 2009;
Harvey, 2011; Nichols, 2012; Ventra & Nichols,
2014). Therefore, the sedimentation and geomor-
phic evolutions of the Poplar Fan are most likely
to be controlled by the periodic climate changes
superposed on longer-term responses to neotec-
tonics.
response to climate change
The Heshituoluogai Basin is now located within a
hyper-arid zone of north-western China (Fig. 3A).
Despite the generally arid conditions in this
region from the Late Pleistocene to Holocene
(Rhodes et al., 1996; Zhao et al., 2009; Yang et al.,
2011), the westerlies (Fig. 3A) have been docu-
mented as the dominant driver for the fluctuations
of wetter and drier conditions in various time-
scales (Rhodes et al., 1996; Yu et al., 2000; Yang
et al., 2004; Feng et al., 2006; Jia et al., 2017).
Specifically, more large-scale and frequent precip-
itation can be brought to the downwind area of the
westerlies, including north-western China, during
wetter periods (Porter and An, 1995; Kutzbach
et al., 1998; Yang et al., 2004; Feng et al., 2006).
In most parts of north-western China, the precipi-
tation during wetter periods can be 100 to 300 mm
greater than that during drier periods since the
Late Pleistocene (Yang et al., 2004).
The climatically induced changes within a
drainage system may exert a strong influence on
sediment generation and hydrological regimes
(Blair & McPherson, 2009; Salcher et al., 2010;
Harvey, 2011; Jones et al., 2014). The sediment
supply and rate of catchment erosion are gener-
ally controlled by precipitation intensity (Jones,
2002; Suresh et al., 2007; Waters et al., 2010).
The flow width on the fan is likely to be con-
trolled by the water discharge of the floods so
that different flow styles (sheet-like versus chan-
nelized) can be developed according to the

Fig. 20. Schematic depositional model shows three depositional stages of the Poplar Fan, depicting the sedimen-
tation and facies architecture of the fan. (A) Depositional processes initiated by the episodic flood during lobe
building stage. The sections on the right side showing the fluctuations in water table are modified from Hillier
et al., 2011. (B) Depositional processes initiated by the episodic flood during channel building stage. (C) Deposi-
tional processes during the abandonment stage. The schematic evolution models of the gullies on the right are
modified from Field, 2001. See text for details.

© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
 Alluvial fan dominated by episodic flood events 1787

© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
1788 C. Gao et al.

Fig. 21. (A) Photograph showing the occurrence of wetland filled with water adjacent to the Poplar Fan after one
week of heavy rainfall on 19 July 2015 (the xerophytic shrubs are about 50 to 70 cm high). (B) Photograph showing
the completely dried wetland during the summer on 25 June 2016. (C) Cross-sectional view of a thin tabular bed of
terminal splay deposits developed within wetland mudstones. Note the planar, sharp, and non-erosive base. (D) and
(E) Photographs showing gullies and rock pavement gravels with dark desert varnish on the fan surface. Note the
fine-grained sediments [silts to fine sands, in (D)] and the clusters of erosion lags [in (E)] developed within the gul-
lies. Persons for scale in (B) and (E) are ca 1
8 m tall.

specific discharge (Parker et al., 1998; Whipple
et al., 1998; Clarke et al., 2010). Moreover, small
changes in regional rainfall induced by climate
change have been documented to have a signifi-
cant effect on river discharge (Frostick & Reid,
1989; Jones, 2002; Waters et al., 2010) and on
the frequency and magnitude of large floods
(Molnar et al., 2006; Quigley et al., 2007). This
is particularly the case for the arid to hyper-arid
conditions. Therefore, the lobe building stage of
the Poplar Fan (Fig. 20A) is likely to be associ-
ated with wetter climate conditions when

© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
 Alluvial fan dominated by episodic flood events 1789

Fig. 22. Schematic geomorphological model for a downstream decrease in discharge on a multi-channel gravel-
bed braided river system developed during channel building stage of the Poplar Fan. The width of the braided
belt and the number of channels increase downstream resulting in a wide range of confluence angles and width,
thickness of the pool fills. See text for more details.

