AVIATION METEOROLOGY IC Joshi Group Captain (Reta Himalayan BooksAA Himalayan Books Presentation . Published in 2006 by Pawan Chowdhr and Bhupinder Chovedbe {for Himalayan Books, New Delhi 110013 Distibured by ‘The English Bool Store 17, Connasghe Circus, New Delhi 71000 “Tek 2341 7126,2341 503], 2341 7936 Fax: O9T-1125417931 Email info@engishbookstorein IC Joshi (Group Caprain Rex) First Published 2007 Second Ediion 2008 First Reprinc2009 Third Econ 2010 ‘ltighs reserved. No patrof his publication may be reprodaced ot form or by any means, electronic of mecha information storage and etievl ste, ‘Typeser by Mindways Design Princedand Bound ae ‘Thakur Enterpcises, Defi ISBN 81.7002.099.9 onaiitted in any nies, eluding phorocopy, ecording or any without the written permission ofthe publisher Dedicated to My parents, family members and specially to Mehak, Uday, Nitya and GauriCONTENTS Acknowledgements Preface 1. Atmosphere 2, Atmospheric Pressure 3. Temperarure 4 Air Density 5. Kumidicy 6 Winds 7. Visibility and Fog 8. Vertical Motion and Clouds H° Sability and Instability of Atmosphere 10., Cptical Phenomena W Precpication Te Ice Acceetion Pz Tndersorn 1 tir Masses Fronts and Western Disturbances Ife Jee Streams Ge Gear Aic Turbulence 17% Mountain Waves 18, Aiopical Systems 1%” Climatology of India 20,_General Cirewlation 2." Moterotogical Services for Aviation 22. Weather Radar and Met Satellites 23, Mec Insteumenss 24 Station Model xi sx 2 36 40 6 B 93 100 105 10 136 143 145 150 164 181 188 198 206,Continrs Aviation Weather Reports and Codes of Metar Speci and Trend Aviation Weather Forecasts (Codes of Aerodrome Forecast, Area Forecast and Route Forecast) 27. Radar Report, Sigmet Message ancl Satellite Bulletin 28. Plight Forecast (Tabular Fors) and Cross Section Forecast of Route Conditions (Samples) Re Appendix A Meteorological Charts Appendix B Satellite imageries Appendix C Synoptic Chart (Computer Plotted) Appendix D Clouds Appendix E Abbreviations in Weather Bulletins Rainfall Distribution and Intensicy Appendix F ICAO Abberviations Appendix G Plotted starion models for practice Appendix H-1 Mean Sea Level Pressure Analysis Appendix H-2 850 hPa Winds Appendix H-3 850 hPa Streamline Analysis Appendix H-4 500 hPa Contour Chart Appendix H-5 300 hPa Winds Appendix H-6 Prognostic Significant Weather Chace Appendix ‘Weather Associated With Fronts 17 BI 250 253 255, 237 258 260 266 268 270 mm mm 273 Contests Appendix J Synoptic Systems Appendix K Fajita Scale of Tornado, Saffir-Simpson Scale and T Chsification of CS Appendix 1 International Station Code Names “Appendix M Miscellaneous Terms Appendix N Meteorological Scales and Meteorological Divisions of India Index References 74 26 m7 278 279 281 286ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ‘My sincere thanks are due tothe trainees of Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Uran Akademi, Racbarali (UP) for inspiring me co compile this book. The add questions chey and other stidents used to ask from time to time, made me 10 refer to the available literature in Meteorotogy in vations libraries, websites and Publications of IMD, WMO and ICAO, ‘Thanks are due to my daughterin-laws Vibha and Abha for helping me in ccomputerizing the text, rables and diagrams, “Tomy wife Kamla and sons Jten and Pankaj for encouraging me to write this book. ‘Lasc but nor the lease to thanks to Mr B Chowdhry of English Book Stores for ‘motivation and valuable suggestions. AIC Joshi)PREFACE Meteorology is che science of atmosphere. All weather activities occur in the lowest portion cf the atmosphere, called che Troposphete, Inernational snd local flying activities are confined to chis vegion only. An aviator has, thezefore, 10 understand the weather phenomenon which occur in the region and influence Air Operations. This book dealsin brief with che various aspect of weather which are essential for anaviator, The Definitions, Terminology, Codes used in he book are based on the standacd publications of World Met Organisation, International Civil Aviation Orgnisation (Annex 3) and India Meteorological Deparment. ‘The chapters cover syllabus prescribed by the Director General of Civil Aviation (lndia) for Pilots and by she Chatrapati Sahu Ji Maharaj University, Kanpur for BSc (Aviation), Breqaently asked questions by the trainees and their answers have also been included. Important chapters like Met Services for Aviation and Aviation Codes are considered useful for che trainees to interpret Met information provided to them by the Met Oftces. ‘The compiler of this| book has experience in Aviation Meteorology, of about 34 years jn the Indian Aic Foree asa Forecaster and asa Met Instructor, He has served for seven years as Ground Instructor (Aviation Mer) and for one year as Chief Ground Jnstractorat India Gandhi Rashtriya Uran Akademi (GRUA),Fursergang, Racbareli ‘UB which isa premier and reputed Flying Akademi in India for imparting teaining to the Pilots and to the BSc (Aviation) students, The author has closely observed the weather fom the ground and equally from the at. Some of che material inthe book is his own experience and some from the interaction with the air crew and their debriefings,Presace {cis hoped chat the book will be of ave and guidance forthe aspiring plos, BSc Aviation) seudens, for those appearing in various examinations fo licenees, and for the Mer personnel. The contents of this book are intended to be of general guidance and are nar to be quoted as authority Readers are advised to cefer tothe original documents and standard books on metcorology and IMD web sites wwsimd.gov.in or \wwizmausam.gotin for detailed information, Suggestions for improvement ate welcome Encouraged by the response for the book from CPL/ATEL aspicens, Met pesonnel and aviators, the Third Edition, «revised and improved version, of the book is presented. ‘his Thitd Edition and one Reprint in three years period is elear indication of its Popularity and usefulness. tn facta personal copy of the book would be useful throughout the career of an Avincox (IC Joshi Group Caprain (Red) March, 2010 E-mail: icjoshi@yahoo,com 1 ——— ATMOSPHERE COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE ‘moves with the earth at th limits, However, a very la kilometers of the surface. Characteristies The atmosphere has weight and hence exerts \ Pressure. It is compressible and Expandable, It occupies space and has no defini shape. Ics mobi which \tansfer cf heat and moiscure occurs, Composition A Ait isa misceof ges. Forall practical purposes dey aria uniform mixture ofthe followings gases: Nicrogen 78.0896, Oxygen 20.95%, Argon 0.93% and Carbon dioxide 0.03536, Tiaces of. Neon, Helium, Methane, Krypton, Nirows Oxide, Hydrogen, Ozone (000000768) and Xenon,AVIATION MirtoRoloc? Narogen ancl Oxygen constinte almost 94 of test. Theis atiobypropotion Nitrogen: Oxygen Nitrogen: Oxyge 1 by Volume 3:1 by Weight Due co rapid reduction of gases with height, supplementary Oxygen is needed above 10,000 ft, ‘The atmosphere is generally well mixed. Iehasa neatly similar composition up to 3 height of about 80 km, dve to earth gravitation. The atmosphere up to 80 km 's called the Homosphere and above it the Hetcosphere. At about 20-25 kin, however, cere is high concentration of Ozone. Important Variable Gases. In addition to the above gases the armosphere also contains: Water Vapour, Carbon Mono Oride, Suiphor di Oxide, and Nitrogen di Oxide, These gases vary in amoune from place to place, being conceatrated more in industial areas, cites having heavy vehicular traffic, wacer bodies, et, than in open areas. Though very small in quantity, Water vapour, CO, and Ozone ace very significant for weather ard life, They cause green house effect which keeps the earth warm ‘These gases are also known as Green House gases. Ozone procect us from the ill effects (lke skin cancet) of Ulta Violet cadiation from the Sun Dry Air and Saturated Air Worer in the atmosphere can exist in shtee stares-solid (Snow, Ice, Hail), liquid (Drizzle, Rai, Shower) and gas Water Vapour). The concentration of water vapour Fapidly decrease with ligt The amoune of Water vapour that ait an coaiain largely depends on is temperature, Waemer aie can hold greater amouint of water vapour “The water vapout amount can be as much a 496 in the ttopics (region between 23 4 N co 23 9), and almost negligible in the Polar regions or higher altiudes above 30,000 fe, due co very low remperarutes ‘With 4% water vapour the air termed a5 Saturated Ais and has 100 9 Relative ‘Humidity (RH). When RH is < 1009 the aris Unsaturated and is called Dry Air. ATMOSPHERE Carbon Dioxide (CO,) GO, is produced by burning of fuel, wood etc. Its concentration i substantl in industa areas wheres in Polar regions andhighealttdesi ineligible. A large amount of CO, i dissolved inthe oceans. Plantsabsotb CO, use itscarbon as food and release 0, into the atmosphere, Ozone (0,) Ozone forms in the upper atmosphere, [c absorbs the Ulta Violet (UV) tadiation from the Sun, and raises temperacace. O, molecsles then become heavier and sink and accumulate in the lower levels. Appreciable ozone is found becween 10 and $0 4m, with maximum concenccation at 20 to 25 kn, Ozone Hole. In cecen times the O ayer has thinned and large holes have developed ‘nainly over tie Polar and other latimdes due to atmosphericpollation and exceesve itse of Chlorofluoro Catbons. Solid Particles Im addition othe above gases the atmosphere contains patieles such as sale from evaporating sea water, dust from arid regions, industrial and similar other Pattcles They obscure sola radiation an affect visibility and temperature. They alto actas nudei which promote condensation of water vapour, prematurely. In lager cts and industrial areas frequent fog and smog amisture of fog and smoke) is due to che high concentration of such particles. Green House Gases ‘ater vapour and CO, absorb certain wavelengehs of teresral (act) edition, and reradiare hem towards the cath. They cause gceen house effect, which Keeps the earth warmer chan it would have otherwise been, Water vapour, CO, Ozone and some other gases are called Green House gases. These are causing Global ‘Warming, which isa serious theeat