extremely high sediment flux and water dis-
charge of the ephemeral floods generate region-
ally coarse-grained sheet-like flows (i.e.
sheetflood and unconfined streamflood) (Figs 14
to 16 and 20). The formation of such catas-
trophic floods is common under frequent large-
scale precipitations within a wetter climate
regime (Frostic & Jones, 2002; Blair & McPher-
son, 2009; Kallmeier et al., 2010; Jones et al.,
2014). Conversely, during the channel building
stage, the width of the flood flow decreased sig-
nificantly and the depositional pattern turned
into multi-channel braided river networks rather
than sheet-like flows (Fig. 20B). This might have
resulted from the increase in aridity and
decrease in both intensity and frequency of pre-
cipitation during drier climate conditions. On
the other hand, the abandonment stage of the
Poplar Fan can occur either between recurring
flood episodes under both wet and dry condi-
tions or during driest periods when no floods
can be initiated.
© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
Fan morphology and evolution processes in
response to neotectonic activities
Timescales of depositional events responsible
for the lateral shifting of a single depositional
lobe and the formation of a new active fan sector
are generally estimated to be in the order of 102
to 104 years (Heward, 1978b; Field, 2001; Quig-
ley et al., 2007; Ventra & Nichols, 2014). This
timescale is much lower than the estimated 105
to 106 year scale of the long-term tectonic cycles
at the basin margin (Heward, 1978b; Fraser &
DeCelles, 1992; Ventra & Nichols, 2014). Conse-
quently, the long-term evolution of the fans will
be controlled by tectonism, especially in tectoni-
cally active areas (Jones, 2004; Quigley et al.,
2007; Shukla, 2009; Kallmeier et al., 2010; Jones
et al., 2014).
The seismic activities of the recent past
(Fig. 2) suggest that the neotectonics are still
occurring at present, both along the northern
boundary faults and within the basin (Ma et al.,
2009; Wu, 2010; Qin et al., 2013; Fan et al.,
1790 C. Gao et al.
2014). The ongoing neotectonic activities can
produce faults that cut through the Poplar Fan.
These faults develop nearly vertical offsets
within fan deposits as scarps (Blair, 2000; Blair
& McPherson, 2009), forming numerous small-
scale secondary fans (Fig. 4A and B).
The sharp incisional contact between incised
channel flood deposits and underlying sheet-
flood deposits (Figs 8C, 13A and 14B) indicates
the downcutting of the hyper-concentrated flood
flows into previous depositional lobes. The dip
angle of the underlying sheetflood couplet beds
is around 25° (Fig. 14B), which is much greater
than the surface slope of the fan (about 0
6°,
Fig. 5B). This suggests that the fan must have
been tectonically tilted prior to the deposition of
the incised channel flood. Such tectonic uplift
promotes the development of a fanhead trench
by enhancing incision through flood flows
(Quigley et al., 2007; Shukla, 2009; Salcher
et al., 2010; Jia et al., 2015).
The modern incised valley and terraces of the
Poplar River (Figs 4C, 5A and 5C) can be the
result of the combined effect of climate fluctua-
tions and thrust tectonic uplift movements (Jones
et al., 1999; Suresh et al., 2007; Vandenberghe
et al., 2011; Walker & Fattahi, 2011). Undoubt-
edly, the continuous uplift and tilting of the
proximal fan region can lead to an increase in the
fluvial stream power, incision of the fan surface
(Shukla, 2009; Salcher et al., 2010; Lu et al.,
2014; Jia et al., 2015) and basinward shifts of the
intersection point (Bowman, 1978; Wagreich &
Strauss, 2005; Arzani & Jones, 2016). These uplift
activities can play an important role in promot-
ing the formation of the incised valley and facili-
tating the progradation of the fan. The narrower
terrace along the western side of the valley com-
pared to the eastern side (Fig. 5A) indicates more
intense erosion of the western valley walls. This
can result from the diversion of incised fluvial
systems towards the lower western side due to
the differential uplift within the eastern part of
the Poplar Fan (Figs 4C and 5A). Therefore, the
differential thrust activities occurring at the east-
ern fan could lead to a gradually westward
migration of the incised river and the subsequent
episodic sedimentations.
Comparison with worldwide fans and
implications
Recent debates in the classification of subaerial
fan systems have included classic disputes on
the definition of alluvial and fluvial fans
© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
(Stanistreet & McCarthy, 1993; Blair & McPher-
son, 1994; Moscariello, 2017; Ventra & Clarke,
2018). The accumulations of alluvial fans com-
monly show relatively high gradient and short
radial extent, and are mostly affected by uncon-
fined/poorly confined hydrological events of
short duration. By contrast, fluvial fans/mega-
fans generally develop over much larger surfaces
and maintain lower gradients, but are predomi-
nately fed by typical river systems with clearly
distinguishable channel belt and floodplain/
overbank domains (Moscariello, 2017; Ventra &
Clarke, 2018). A comparison of the downslope
topographic profiles with other Quaternary fans
of different origins (Fig. 5D) indicates that the
profile of intermediate-sized Poplar alluvial fan
is close to braided river dominated fluvial fans.
The gradient of the Poplar Fan is between that of
steep debris flow or sheetflood dominated allu-
vial fans and gentle braided or low sinuosity/me-
andering river dominated fluvial megafans.
However, no evidence of debris flow can be seen,
while both sheet-like/unconfined flood and
channelized deposits are very well-developed in
the Poplar Fan, albeit without floodplains.
Therefore, compared with episodically formed
sheetflood alluvial fans (Blair, 1999c; Blair,
2000), which usually lack channel-related facies,
the Poplar Fan shows sedimentation related to
ephemeral Newtonian flood flows with varied
water and sediment concentrations. In particu-
lar, the ephemeral river systems developed in
the Poplar Fan are usually overlooked in tradi-
tional alluvial fan studies. The river flows in the
Poplar Fan and other arid fluvial fans in the lit-
erature (Jo et al., 1997; Hampton & Horton,
2007; Nichols & Fisher, 2007; Cain & Mountney,
2009) all show progressive downstream
decreases in grain size, scale and mobility of
individual channels due to the downstream loss
of discharge through infiltration and evaporation.
However, a distinct difference from other fluvial
fans is that no fine-grained floodplain deposits
can be identified throughout the Poplar Fan.
This could be explained by four scenarios: (i)
the relatively short cumulative time of the chan-
nel building stage during the evolution history
of the fan; (ii) the relatively low magnitude of
the flood flows; (iii) the short-lived nature of the
braided flows that only developed during episo-
dic flood events; and (iv) a lack of fine-grained
sediment supply from the catchment. These sce-
narios can be responsible for a reduced deposi-
tional thickness and preservation probability of
the river processes. Therefore, frequent
 Alluvial fan dominated by episodic flood events
occurrence of sheet-like flood flows can over-
whelmingly rework the early in-fan river depos-
its, especially the depositional units at the
highest geometrical levels (for example, flood-
plains and bars), and leave the deepest scour
pool fills intact.
Overall, the Poplar Fan demonstrates that a
flood condition is critical for building processes
of the alluvial fans. In arid conditions, where
floods are spatially and temporally highly vari-
able, even moderate floods can induce signifi-
cant morphological changes of the fans (Pelletier
et al., 2005; Quigley et al., 2007; Bertoldi et al.,
2010). Therefore, the sedimentation of the
Poplar Fan highlights the need for future
research into the morphodynamics of alluvial
fans in response to the variations of the ephem-
eral flood conditions to further refine the
diagnostic criteria for different fan types. It also
requires more quantitative methods (for exam-
ple, scaled flume and numerical models) taking
into account the water and sediment supply of
the flood flows to better characterize modern/an-
cient alluvial fan systems that cannot fit into tra-
ditional qualitative models.
CONCLUSIONS
The Poplar Fan is mainly developed through
reoccurring ephemeral floods as a result of lobe
building, channel building and abandonment
stages. The lobe building stage is dominated by
incised channel flood, sheetflood, unconfined
streamflood and distal surficial ephemeral pond.
The channel building stage is characterized by
the development of gravelly braided river sys-
tems. The abandonment stage is mainly accom-
panied by the surficial secondary processes such
as wind and overland flows. The sedimentation
of the Poplar Fan is dominated by lobe building
processes, and to a lesser extent by braided river
flows and secondary processes.
Facies architectures developed during the lobe
building stage show a transition from incised
channel flood to sheetflood and to unconfined
streamflood deposits from the proximal to the
distal fan. At the same time, the fine-grained
deposits of the surficial ephemeral pond can
result from the rise of water table. For the chan-
nel building stage, three discharge areas of the
gravelly braided river systems (i.e. ‘main’, ‘inter-
mediate’ and ‘minor’ discharge areas) can be
subdivided from the proximal to distal fan.
However, only the scour pool fill deposits are
© 2019 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2019 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 67, 1750–1796
1791
preferentially preserved in the highly dynamic
depositional environment. The channels may
disappear on the fan surface or merge into the
wetland due to the downstream water loss. The
secondary facies developed during abandonment
stage are dominated by the erosional lags and
gully deposits through the overland flows. Gully
deposits can only be found within the distal fan.
In contrast, the aeolian sands are much less
common throughout the fan.
The sedimentation and geomorphic evolution
of the Poplar Fan are likely to be the result of peri-
odic climate changes superposed on longer-term
responses to neotectonics. The lobe building stage
is likely to be associated with ephemeral floods
with high water and sediment concentrations
during wetter periods. The channel building
stage, on the other hand, is likely to be associated
with drier conditions when precipitation inten-
sity and frequency, and associated discharge and
sediment concentrations of the ephemeral flood
flows, decrease significantly. The abandonment
stage can take place between recurring flood
events or correspond to the driest periods when
no floods can be initiated. Additionally, the ongo-
ing tectonic activities can enhance erosion
through flood flows or rivers and facilitate the
fan-head trench/incision on the Poplar Fan,
which in turn can promote fan progradation.
However, these neotectonic activities can also
cause destruction of the fan. Overall, the Poplar
Fan provides a detailed depositional model of
alluvial fans dominated by the episodic flood
events, showing transitional characters of both
sheetflood-dominated and stream-flow-domi-
nated alluvial fans. The Poplar Fan can also help
to better characterize ancient alluvial fan strata
together with associated climate conditions, and
demonstrate the important determinant of flood
conditions in the building processes of the allu-
vial fans.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study is financially supported by the
National Natural Science Foundation of China
(No. 41902118 and 41672098). The authors
thank PetroChina Xinjiang Oilfield Company for
their support in completing this research. We
thank Chief Editor Prof. Nigel Mountney,
Associate Editor Dr Charlie Bristow, and
reviewers Drs Stuart Jones, Yangyang Li and
Jianqiao Wang for their insightful reviews and
constructive suggestions.
1792 C. Gao et al.

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