to our life and needs to be mined. Vertical Distribution of Air Mass Dueto gravitaionlanraction, the approximate dstbusion of itmass with height: \ 2 of the ait mass is contained below 6 km, 3/4 below 10 km and 99 % below 35 km 3AWATION MeTEOROLOGr THERMAL STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE Solar rays eat he earth and the eatthin urn heats up the atmosphere by condition, The ha intion and tcleese of acon beat by condensrion of water vapour. ‘The flow of heat from the earth sucface to she atmosphere is due to: Sensible Heat (Conduction, Convection, Radiation) 23% Latent Heat (Evaporation, Condensation, Sublimation) 7% Due to absorption of solar radiation, ry bo x too fos Poe a 8 t 2 vf e ‘ & F 5 |] y & © 5 5 ’ & + 2 e ® F 14 00 hase 7 Temperatut lemperature gore 1.1. Thal Srretre of tospey 4 ATMosraie os: not coninue ithe ond of the atmospher. Ther arechangesin the temperature in vations Inyers of the atmosphere, Saelit¢ and Space flights have confiemed that based on temperature distribution, she atmosphere has ceasonably well defined horizontal ayers, as follows Troposphere unst,is “Toposthere isthe lowest portion ofthe amosplere, Itextends o 16-18 km over the Equi and 810 km over the Poles. l this layer the temperatures generally als with heighe, called lapse rate, ae about 6.5°C/km, However, in the nancy Btmospbere the lapse rate could he quite differnt I ‘may fall or rise wich height {inversion or remain he same (isothermal). Teoposphere generally unstable, Mose of che weather is coofined to this region and ss theAying. About 7096 of ce ‘atmosphere lies within troposphere, The Troposphers from surface o 2:1 km scaled Lower Teoposphere, 2.1 km to 7 km Mi Troposphere and 7.6 km to tropopause Upper Toposphere, The equator is much warmer than the poles, and tropopause is much higher at ‘avaror. Hence warmer the surface higher isthe height of the tropopause ‘Thesolarcadiation heat up che earth surface, which n urn eas the lower: atmosphere. Also the suface hot asses up and transfers heat che atmosphere by conduction convection, radiation and release of lateht heat due to condensation, The atmiosphere is thus heated from below and not from above, and temperature falls wath, bight. Zhe wor! tropos mesns tesing and the fequent overuring couses weather, "amely th gusts, bompines clouds chanderstorms rn, depressions eylomee ec ‘Tropopatse It isthe top of she troposphere and marks the boundary between ¥ropesphre and searosphere, At chs level the lapse rate eeduces to 1.2°Clkm ay teberarce stops falling wit eight. Above tropopause he temperate ae higher Sarthe oles than over the equator. Thus, thee is reversal of temperature ed density above 8 km. 7 Sometimiesthere ate tivo o¢ more tropopause, one overlapping the other. The height © of ttopopeuse varies season to season and also from one synoptic situation to the other. ~ There arebreaks in topopause,at differen levels, t about 10" stand Gd lat, where Jetstreans occur. These breaks broadly divide the ropapatse into tee sections, 5AYEATION METEOROLOGY Polar Tropopause. This occurs near 300 hPa level polewards of Lat, 45° to 60°. It may be noticed oceasonally over Scinagae Jammu and Rashmit) dusing winters when polar aie incursion takes place. The Polat Front Jor Stream is found at che southern end of this Tropopause, at the break, ~ ‘Tropical Tropopause, This s usually at 100 hPa level. [c extends from the equator to Lat. 35°-40°. Over India itis found ar about 16-16.5 km, Above this there is inversion Middle Tropopause, This occurs nest 200 hPa and is sandviched beoween the Polar and Tropical Tropopause. in India it occurs over the extreme N at about 11.5 km with temperature of bout 45°C. Iemay be noticed as south as 23°N in winters. The ‘Sub Tropical Je: Streams found at de break between Middle and Tropical Tropopause Stratosphere The layer above the cropopaus, up 1 50 km, isthe stratosphere Initially for 8-10 km the layesisisothermal. Above this height temperanire increase slowly and then sharply towards the cop cf the layer, The rie in temperature is due to the absorption (of UV tays by ozone and oxygen, Stratosphere isa very scable region with ow humidity and no weather. Nacreous Clouds or Mother of Pearl Clouds, ae seen infrequently in upper stratosphere in higher latnides in winters. They ae probably composed of ice crystals and wacer vapour. Stratopause. itis the upper boundary of the Scretosphere. Mesosphere It extends from Straropause to 80 km. Lack af absorption of solat radiation and weak vercical mixing causes temperaruce ro all with height inthis layer. On rare ‘occasions Noctilucent Clouds are seen inthe upper Mesosphere at about 80 km, inPolar regions. These clouds cate probably composed of ice rystals or supercooled ‘water droplets. ‘Mesopause The top of the mesosphere is mesopause. At this level temperatures stop falling, ‘The Lowest temperatures, about-90* C, inthe atmosphere occur at Mesopause, Araosoene Thermosphere ‘Thermospbereextend from Mesopause to the outermost fing of the atmosphere, imovhich temperatures increase with height, Icisalso called dhe Exhosphere. In thie layer the airs very thin and few molecules are present. These molecules may he very activeand have very high zemperanae, Bu since these ae few and are fa pit, ‘ety litle heats present in this layer. At 200 km temperature is about 600° C and uring sunspocmaxima about 2000° C. In ths layer UV and X rays cause ionisation ‘of gases, andthe portion above 60 kin called the Ionosphere, The density of fons increases with height, being maximum at 250-500 km, Tonospherc is important for radiowavepropagation by reflecting them back to the earch and propagating them hundreds of kilometers away from theic origin. Serious incerference in radio Prorogation occurs daring solar disturbances, during which ther. ofcadio waves, absorption (Note:The Tropopaus, Stratopause and Metopaase mee represent zones berveen the layers where vertical temperatutedistibusion changes. The above verical temperate distibntion 'sofan average mosphere. n day today stations canbe quite ferent due vo the systems Uke eyciones, sit pollution, clouds, thunderstorm, feos, dew, Volcanic Ath ete) International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) A standard average atmosphere has been specified for various purposes like che design and testing of aircraft, evaluation of aircraft performance, calibration of altimerers, tc. fis a hyporhetial atmosphere, which approximately corresponds to the average state of the atmosphere. The most widely used atmosphere i the one defined by the ICAO, known as the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA). Its specifications are: + Airis Dry * Temperature at Mean sea level 15°C (288.15 K) + Pressure at Mean sea level 1013.25 ha + Density at Mean Sea Level 1225 g/m? + Acceleration due to gravity 980,665 cms + Lapse rete up to 11 km 65°Ckm ‘Temperature is assumed constant =56.5°C from 11 km to 20 km. From 2¢ km to 30 km thereis a tise of temperature at the rate of 1°C/ km ‘with a temperature of 44.5°C ac 32 km ?AVIATION METEOROLOGY ISA Deviation: For evaluning srerat performance or making corrections to inseruments, the acwals are compaced with ISA values called ISA Deviation, Ifthe observed temperature is 08°C warmer than ISA, the deviation is + 08°C, (To find ISA Deviation subtract ISA value from Actual value) Jet Standard Atmosphere (JSA) ‘TheISA values ate quite satisfactory for areraft operating below 30,000 fy btr not ‘hove this level Fo spare lights and ver high ltude yingand engine mantacning actional specif values are requted. Tomeetthes requirements SA wasinroducee, as follows : + Mean sea level temperatuce 15°C (288.15°K) + Lapse Rae 2°C/ 1000 fe + There is no Tropopause QUESTIONS ON ATMOSPHERE QU. Lowese layer of stmospnere is (8) Troposphere —(b) Tropopanse (© Statosphece QL Height of Teopopause at equate is nnn (2) 10-42 kn ©} 1618 km. (9) 12.14 km Qi. Heighe of Tropopause at Poles is .. 4 (A) 1214 be (b) 12.13 lem {9.0810 km. QA. Higher the surface romperatute essonee Would be the tzopopause (a) Higher ©) Lower (0 Some QS. Height of tropopause... (2) Is constanz (0) Varies with alrde —@) Yaves with Laveude 6. Above 8 km che lower temperatures are OVEE nue @) Equator (0) Mid Lartudes ) Poles QF. Atmosphere is heated bY veces (©) Solar Radiation (b) Heat from earth surface (c) Froty above QB. Topas MEIN eens (9) Taroing (©) Under current (0) Convection Atwosriene @. CO, and H,O ate ako called {0} Green House Gases b) Rate Earth Gases QUO. Troposphere is general (A) Sable (6) Unsable te) Newt QU. Statsphere iso. (6) Unsable (6) Neural (0) Stable 12 Tropopause is discontinuous st abOWE seve. fa) 30" ©) 4tae 2 60" Q13. Most of armospherie mass is conned i seams (0) Toposphere, —_(b) Stratosphere (6) Hetcosphere QU. Scccosphere extends fom Tropopstse 10 sa (@) 50 kim (8) 60 km 6 40 km US. The nile srmosphere Iyer with temperaace version and sabi . (8) Tioposphere (8) Tropopase (0) Sratosphete QUE, Motter of Peat clouds o6C2" i sue (0) Mesosphere - (6) Thermospere 0) Seavosphere QU7. The temperamte ia ISA at 17 Kim is an 6) 565% ) 855°C (355°C U8. By weighs, approximate ratio of O, to N, in the atmosphere is. en 14 (ots 19. By velume, the approximate ratio of O, to N, in she atmosphete 6 oso \o 13 wi us 20. By velume, the proportion oF CO, in the stmosphete i ees... (3% (8) 0.3% {© 0.0389 Q21, in TSA, the mean sea level cempeasure iS occ, misc lec fo 25 Q22, Maximum concentration of ozone is at a . (2)10-15 km (by 20-28 km (©) 3035 km 23. Additinal oxygen is needed while fying above ‘Ga $000 fe (b) 7000 feAVIATION MetzonoiogY Q24. CO, and H,0 keep the amosphere (a) Wares (b) Cold (9 Have no effect Qa Bp Noctcen clouds ose in Aa # () Thermosphere —(b) Mesosphere {© Steaosphere Qu 226. Temperature at 2 km is OS°C wha i ISA deviation, Hine + (Aeral — ISA) Aa (@ -05°C 07 C lO) 03°C ax 27. Pestare st MSL is 1002.25 hPa Find che ISA deviation Hin + (Aaual = SA) Aa (0) -11 hPa (b) 10 Pa f) 12 hs (226: In actmal atmosphere temp. at 19 km is -6"C. Find the ISA deviation? fase } -05.5° ¢ 2 asc 29. Nacteous clouds occur in 7 (@) Thecssosphere —_(b) Mesosphere (2) Upper Sreatosphere (Q30, The atmosphere upto 80 kn has a weal sila composition and i called the Homosphere, is usiform composition is due «0 {) Pressure b) Grovitarion of earth (c) Mixing due to turbulence 51. Half of the atmospheric ait mass is conesied «.suw below 40) 20,000 ft & 15,000 fe (4 0,000 ft (32m jet standard atmosphere the Lapse Rate is (@) 25°C 1000 f(b) 2°C / ken (98°C J km 83. The rate of fa of emperacces with heighy, called (9) isorbermal rete (b) Inversion Rate 46) Lapse Rate Q34.In acral atmosphere the lapse rate could : 3). assame any vahie 6) fall up to 8 km ise up co 5 li)assume any vals ¢b) fall up to 8 ky (ise up 0 50 kn BS Topical Tropopaise extends fom the equator o Lat, 35-407. Over Inn itis fetid at about wasn ABOVE this there is inversion. (@) 20-21 bm (0) 215 km (9) 16-16.5 kmanswers 10 15 28 « 16 29 7 30 b 18 3t ATMOSPHERE ANSWERS 9 2 7 b 20 33 ry a 4 2 35 10 23 " 242 a ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE Static and Dynamic Pressure ‘The Air pressure changes cause cas to pop up when traveling over significantly “arring topography and ducing rapid descent of an arco Relationship beeween Pressure and Altitude Roughly hPa change in pressure is equivalene to: -aMSL 7H a 20,0008 sof at 2000 fr 30 ft at 40,000 fr 100 &. R ATMOSPHERIC Pressune Vertical Variation of Pressure 100 ken} inkm ékm Pressure-——————_. Figure 2.1 Variation of Pressure with Heighn ‘The presure decreases with height, ata decreasing rat, from sea lave to 600 m a #94 to 15 ke at 3% and up to 3 kin 2.564. Ac 6 km ie reduces co hal the walueatsea level. AC 100 km it is negligible and can be regarded a6 vacenn Fect per hia change of pressure = 96 T / p feet Using above equation, a pressure changes of 1 he at pressure 1000 hPa with temperature 300K, would be: 96*300/1000 = 28.8 fr ‘Variation of Pressure in Warm and Cold Air ‘arm alti les dense than the cold. The presue wil als faster pace over sand lum of sie than over a warm column oft, presse value sy 850 ‘ia, willbe ata higher heighe over a wasm column chan over a calf column, see Figure 22. Thesefore where upper ac mean temperstures ate higher upper at Dresuresare high and where mean temperatues ace lo, the upper aie prevores arelow, BAVIATION MetzoRoLogy coup | OR aso ane 5000 seta asst sso ne coun eto bes 1000 43 Con wan Isa, Isobarc Levels are at Lower Height over Cold Colin than over Warm Column Hence at higher Levels Low Over Cald Column aud High over Warm: Coburn Figire 2.2 Variation of Pressure in Wa and Cold Air Semi Diurnal Variation of Pressure ‘The atmospheric pressure follows a wavy pattern doting 24h, showing maximum 1000 he (primary) and 2200 he (secondary) and minimam at 0400 hr and 1600 hr local time, as shovn in Figure 2,3 The variation could be as much as 3-4 hPa between maximutn and minimum. Such variations ate very small at the Poles an) large at Equavot due to solar influence tis of ise importance in mid and high lnvitades, being overshadowed by the cravelling weatier systems. la low latitudes itassumes considerable importatice, ‘When the temperature is highest in the afternoon, the density of ait close to the round is lov. Hence he pressure slowest. Atabout sunrise when the temperature is lowes, the pressure is highest. Thece is however, a phase difference of about 3 hour berween the temperature and the pressure. A departure from these regular oscillations is often an indication of tte approaching bd weather! storm, Semi diurnal vaiation of presureis probably a nacualoscilaon of she atmosphere, having a period of almost 12, hours. Iris excited and maintained! by the temperature ‘Variation during 24 hr, As the air is continuous, ifthere is a high pressure on one Side ofthe globe, there should be alow on the other side. With the rotation ofthe ‘arth the pressaresleo rotate, Hence, two maxima and wo minima dng 24 he “4 ATMOSPHEUC PaissuRE ex max in esisuee we eee Local Time Figure 2.3 Semi-Diuena Variation of Pressure Measurement Pressures accurately measured by Mercury barometer in which atmospheric pressure is balanced by the height of the mercury column. Aneroid barometer is another instcoment which is used for measuring pressure, Although aneroid barometer is not as accurate as mercury barometer, but for its ease of handling and convenience, itis widely used, Altimeter is an aneroid barometer in which the scale is graduated ‘o cead altitude instead of pressure, Alimeter has.a subscale, which can be set co the desiced value of pressure, For continually recording the pressure a Barograph is used. It coald be a Daily Barograph or Weekly Barograph. Altimeter Correction (Alkicor/D Value) ‘The correction applied ro the indicated arisude to obtain the tee abide is called altitude correction/atrimecer correction or in short ALTICOR. This is frequently required during mountain fyng:and bombing operations. , Alcor = Indicated Alitude = True Alitude Negative of Alcor i rermed as D Value ie D Value = True Altitude ~ Indicated Altitude 1D value decreases when aircraft flies from High to Low 5AVIATION Mereonotocy Rough calculations of Altimeter Cortection {0} Duco Pesure difrencs fom I, Add 30 for evecy 1 hPa differance When MSL pressuce is higher than 1013.2 hPa and subtcact 30 ft whee lower than 1013.2 hPa, ©) Due to Temperature diffrence from ISA, Add 1% of indicated altitude for every difference of 3°C when actual temperature is at the Flight Level and subtract when lower than ISA, (©) Add these algebraically co gt the final correction, Contours and Thickness ‘The mean temperatures of vertical colusans of aie di Accordingly the height ofthe columns, of pressure vahe (ay 850 hs) weed ao differ The lines oining places of equal ieght are called Contour, Shane os Bean cempéranire corresponds to Law pressure at higher levels, the areas of low Se eel lobe areas of ow presse and vice versa The Contour lines my also be treated as isobars, Scopocental meter: 1 gpm = 9.8 juleg. The contour lines ate numbered in Seopotential decametreseg, 5280 gom is indicated as 528. Ifthe ‘gpm is 700, then anit paces located approximately 700 gm above ml, Centres of Low and High high thickness where mean temperarare ofthe layers higher. Thus the isopleths of thickness coincide with the isotherms of mean temperature of the layer. Pressure Gradient 16 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE Presse Tendency end Isallobars ‘he shane of pressure with imei aed pressure tendency in india peste tendency is worked out for the pas 24 hr and in che higher ltndes forthe past {nee hours of he curceneobsereation. The lns joining equal presure change ate called Ullobars, Aa glance he isalloars, indicat aeas of rsingot linge ‘These are used as forecasting aid for movement and intensification weakening of Tate ‘stem. The region of greatest fll enclosed by isallobat is termed as Isallobatic Low and the region of highest rie, che'Tsallobanie bigh, ALTIMETRY Definitions Altitude. It isthe vecticaldiszance from the mean sea level (MSL), Height. Is che vercialditance from a specific dacum (eg from the ground), Elevation. ris the vertical distance of a poiat or a level onthe surace ofthe earth from MSL, ‘Teansition Alvitude (TA). Thisis the highesc altinude beloxe which an aircraft will always fy on local QNH. At or below TA the vertical posiion of ae aircraft is controlled with reference ta height above the aerodrome. Teansition Level TL), Thelowest Flight Level above which an aircraft wll always fly on standard QNE 7013.2 hPa, Above TL the vertca! position of an aircraft is from danum 1013.2 hPa. TL is expressed in hundreds of feee Transition Layer, The airspace beeween T A and TL, Flight Level, ‘These aze levels of constant pressure at or above the TL separated by apresue interval corresponding to $000 fe th MSE presure LOLS cn (eg. FLSO = 5,000 ft, FL300 = 30,000 fr, FL200 = 20,000 fy. Pressure Akiade, When the altimeter sub-scales seco 1013.2 hPa the alimeter indicates Pressure Alicude. Using 1013,2 bPa sectng avoids she need to update QNE. Pressure lttude isexpresed as g, 3500, 19000, 40000, st, whereas the attude 'sexpresed (by avoiding ls 0 zeros) as FL 35, FLI9O, F400, 7AUATION MertoRotoay Pressure Settings A barometer provides pressure reading. To this reading certain corrections ate =pplied, These corections are: Index correction (to compensatc for instumental eros) Gravity correction (gravity Using liferenc at differen latices) and Temperature correction (ie changes continosl). The pressure is then reduced to 3 common level clled che mean sea level (ms), Such practice is called pressure setting, The pressure sertngs are QFE, QFF and QNH. GEE. eis defined asthe actual presute at the aerouirome elevation (which s the highest point on the landing area), also called Aerodrome Reference Point (ARP), IE QFE ise onthe subscale ofan altimerer, che altimeer would read geo or height of aircraft alrimerer from che ARP. Ics also called zero setting. QUE. Itis defined as the barometric Pressure of a place reduced to msl, The existing impart of the place is assumed so be the temperature of column extending ‘rom the baromeresfevel to the msl. This values used for plotting on Synoptic charts and drawing isobars, QUA, It is defined as the Station level pressure reduced to the msl assuming [SA condicions, When QNH isser on the sub-scale, the altimeter indicates the sexton Clevation, the vertical stance of the station above msl This secing is usa fr ‘ertcal separation between aiteaftand from ters, QNH should be updated ‘rom time to time asickeeps changing with tine and place due o change in emperatre and pressure, Its also called Absolute Altitude Regional QNH, This isthe forecast value ofthe lowest pressure expected in an Alsimeter Sering Region (ASR). Is issued every hour and fs valid for one hoa Correct use of regional QNH ensures adequate tercain clearance QNE. Iris he ahitude indicted onan akimeter on landing when the sub-seale is Baie fOt8.25 hPa 29.92 inches) The shitadcisknossn a5 QNE value. Normily QUE is used for high altitude aitfields, Relation between QNH, QFE and QNE © TEQNE > QNH ie, sea level is lower than MSL For : Station Level Pressure (QFE) 950 liPa, and Sea Level Pressure = {QNH) 1000 hPe and 1 hPa = 30 fi, the Elevation of Station = (QNH - QEE) * 30 f = (1000 - 950) #30 = 50* 30 = 1500 f 18 ATwosrHeRiC Pressune Tf the Altimeter is set co QNE of 1013 he, the altimeter would indicate the Station level = (QNE - QFE) ¢ 30 ft = (63 hPa) * 30 = 1890 f@ Gi) iF QNE < QNH ie sca level is higher chan MSL For: QRE $70 hPa, and QNH 1020 hPa, che altimeter would indicate the Sta elevation = (QNH ~ QFE) * 30 = ( 50 hPa) * 30 = 1500 ft {CAlcimeteris st to QNE of 1013 hPs, che altimeter would indicae the Seaton level = (QNE - QFE) * 30 ft = (1013 -970)* 30 = 43 "30 = 1290 fe Asa cule: ‘When the subsaeis set to valueless chan QNH, the alkimeterindicaces lower ‘than the actual height above sea level. ‘When the subscale is set to a value greater chon QNH, the: altimeter indicates higher than the actual height above sea level, Standard Isobaric Levels Corresponding ro ISA pressore the Pressure Altitude (Fe and Flight Levels are as follows: Level(hra) | 650 | 700 [00 [400 [300 Jan D100 Pressure 5.000 | 10,000 | 18,000 | 24,000 | 30,000 | 38,000 | 53,000 Alinide (Ee) FlgheLevel {so | 100 [tea [240 Tacn J aa0 | a0 ns 1 Tablena Under Reading Over Reading An Alrimeters has a subscale on which the desired pressure can be se onthe ground rin he aie. On his setting altimeter indicates heights pr ISA specifations The altimeter over read ifthe pressure falls during che flight and under reads fie ives, As a general cule: Ly and. Gay High to Low ~ Over Read Low to H igh - Under Read ‘Warm to Cold ~ Over Read Cold to Warm ~ Under Read JnISA 1.5 km ahitude corresponds toa pressuce of 864 Ps and 2 km to 795 hPa see Figure 24, Whenan aitcraft flies into a Column of warm ait from 864 LPs level, “TUBS, bey aeAVIATION METEOROLOGY the pressure being lower over warm level, say ar 2 km (where ISA Press an altitude lower than teue ait er column will have the same pressureata higher ture is 795 hPa}, Hence che altimeter wil indicate de, as in figure below. ‘Tivo Helaht 1010 wa 1012 apa 10132 Pa AC fm ow fo High i Unér Ataf om Call to War i Uni Reed Figure 2.4 Alimcter Response with chonging Pressure and: Temperature Resls ofthis ype canbe elaed withthe wind alo, Figuee 25, tn che case of winds the general cule in the N hemisphere is: Pot oo Art oa Fort it on gh Sat. nt hes, os anor ne eel fon etme leo te vind and i Honoe, aetnetsrwoud UNDEY oc Figure 2.5 Altimeter Response to Wd fom Starboard 20 ATMOSPHERE PRESSURE ‘When fying with winds from port he alimeter will ovectead, and with winds from starboardunder-rea. The error increases with strength ofthe wind and length of the route. In § hemisphere opposite is crue Pressure Fatterns To represent the spatial distribution of pressure ata given time, all pressures are ‘reduced to rhe msl. When pressures ar different stations are plocted on a chart andi isobars are drawn at 2 hPa incerval the following pastern, Figure 2.6 and Figure 27, emerge: Low (lowpar).Irisan atea enclosed by an isobar, with lowest pressure athe centre. ‘When there ate two or more closed isobars a2 a inerva,itiscalled a Depression, A farther intense system is Cyclone or Severe Cyclone. Winds around a low blow ‘manticlockwise direction in N hemisphere, converging towards the centre. There is convergence and upward motion at 2 low. Hence 4 low is associated with bad ‘weather, visibility Is better than a High. Winds back in alow. wind speed on the surface is less chan 17 ke Trough of Low. A tongue like extension of isobars from a low is called erough of {ow Pressure along the trough is lower than on eter side. sobarsalong the ough S Cyclone Aiestone u 996nPa 1060nPa 100K “o00rPa ‘TroucH, a Fignne 2.6 Pressure Pattomis aAVIATION MertoRotogy ‘002 hee 7000 hPa Figure 2.7 Pressure Patterns in Isobar Analysis are"V" shaped and wind direction abruptly changes and backs. Its algo associated ‘with bad weather. The monsoon rough along he Indo-Gangetc phinsis an example of accough. High, Ie isa region enclosed by isobar with highest pressure atthe centce. High Pressure is associated with fair weather but visibility is poor due to subsidence, ‘Winds blow in a clockwise direction and diverge oursvards. Winds veer in a high, Ridge. Ic is a wedge like extension of isobats froma high pressure area. Pressuce is higher along the ridge than on either side. Isobats along the ridge are rounded and not "V" shaped as in a trough, [tsa region of fair weather. Winds veer ata ridge. Col, Cols aregion enclosed between two highs and rwo lows. The isobars towards high pressure areas are 2 hPa higher chan cowards lows. Weather within a Col ig ‘mixture of high and low, winds are light variable, Pressure at Col is uniform, Synoptic Systems. See Snopric Systems at Appendix J, and Met Scales and Divisions at Appendix N, n @ wu. @. Qs. y. @ @. Qu. qu ATMOSPHERIC PREssunE QUESTIONS ON ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE Winds in a low pressure ©) Converge (b) Diverge (6) Go straight Low presre is sssociaed with @) Good Weather (0) Bad Weather (0) None In a high pressure area winds are () Norm ) Seong {) Weak, Flying from Low to High an altimeter would read (a) Over (b) Under (© constant Isallobars are lines of equal (a) Presse (b) Temperature Tendency (c) Pressure Tendency What kind of a barometer is an alkimerer ~ (a) Aneroid (b) Mercury, {c) Alcohol, A tezion berveen to Lows and Tivo Highs is {a} Depression (b)Secondacy Low (©) Col Bad weather and bereer visibility is associaced with {oh High {ty Low te) Cal ‘The relasionship benween height and pressure is made use in construction of @) Alimeer ast vsi Altimeter sways measure the heighe of siccraft above @) MSL. {b) datum of 1013.2 hPa (6) dacum ac which its subscale is ser, ‘To aircraft lying ar same indicated altitude with sltimeters se co 1013.2 ha. One is fing over cold air mass and other over warm air mass. Which of che two has greater altinude: (@) Ae flying over warm ait mass (b) Ac flying over cold air mass + The rate of fall of pressure with height ina warm air moss compated to cold aie mass will be (@) Same () More LessAVIATION MeTsoRoLoGY (QS. An Increase of 1000 feet in elevation near the earth is associated with decrease of pressure off (2) 100 hPa) 1000 hPa (3 hha 4@) 33 hPa QU4, Lines dawn through places of equal pressure are known a8 + (@ Isobars (@) lockers © Isogonal ——@) seat QUS. Which is true (2) Tiough has frontal characteristics lb) Aer ecossng the axis of rough winds back in Nchetisphese : (4 After crossing the axis of trough winds veer in N-hemisphere QU6. Semi diurnal pressure changes ace most pronounced in (@) Polar region (b) Middle latirades Se) Teopies (O17. Flying trom Delhi to Kolkata contant indicated althude but, expedencing a Aft o Starboard, The actual atinede will be (Vird-vis) indicated alitude _fAl Lower (©) Same (9 Higher (QB, Im the Southern Hemisphere, around a Low Pressure Area wind blows ~0) In clockwise ditection (6) In anvictockwise direction (© Across isobars towaeds the centte (U9, Altimeter of ale on ground reads aecodkome elevation, its sub-cale is set so fa) QNH (0) QNE {c) QFE (QFE : (00. Instrument for cecording pressure is called (0) Anemopraph (9) Barometer (0) Hygrogeaph Q21, Poor visibility is associated with fo) High 0) Low @ Ga 22. On either side, perpendicuae 0 the snow pressures rise folTeough 4b) Ridge (9 Low 23. Fall of pressace with height is more rapid in _AA) Cold areas (6) Warm sceas (©) Hamid areas iA. 300 ba in ISA coresponds tothe level (@) 20,0008 (),30,000 fr (©) 35,000 v 4 ATMOSPHERIC. PRessuRe (225. 18,000 f height in ISA coresponds ro pressure level (@) 700 hPa () 200 hPs {6500 hPa (26, 206 bPa in ISA corresponds co the level (@) 20,0001 A) 30,000 ) 40,000 f 27, 24,000 heg in TSA corresponds to pressure level 6) 400 Pa ) 500 hPa (2) 300 hea ‘G28. 700 HPs in ISA coneesponds to che Flight level @) 20,000% (©) 10,000 ft (6) 28,000 (225, 40,60 fe beige in ISA approximately cosceponds to pressure level (2) 400 ha (6) 500 hPa 5) 200 hp 230. B50 bain ISA corresponds 10 the height 2.0008 6) 5,000 & © 19000 f ANSWERS Q , tS 6 7 8 yo wn ey Aa boc bo ce a ce 4 aoe d Qs wo 1 yn 2 5 2 25 26 Ma boc a as hoa ag boc Q 27 2 2 30 Aa be b uae Sy dor te3 TEMPERATURE Temperature is a measure of heat. Its measured by a chermomeser in degrees Celsius (Centigrade) or Fahrenheit. These scales acc arbitrarily fixed with reference so the melting poinc of ice and the boiling poine of pure warer at normal pressure. On the Celsiusscale these are respectively as 0° Cand 100° C and inthe Fahrenheit scale 32° F and 212° F. Celsius scale is used incernationatly,in aviation and science. Use ofthe Fahrenheit scale is confined to afew English-speaking couneries only. A thied scale is based ofthe following argument, Heat isa form of energy As heat is extracted froma substance cs internal energy is reduced and the random motions ofits molecules slows downs The molecules sec arranged in a more orderly pattern than before. As more heat is extracted the cooling and the orderliness increases, Finally a state is reached when the molecules attain their maximum orderliness and the moleculat motion almost ceases. After this state no more heat can be extracted and the temperarute renches its lowest Possible value. This minimum temperature isthe same forall substances, and is accordingly called che absolute zero (K). 1K =-273.16°C Conversion to CF and K ‘The conversion from one scale to another can be done by che following equations: F = (C5) + 325C = 5/9 (R32) ;K=C +273 Ac may be noted thar 40° C = ~40" F 6 ‘Tesareparune Instruments for Measurement Dry Bulb Thermometer, Wer Bulb Thermontetec (the bulbs covered ith a muslin cloth which skept mois), Maximum Thermomotr (ike Doctors Theemomieter), Minimurn Thermometer and Thermograph, ae used for measuring temperature, Mercury is used in thermometers, except that in Minimum thermometer Alcohol is used insead of mercury. In Thecmographs and in Upper Ait empecature ‘ieaserements Bismetallc snips are used, Thermograph gives 4 continuous record ‘oftemperature. A minimum thermometer has.a dumbbell shaped itoindex, which permits alcohol to pass through when temperature rises, When temperature falls ‘healcohol, which has concave meniscus, dtagsthe index back to indicate minimum cemperature. Surface Temperature {isthe temperature recorded at a height of ft (1,25m) above the ground in shade (inside a Stevenson’s Screen), . Ambient Temperature.The cemperature of che surroundings is called Ambient ‘Temperature, ‘Heat and Temperature Heatisthe sum tal ofthe KE ofl moleculesand atoms ofa substance, Temperatiare is the average KE of all the molecules and atoms of a substance, The water in a bath tub at 60° C will have more heat than the boiling water in a eup, In the ‘thermosphere although the teniperatures are very high yet che heat content s less 2 there are very few particles and ehey too far apact. Hence there is hardly any effect of high temperatures tothe rockets and spacecraft in the region. Specific Heat It is defined as the heat requited to raise the temperature of unit ‘ass of a subwance by 1° C. The specific heat of water, egatded as the highest, {s 1, that of ie: 0.5 and of the soil 0.2, Hence land gets heated/eooled much faster than the water. Latent Heat. Latent heat is defined as the “amount of heat absocbed or celeased dling change of phase fromvto solid /lquid/vapour” ris absorbed during change of solid to ligiid and liquid vo gas and released during the reverse processes. 7AMATION Meteonovocy _ Evaporation, Condensation and Latent Heat “hen water changes co vapour, certain quantity of heats supplied To change boiling water into vapour, more then five times as auch heat is required asis needed to bring the seme aniount of ce cold water to the bol, Once boiling has beg, ‘he emperanure ceains constant and the heat supplied in this stage becomes laene leis leased as latent heat when the vapour condenses to water, Heat Transfer ‘Heats transfezred from one place to che other by conduction, convection, cadiation and some otlier methods, as follows. In che atmosphere all these processes are important, However, radiation plays a significant role in heat tansfer, Conduction. In this process heat is physically eransferred by the molecules by contact, Conduction is an important process of heat transfer very close to the ‘ground. Convection, In this process hor fluid is bodily eransferred ro the colder part of the fluid. As more than 70 9 of the earth is covered with Waser, hence the impoctance of convection. In the atmosphere Pree Convection is triggered by incense solar heating and the Forced Convection by topography. The hot ai lifts to higher levels and transfers heat. Radiation. Every body radiates heat at ies temperature. In this process of heat ‘tansfer the medium is neither affected nov requiced. The solar radiation directly hear up the earth wichoue affecting the atmosphere, Other Methods of Heat Transfer, Advection, Latent heat release, Tarbulence, Up and Downward motion of ai are some of the the other methods of heat transfer. The advection transfers hear horizontally by winds, The irregular eddy motion of the armosphere clled turbulence, causes redistibusion of heat the latent heat which 'sabsorbed bythe melting ofice or evaporation of water, mostly at the earth's surface, issubsequentiyrelessedas latent hatin the atmosphere by condensation or freezing lathe troposphere all heabove process transfer heat. nthe staosphere howeves, neither convection nor latent heat have any influence butshort wave tadiation hee it up due to absorption by ozone, 8 ‘Tesetaarune Insotaton Total amount of solar radiation received over a particular area is caled insolation, Theinsolation depends on the obliquity of sun's rays, Figure 3.1. Hence insolation atany place is maximum when sun is overhead and least daring suntise and sunset, Similaly maximum insolation is received over the Tropics, the region berween ‘Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn, and least ax che Poles. ‘ suv a ess lslin Mee llain Figure 3.1 Insoltion and Obtignty ofS Raye Black Body Every body, emits radiation, atits eamperaturein the from of electromagnetic waves ‘over a wide range of wavelengths simulrancously. A radicing body is ealleda black body. Laws of Radiation Stefan Bolezman’s Law. The law states that the coral amount of energy radiated by blackbody is proportional eo the fourth power of itsabsoluce temperate, Hence intense radiation are emisted by hot bodies like the sun, zat ‘Wien’s Law. The wavelength of most intense radiation is inversely proporcional ro the absolute temperature. Hence hot bodies (like sun) radiate Shorc Waves and colder bodies lke earth, radiate Long Waves, Planks Law. This law describes tne distribution of radiated energy with absoluce temperature. The curve is a right skewed central distibution. 9AVIATION MertonoLogy Solar Radiation The temperature ofthe surface of che sun is about 6000° C. The solar radiation i, ‘herefore, mainly Short Waves In the sola spectrum the white visible light consists of various wavelength colours (VIBGYOR), in wich the longest waves appear red, theshortest voles, naddtion to vse ih, the sole specam consists of wavelength ‘00 shor be seenby the eye. The wavelength beyond the violet end ofthe spectrum arecaled Ula Vile (UV) and those an the other extesue beyond the eed wavelengths are called infra Red (R) waves, The complete sola radiation, including visible ight, ‘Wand IR, is responsible forall the hea chat the eatth receives from sum as short wave radiation, The solar radiation consists of about: IR 46 %, Visible 45 % and UV 09 % ‘Tercestrial Radiation ‘The earth radiate acits own tempecature and looses heat, These ae calle terrestrial radiation, which are long wave radiation. ‘These are invisible and ace mostly IR radiation, The ewth recerves heat as short-wave radiation from the san and loses heat as long wave radiation Nocturnal Radiation Atnight when the shoct-wave radiation is absent only the earth radites and looses heat. The radiation emitted by the earth at night are called Noccutnal Radiation, Green House Effect ‘Water vapone and toa lesser extent carbon dioxide, ozone, methane and nitrous oxide absor® terrestal radiation in cerain wavelengths and pesmi remaining 0 escape. These gases, therefore, keep the atmosphere warmer, causing an effect similac to the Green House effect, These gases also e-radiate pact ofthe absorbed heat towards the earch, The warer vapour and CO,, thus reduce the noctucnal ‘cooling ofthe ground toa certain extent. Inthe absence of water vapour and CO, in the atmosphere the earth would have been much cooler Radiation and Heat Budgee Since the mean remperatae ofthe earth has reined almost unchanged foralong period, ie follows thar heat received from the sum as Shore wave radiation is returned to the space by the earch as Terrestrial Radiation‘and are equal 30 : ‘TeureraTune About 3096 of the solar radiation is reflected hock or scattered by the earth Sumospher, 199s absorbed by amospheric consents (sch zone) and $196 are absorbed by che earth surface, [Absorbedby Tora Earth surface 3% Water Vapour, Dust, Ozone 16 98 ‘Clouds 36 7036 Back Scattered by air a Clouds 2056 Eatth Surface 498 — ee me Table32 ‘The 30% of he solac radiation which are reflected back tothe space by the earth and clouds i the reflecting power of cart. Iris called “Albedo”. Albedo = Reflected Radiation/Incident Radiation In clear weather about 5/6 of che solar radiation reach earth surface. Of his energy ‘arth teflectsabout 1096, Snow surface reflects about 80% of the incident, energy. Diurnal Varistion of Surface Temperature Due tothe nature of surface the diurnal temperature changes are much smaller over the sea than overland. The sea surface terapezature shows a variation from day to night of less than 1° C, whereas overland, the diurnal variation may average ‘ax much 25 20° C. Neat the coast the diuenal variation depends on the direction oi the wind. Witha wind off the Land the ducal variation near the coast nay be a large as inkead, bue with a wind off ehe sc it willbe small, The sea breeves have ‘ pronounced cooling effect, ‘The diurnal variation is mamta when the wind i calm. Wich trong wind, the surface ait mixes with te air above and che heat gained by day and lost by night Sereads through the Friction Layer (up to 1 ka above). Consequently the diarnal "ration is all when winds are strong. 3AVIATION Mertoroiocy Due co nocturnal cooling the surface temperatuces continve to fll even after che suns, til a balances reached between the incoming and outgoing radiation. The balance occurs alle afte the sunrise, when temperature is minizmum atthe surface, Thereafter some time may elapse for this temperature to reach the screen level (125m). The minimum temperature, therefore, occurs % to 1 hour after the sunrise asin Mim) Tenpea evn Minin Corre) ~—t ‘Sen Rise itd Sunset Figure 3.3 Diurnal Variation of Surface Temperature ‘or dawn, Theceafte, che incident radiation exceed until mid day. The surface temperature isthe highest at noon. Ic takes another 2-3 hours for transfer ofthis ‘emperature to che screen level, when che maximum temperature is recorded, Eifect of Clouds on Surface Temperature Acloud cover obscures the sun and reflects major par of te radiation back to space A thin sheet ofcitrostratus cloud can cut off fait proportion of the solar radiation, and a thick layer of iower cloud ox a deep layer of fog may completely block the radiation and reduce che heating of the earth by day. During nigh, the loud cover absorbs most of the oucgoing radiation from eatth. Ac the same time the lower surface of che cloud radiates towards the earth, Hence cloudy nights are warmex ‘When sky iscoveced with low clouds te diurnal vatiation of temperature a the ground is small. The lower the cloud the more effectively i reduces the nocruenal cooling. 2 Teatrenarune QUESTIONS ON TEMPERATURE QL, Diurnal variation of temperature is greatest when wind is (9 calm ©) light (© strong 2 Diuttal vorasion of temperature is maximum over (2) forese (©) ocean, (0 tand 3. On a clear day the amount of solar sadiation received by catth surface is a% 0) 3054 (9 516 , QU. ALBEDO is 9 Radiavion received by earth {€) Amounc of heat 40 Reflecting power of earth Q5. During Day the aribient cemperacute iS case than ground {@ Lower (b) Higher (a) Same Q6. Divrnal variation of temperature over ocean is . (a1 More thaa land Q% Ata coastal station che diucnal vatition of temperate depends on .. (6) Wind speed (© Radiation (3) Wind direction (0) Above 3°. (@) Less than °C QB. Stow sucface reflects abou Gi 7598 ) 80% 96 of solar radiation, 2) 90% Q Amount of Solac radiation ceceived per unit area is (0) Convection 40) Raciacion Quo Sd radiation ceccved by the earth i (@; lnsolation (@) Long Wave QUA. Rive in temperature of (©) Albedo a surface is proportional (2) Dircety 2) Inversely QU2. Sprcific heat of land is ©) Lower QU3. Minimum temperature is reached at (@) suntise ) Same () mids 3 4e) Shortwave specific heat + than that of water (© Higher (0) %4 1 hour after dawnAMTION MeTzoROLOGY QU4. An air parcel is lifted rill it gers saturated, The temperature attained by it is called (0) Potencial temperature (6) Dew Point {9 Wer bulb QS. Clondy nighes af an : (2) cold (©) normal (9 warm QU6. Wetec vapout is transparent eo serestial radiation {a) complesely (0) partially (9 indifferent QUT, Higher che temperate .....0u would be the wavelength of emitted radiation (@) longer () shorter Q1S. Airis bad conductor of hea. A parcel ofr ean therefore be regacded as insulated. from the environmenc (2) False (0) True . QU9. Warmer the earn, will be the Nocturnal radiation (2) incense (b) weaker (0) moderate QUO. Heat is che «..nof the KE of all che molecules and atoms of a substance (2) sum tora (b) average LL. The solar radiation consists of sbout 46 9, (a) W () TR (9 Visible Q22. The tora energy cadiated by a black body is proportional to its temperstte(T) oT oP : oT 23. Inense radiation are emiced by : (@) Ho bodies (6) Cold bosties (9 Stars QUA, The wavelength of moscintense radiation is inversely proportional 10 . (a) Absoluce temperature (b) Humidity (@) Albedo QW. Hot bodes dike sun) radiate (@) Shore Waves (&) Long Waves (9 Both Q26. The How of heat from earth sunface is 7706 by (a)Sensible Heat (b) Latent Heat QU7.- 4° C = 40" F (6) Thue (6) Fae ‘TenrenaTURe 28, Surface Temperature is recorded at a height of. 15 m (0) 1.25m 29. The door of Srevenson’s screen should open () opposte to sun fb) into sun 30. The liquid used in Minimum Thermometer is (@) mercury (6) alcohol ANSWERS Q 203 6 8 Aa oc 1S 16 17 18 19 20 an 27 28 29 30 reo re (©) any diceerion © spec 10 23 u 4 2 a5 1BON Th py mi og . " ory TP oy 4 41 on AIR DENSITY ‘Armesheie density isan important facrorin aviation, Deni afects pefotnance ofan aircraft significantly. Teles, test, deg, climb eat and speedo! on dire Inlow densi the climb ous are lowes, bah andingand tea sped re Breas the thus of the engine i educed and longer runway ae required for take off and landing, Allowance has to be made for chese effects in planning the length of zunway and calculating the allup weight ofan arena” Definition and Units ‘The atmospheric density is defined as the mass of. air contained in a unit volume, Its une is g/m* or kg Density is also expressed as the Density Altnude, Density altitude is defined as the alcitude above ms! ac which a given atmospheric density occurs in the ISA. The Pressure altitude and the Density altitude have the ‘same value in the ISA. ‘or every It rise in temperatre above A, che Density altcude increases by abour 120 fe above tne Pressure alticude, ‘The Density altitude is higher ifthe atmosphere is watmer than the ISA. High density aliude would mean taking of from or landing at an sivfield located ara higher alrtude. 36 a Desire Density of Dry Air Theat density (p) an beis obtained by substituing observed valves ofthe pressure (P hPa} and temperature (T Kelvin) in che fundanental gas equation: PV=RT Since for a unit mass of gas density pis the reciprocal of the volume V, therefore: Dip = RY orp = PRT where Vis the volume, T the absolure temperature and R the gas constant for the particular gas. Substituting the values of the gas constant for dry aic R = 2.87 * 10, 1SA sutface Dressure 1013.25 hPa and temperarore 15° C (288° K}, the equation gives te density as 1225 gin, Density of Moist Air Being « gas, water vapour obeys the fundamental gas equation, The value of the £18 constant for water vapour is 8/5 times that for dry ait. The total pressure P of Imoist ar inay be regarded asthe sum of che patil pressure (p) exerted by the dry ait and the parcial pressure exerted by the water vapour (c). Then from éhe gas equation Density of water vapour i SeSRT Densicy dry ait, having parcial pressure (p — e) 5 (p-yRT, Density of the moise air (the sum of the above two) : 348.4 (p ~ 3e8) /T ‘Thus tke moist air has a lower density than dry air under similar conditions of Pressure and cemperature, Since the effect of humidity on density is smal it can be ignored for the aviation purposes. Factors affecting Densicy. Air density is aected by che following thee factors: Alriude. The higher the altitude, te less dense che ait is. Temperature, The warmer the ait, the les dense it is, Hlumidiey. [es not a major factor in affecting density, yee humid airs lighter ‘han dry air. Ahh temperanue, the atmosphere can eraina high water vapor aAvlaTION MetzoRoLoGY patent, If humidiy is high, ics wise co add 10% to che computed takeoff distance and anticipate reduced climb care, ‘Variations in Surface Density ‘Atagiven pressure, the density is inversely proportional othe absolute temperature, ‘The warm ait is thus comparatively lighter and the cold ae is heavier, Variations in density during a day occur due to the diurnal variation of temperature. The lowest densities acer in the afternoon and the highest just afte sunsise. Seasonal density changes eccur due to variations in temp. and pressure, Tris noteworehy that a decreese of density of about 1 per cent is produced by a {all of pressure of 10 hPa, by an increase of temperature of 3° C, or bya increase in height of 300 feet, Variation of Density wich Height Tm ISA the density decreases wich height ar all eves, The decrease at Lower levels for 1000 fis pproximacely 3 % ofthe value for any given level, Ths rule give good approximation up to about 20,000 feet. Lfthe density ofthe air was to remain uniform with beight, the atmosphere would extend up 108 km. Bot since density decreases with height, atevery 5-6 km itreduces 10 is previous half value kis 12 of the surface value at 6 kin, 1/4 ac 11 km and 1/8 at 17 km. However, at 240 km also there is sufficient density to offer resistance. Its, hetefore, believed that the atmosphere extends up to about 800 km. Latitudinal Variation Density of air at sta level is lowest near che equator and greatest at che poles. This distribution is maintained unto abont 8.0 kin. Above 8,0 km. reversal occurs and the density becoming more near che equator chan at poles(higher latitudes). This vwillmean: Forsiterft wid ow cruising altitudes (piston engine type the operational efficiency at any level would be greater in high lastudes than in the tropics For aitcrat with high crising altisudes Get airezaf the operational efficiency would be greater in the tropics than ar high latitudes, . 38 Bs. 6. yw. ws |. Density is . Above 8 km density is. AIR Density QUESTIONS ON AIR DENSITY ar poles than equator (b) Lower [a)Higher () Same sw at oles than st equstor (a)Highee (b) Lower (6) Same ‘The sltude in ISA at wich air denspy is che same as the observed density is called (@) Density Abinude (0) ISA Density (©) Real Density Density is usually expressed as. @) Kebq 40) gfea m (0) Nig m Higher densicy altitude means... density (a) Higher 0) Lower ( Same For given pressure and temperature moist air has density (o) Higher (0) Lower (9 Same Ac is ess denser in (@) High Altitudes (o} Warm Ait (0) High usidicy () All hese Density ‘altiude may be defined as: (@) The alimade in a standard atmosphere at which che peevailing presute occurs, (6) The altitude in a standard atmosphere ac which the prevailing densiy occur. (@) Suriace of constant aumospheric pressure relaced co standasd atmosphere of 1013.2 hPa ANSWERS. x»HUMIDITY ‘Water vapour is always present in the ait to a greater or lesser extent, in the Toposphere: This water vapour pay very mponanczole inal the atmosphere Processes, ‘ater evaporates ino the ai rom oceans, ake, rivers, vegetation ec ir atcends and forms clonds which cause precipitation, The water cyl is thus completed, ‘Water exis in hoe pass: che gas (water vapour), liquid (in, diz, shower} 8andsolid (snow, hai). The capacity of dry aco hold wate vapour depends largely them berature and to some exten on pressure. Higher the temperature higher is the capacity of sit to hold the water vapout ‘Various terms used for describing water concenc in the atmosphere are: Dey Air. Ait that conzains no water vapour is called dey ait Such an air nay exist in the upper troposphere or stratosphere, Moist Air. The notmat ai, that we breathe i the mois aie. Ie is also called ‘osarurated or dry ae at she existing temperature and pressure, Saturated Air. Ais lke a sponge which can absorb cern amount of water and ‘move. When their holds maxinum water vapour, iis called saturved aie Measurement, Humidity is measured by che instruments Poychrometer and Hygcomerer, and is recorded by Hygrograph. — 0 Huai ‘Vapour Pressure, The pata preswute exerted by water vapour in the ai called apont pressure, Ip isthe total pressure of ait and eis the vapour pressure, cen (+) isthe pressuce of dry air. Sarason Vapour Pressure, I is the pressure exerted by water vapour when aic is sacunied Absolute Humidity. 1cis defined as the aceual amount of water vapour contained ‘ inagiren volume of air ata given temperature. tis expresed in gn Humidity Mixing Ratio, Iris defined as the mass of water vapour concained in a. aiven mass of air. leis expressed as g/kg, Humidity Mixing Ratio for Sarurated Air. Iis defined as the maximum mass of ‘water apour shat can be conrained ina given mass of ac ata pariularmperaene and pressure. Its also expressed a8 gk of dry ait Relative Humidity. Is defined ashe ratio, in percentage, ofthe actual ware vapour Present in che ait to che maximum it cam eoatain at the same temperature and pressure, RH (96) (Humidity Mixing Ratio x 100) / (Hurni lity Mixing Ratio for Saturated Ait) RH (6) = (Vapour pressuee of air x 100}/ (Saturation Vapour Pressure of Air) NerBub Temperature (T,,). Ie isthe lowest temperature which ar would atain by evaporating water into ito sancti, Desert coolers work on thi principe Dryer the air more effective would be the cooling Dew Point Temperature (TT). Is the lowesc temperarate to which ait should be cooled at constant pres to saturaeit with respect co water. Cooling below Dew Point (DP) causes condensation, PP sory affected by change in water content, whereas RM is affected by change in warer concent and temperature both DP is higher if air contains move water vapous, By cooking or warming she air, RH changes but DP does not change, aLAVIATION MeTIoROLogY tost Point. Is ehe temperaure eo which ae aust be cooled to reach satnetion with respect co ice, Cooling below the frost Point causes formation of host frost. Icis important to note that: As the temperate ofthe ai ncreses, the amount of water vapour required to saturate it also increases. ‘Ac bro temperatures water molecules have inore nergy and a greater degree of freedom shan ce, consequently the stration vapour presure ovr wate drops is more chan that over the ice particles. If water drops and ice particles co-exic, ‘ater drops ill evaporate and condense onthe ice particles. Ths principle ig applied in explaining canfall from clouds which extend above 0 °C level in the ‘mosphere and have both supercooled water deops and ice cystals co existing Sinall ware droplets can exist in super cooled state inthe clouds up to —40° C and in CB clouds up to ~ 45° C., For saturated si; (in Fog, during in) Aic temperature (TT) = Wet Bulb (Tw Tw) = Dew point (Td Td) For Unsaturated air: Dry Bulb Temperature > Wet Bulb > Dew Point ‘With the increase of temperance the saturation humidity mixing catio ako increases Hrnicity Mixing Ratio remains constant when ac is lifted adisbatiealy, if there is no addition or removal of water vapour, QUESTIONS ON HUMIDITY Ql. The raion % between the amount of water vapour present in she air eo the amount of water vapour that i can hold atthe same temperature is (@) Hamidiey (0) Relive fuming {6} Dew point G2 The semperstrs co which sir be cooled at consent presre ro become sturste, is called (2) Wee bul cemperarure ©) Dry bulb temperatuce (Dew point @) Humidity a Hunipiry % Fiseairemperature, Wer bulb temperature and Dew pine ‘emperanice are equal shea (a) Air temperature is °C (b) Relative humidity is 10096 {0 Ar cemperature isnot below O°C On a eainy day compared to sonny day the length of cunvey tequited is @) More (b) Less (9 Same QS. The sorend (difference) berween Free ait tem Perarute and Dew point temperacure wheo air is saturated (b) Lease (Some 6. "The smurition vapour peesare over Wate iS ony than the ce (0) More (6) Less (© Same Q7 A the temperature ofthe st increases, the amount of water vapour required to sarurae (0) decreases (0) increaces (6) remains same QB. The semal amount of water vapour conttined in a fempecaeure if tet 8 oer (@) Ratative Humidity (b) Specific Humidity (6) Absolute Humidity 8. Humiiy Mixing Ratio... when ait lied adnbaally (2) decreases (6) semains constant (6) inceeases aiven volute of air at a given QUO. te isthe lowest temperature which air would attain by evaporating water into i to sarurate it, (@) Wer bulb temp (6) Dry bulb temp (© Dew point ANSWERS Qtlo2 3 4 5 6 7 9 Ab er boa 86 WINDS In che atmosphere a moves horizontally and vertically The horizontal mavernent ofthe aris called wind, The wind is closely related tothe horizon variation of Pressure and consists ofa succession of strong winds (gusts) and weak winds (lls, Tehas evo components: the Dircerion and the Speed, Wind Ditection ‘The direction of the wind isthe direction from which wine is blowing or wind is ‘coming from, A So ‘W.Wind direction is ‘Wind Speed Wind speedis expressed in nautical mile pechour (knot) The relationship herveen the alternative speed units are:- Akmh = 0.278 mps = 0.540 kt (konh — kilometre per hours mps - metre per sscond) ‘Wind speed is generally seprced at an interval of 05 kt a follows: O°2 kas Calms 03-07 kt a5 05 Kis 08-12 ke a8 10 kt son, 48052 ras 50 ke ere, winps Gross Wind, Runways ace oriened along the most prevling win ditetons ofa local, based on the cimatologcl records, However, sometimes, expecially during dvese weather and tans seasons, he winds deviate from these crectona ‘wind 90° othe runway in use is calle Cross Wind Component, Citcl cross components for each type of aircraft are specified. Great caution is exerviged ‘ereer this value exceeds, Crosswinds tend co sing the aircraft doing take offard landing, especially lighter aircraft, Instruments for Measuring Wind ‘place wind sped is measured by Anemometer and Wind diection by Wind Mane: Upper winds are measured by - RAWIN and Plo Balloon equipment These drogen filed balloon are racked by RADAR and Optical Theodalite especie, Exposure of Wind Instruments To tecord surface wind che Anemometer and Wind Vane are installed ata height Of 10 m, in an area free of obstructions. The wind is averaged for 10 minutes for all weather observations, For take off and landing purpose, however, the wind ie averaged for 2 minutes. Gust and Lull A gues aniregular and rapid uration inthe wind, Gusts ate caused by che furbulance due tothe grou frition ad by che nneven heating ofthe ground, spesialy in the hot afternoons. The positive fluctuations ate called Gusts and the negative fluctuations Lalls, Figure 6.1. our Mean Wind UL, Figure 6.4 Gust and Lal 4sAVIATION MeteoROLocy Squat Squall is defined as the sudden inctease in wind speed by 32 kmh (16 ke, 08 mps), Should ast for one minute ot more and speed should increase to 44 kmh (22 be, 11 mips) oF more. Squall is associated with large CB clouds and violent convective activity. Squall extend some kn horizontally and several thousands of eet vertically Both speed and direccion in squall may cffer widely from che prevailing winds Violent squalls ace experienced in Norwestets, Thunderstorm (TS) and Dusttotmn {0S) from March so June, Line squalls occur ahead of Cold Feontsand sometines with the Norwesters, ‘The main difference between squalls and gusts iste duration. Agustisa transient ‘Rereass in peed lasting for afew seconds, ce squall i an increase in wind lasting for some minutes. A squall is associated with CB ot Thundeserorm and may be accompanied by 4 marked drop in tenipeature and precipitation, ‘Strong sudden squalls are more dangerous than the strong meanhvinds. A parked aircraft may easily sustain a gale (defined as persistent mean wind of 34 knot or more) but may not sustais a squall or sudden gus of say 60 kt, eventhough the ‘mean wind may not ceach gale force, Gale Gales defined os the persistent mean wind of speed 34 ktor more. Ir isassocated with depressions and cyclonic storms, Backing and Vecring, Backing the change of wind diestion anticlockwise, eg, wind diecion changing £m 090° ro 60° or From 270° ro 160 ete. Conversely, change af wind direction f and the actual wind V is greater than Y, for the sume Pressure gradient. Or in other words the gradient wind is Super geostropicin an anticyclone {the iobars are stsight and parallel he gradient wind equals the geostrophic wind, ‘When, asin lower latitudes, the Coriolis terms negligible the gradient wind equal to the Cyclosteophic wind, : {sellobaric Wind, When the pressor changes rapidly the geostrophic and gradient ‘les do nor apply. n sucha case another force called Isallabaie Force cores inn play. This forces directed from higher isallobaro che lower iallobar. Ths dfleces wind towards che falling pressure, The wind under che influence of B,fand the Tsallobari force is called the Isallobsric wind. Inertial Wind Ic is a frictionless flow under the balance between the Centitugal Force and the Cotiolis Fores, and thereisno Pressure Gradient Force. The constant Inertial ing speed V, is given by Wins ‘where fis the Coriolis Force and R the radius of curvature (Wradius) of the path. The inertial flow is Anticyclonie in both the hemispheres. Effect of Sucface Friction The cough earth causes friction, Depending upon the wind speed, lpse rate and foughnes ofthe surface, the effet of fiction may extend in the atmosphere up ‘© about 1 kin This layer is called friction layer, The thickness of this layer is ‘ariable, Within the fiction layer the wind slows down and the Coriolis Force ‘educes proportionately and is insufficient to balance the pressure gradient force. The wind is, therefore, deflected towards the low pressure and the flow becomes cross isobaric, Figute 6.5. Presee Gratien Force 4 [7 we win Fiction Corns Force 1004 Pa UEFCT OF FRICTION ON wi Pressuce Graeme Force 3002, hts CCavois Force GEostRoPHic WIND, Figure 6.5 Effect of Friction ou Geostropbic Wind Asa rongh rule: over the sea, where feition is small, che surface wind blows at athouc 15°10 theisobas while its speeds about vo thitds ofthe geostrophic peed. Ove the land frtion is greater, the inclination tothe isobasis about 30° and peed |s 13 co 1/2 the geostrophic value, Turbulence and Gustiness Winds seldom steady. Ie ucaates, The peak fluctuations ar called che Gusts and the lowest che Lufls. The width ofthe fuetuations beeween gusts and lulls an indication ofthe degree of gustiness. The ar flow with such fluctuations i termed as turbulent. 3hAVIATION METEOROLOGY ‘Types of Turbalence ‘There are evo eypes of turbulence or gustines, viz. Frictional and Thermal, When the speed of he stream is low, the flow remains smooth ot lamina, but scien the Speed stupasies a certain lini che flow becomes unstable, Eddies fom and dsife away into the stream, making the flow turbulent, The thermal expe of curbulence is caused by the convection cusrents. due co sucface heating, The heating may resale rom insolation over the land or from the passage of a relatively cool mass of air over a warmer land or sea surface, Factors affecting Turbulence [he urbolence and the thicknes ofthe rcton layer ate accentuated by low over buildings, recs or ragged country. The eddies so created involve both vertical sad horizontal velocities, They develop more esl when the lapse rte is seep, Open Senor celatvely smooth ground, light wind and stable lapse rate are unfavourable ferrbulene, The thera cubulenc sles on cool suface and sable annoephere, Over land she wuzbulenceis more by day when the lapse eae is te and lene on a clear night with an inversion, ‘Turbulence and Aircraft To the occupants ofan aircrafy,urbulenceis recognized as bumpines, In torbulent Condition the landing and eaking off of aictae may be difficult due to sudden changes in wind, ‘Thermal Eddies Zhe eddies of thermal origin are often of large dimensions and produce stronger esis than thse produced by fection, They are more nodceable by occupant of au alreratchan the retinal eddies. They may also extend to considerable highs when che lapse rate is favourable, Diurnal Va tion of Surface Wind (effect of Temperatuce and Friction, Daring ay the convection due ro groond heating creates theamal edie. Thee dies cause turbulence and serch the fiction Iyer upwards and slacken the Itictional effec, 2 wins ‘The turbulence enables the upper level stroug winds, above the friction layer, co descend eo the surface, making it stcongand gusty. Ira backs and slighty weaker than the tpper At hight the chermals die down, and friction layu stinks close he surface. Due *0 ition the surface wind blows actss the soar. The fiction layer also prohibits the upper stong winds fom penetrating tothe sac. The surface vind i therefore, weak ond backs. There may be marked wind shea around $00 m, with strong winds above and weak winds below, which i seious an aviation boeaed. There is no observable diurnal variation over che sea (only about 1° ©), and alse ver the land when skies are continuously overcast, In such eases the sus face winds are nearly che samie during day and night. ‘The diurnal vasiaron is most spparentin fine weather, clear night and sunny days, ‘Wind Shece (W'S) ‘The change of wind direction andor peedin ashore distance is called wind shear WS at lower levels close to ranway has caused mtmerous ait accidents WS ig normally associated with thunder storm, microbust, toradoes, warerspoucs, gust Kconts, roms, topography; cemperatue inversion, mountain waveset. li eereined by dopplertadar, and appropite sensors. Arca ying in che affected nes provide useful information on. WS. This enables Mer authorities to issue WS warning for the safety of other aircratt in fligh LOCAL WINDS DUE TO TOPOGRAPHY Fohn wind Isis forced over the rop ofa mountain bate, the adiabatic oolng may lead co the formation of cloud ard precipitation. Wihin the cloudy, de rsing ai cols st the saturated adiabatic lapse rate (SALR). [some of the condensed weer falls one ‘Precipitation and the air descends on the le slopes, chen the late heat liberated dhring condensation is party used oevaporae che loud droplets in the descending at After cloud disappears the descending sit warmsup ache dry aiabaticlapse ae (DALR). The more the precipitation on the ‘mountain, the warmer the air gets on descent. The local name for these warm dry winds in the Alps sth Fol, 3AviaTION. METEOROLOGY ‘In big mountains the Fobn wind may be 10° C ot mote warmer, ‘The Chinook of the Rocky mountains isan example of Fohn wind, Dry wind may not produce Folin. ‘wind. For Fokn wind co oceur itis essential that: (a) there is substantial mountain ‘ange (b) wind blows within 30° of the range and fc) wind kas high moisture content. Anabatic and Katabatic Winds Duting the day,a mountain slope is heated by the sun. "The air in contact becomes ‘warmer than the wind a he same level. Ici therefore lighter and tends to ascend the slope, Such ascending winds are called Anabatie Winds. As the Anabati winds ace masked by irregular convection, dey may aotbe fle clealy, except where they ‘ate intensified by the funnel effec ofa valley. In such cases they aze called Valley winds, On a coastline an up-slope wind may be augmented by the sea breeze. ANABATIC, kataparic A 7 FOHN WIND COLD WIND DRY AND. . WARM Figure 6.6 Awabaickatabatic and Fok Winds ‘The reverse of Anabatic wind is the down slope Katabatic Wind, During night, due to nocturnal cooling the mountain slope becomes cold, The air in contact also becomes colder chan the wind atthe same level in che free trmosphere, s it sinks. Adown slope wind sersin, called Katabatic wind. leis a natural phenomenon, Even in gently sloping county cold Kuabatc wind eccurs om a ele quiet night, The\, speed of che wind may be not more than a few knots, b ‘on low lying ground, causing local frost, mist and fog, forms pools of cold. (Over NE parts of India Katabatic winds are common and cause fog and TS in the ‘morning. s4 Wins Ifthe mountair. slope is snow covered, the Katabatic wind ‘may occur during the day time as well asa night. Bora, an offshore wind on the northern shores ofthe Adtiatic, 's4 Katabtie wind, Itsets in suddenly, and feequently reaches well over gale foree ith guss of over 1001t.tisextremely dangerous to shippingandlow yng sera, Similar winds also occur onthe const of Greenland and the shoves of Black sen, ‘The distinconberween the Fohn and the Katabatic winds is thatthe formers warm and dry while the later is cold, Both are down slope winds off high ‘ground, © Ravine winds ‘These occur in and near ravines or narrow valleys which penetrate a mountain barrier. When there isa pressure difference, evel for level between the two sides ofthe barr, sic is impelled chongh the ravineby the pressute gradient Such winds imay be very stong not only inthe ravine bu also after leaving its mouth, Land Breeze and Sea Breeze Due to the diurnal variation of empetature in coastal areas, he wind blows from the sea towards he land doring the day-cime, called Sea Breeze, and from rhe land ‘towards the sea during nigh, called Land Breeze. ‘Acer sunrise the land becomes warmer. The ait overland stat rising due co convection, The pressure aloft becomes slightly greacer than before, Ths cause the "upper ar to drift from the land rowards the sea, The surface pressure over the sea slightly increases and reduces, over the land. In consequence wind stars bowing from sa wo land as sea breve. At night reverse happens duc to radiative cooling and land breeze sets in, “The sea breeze cften sets in abruptly afew hours after the suntse. If there isan off stote wind its onsets delayed, uni he afternoon, The breeze generally brings sharp fll of temperature and an increase of humid. The breeze is sometimes gusty Ie ‘raul extend 15-25 km on either side ofthe cost line. Due wo peculiar topography ‘hesea rere, may have peater extent over the land. Case in example ig Pane, about 1/0 ka fom Mumba, where seabreere is observed in te afternoons. In ropes and Subteopics, where prevailing winds ate normally light, sea breeze occutss 4 routine, The sea breeze is initially directed pespendiculac to the coast. Later on, as the Coriolis effect becomes apparent, i tends to align along the coastline, with che land (on the left (righ: in the S ~ hemisphere). The sea-breeze weakens after the sunset 35AVIATION METEOROLOGY and after a few hours is replaced by the land breeze. In che cropies land breezes axe usualy light and do not develop wich the regularity ofthe sea breezes, They may even be imperceptible, On some occasions the effect of the sea-breeze extends ro 3000 or 5000 feet. The ‘warmer air from the land lifts over the cooler air from che sea and a line of small camuliform cloud develop..1c has small dimensions and although of use ro glider pilos, its effect goes unnoriced by powered aircraft. The and brceze is shallower than searbteeze, and does not extending above a few hundred feet. ‘Wind and Contoues ‘The lines joining equal heights are called Contouts, Over warm atmosphere a contour will beat a higher height and over cald at lower height. Heights of a Particular pressuce valu, say 500 hPa, vay from place to place depending on the vatiations in cemperarure, ‘The consour lines depict centres of High and Low heights, in exactly the same way as height of ground is indicazed on a survey map. ‘A contour lin is horizontal and the pressure is the same at all the points on the line. Thos contour line, of height say 5520 m, isan isobar in che horizontal sutface atthat height. The geostrophic wind blows along the contours wich the lower value onouts on the left in the N hemisphere and oivthe tight in the S hemisphere Thecontour charts can be used for determining cyclostrophic and gradient winds, The limitations ofthe geostrophic rule equally apply to the contour charts ‘Thermal Wind ‘The ermal wind in ayeris defined as that wind which mustbe added vecoraly forthe geoserophie wine ache lower level inorder to obtain the geostrophic wind at the upper level. ‘Ismay be recalled cha the rule for vector addition i : Draw one vector, from the head of this vector draw the other vector. Join the rl of the ftst vector ro the head of the second vector, For vector subtraction the above tule applies, excep hat the direction ofthe second vector is reversed, a8 in Fig 6,7 below : 56 wins © A 3 ~ 7s a AbBeC AvBac Figure 6.7 Vector Addivon and Subtaction Thermal Wind (V) isthe vector difference of lower leve), |geoscrophic wind (Vo) fron: ‘he upper level geostophic wind (V), which blows parallel to isotherms, keeping low temperature to the left in the N hemisphere, ‘Thermal Windis the vertical geostrophic wind shear in an atmosphetie layer The term ‘herrmal wind nas been adopted because the wind shear is determined by the mean temperature in the layer. Ici a fictitious wind which blows paralle co the thickness {ines (man sochecms) keeping low thickness (low temperature) onthe left in the N. hemisphere. The speed of thermal wind i proportional ro the romperature gradient. Figure 6.8 Ther Wind Example : Calculation of Upper Level Wind LowerLeve Wind | ‘Thermal Wind | Upper Level Wind will be 270/10ke 270/15 ke 270)N0kt #270/35 kx = 270025 ke 70/1044 090/15 ke 270/t0ke + (270/15 ta) = -270/05 kt = 090405 ke Tables. Tf che south is warm and the north is cold, a temperature geadienc acts from S ro Non sucha case the thermal wind will be westerly. [fsuch tenperarure distribution ‘continues inthe higher levels also che thermal wind will continue to be westerly 7AVIATION MereoRoLoay {fom level to level and keep on increasing wich height. The subtropical westerly Jet streams 9 example of thermal wing Variation of Wind with Height Eascery winds prevail above $00 hPa level ducing the monsoon monte {Avgustand Seprember), which strengthen with height. They ace weaker SAAN todia and songer over the S Inia. ‘Tropical Eascerlyjtsteam len rear 23 letitad at abont 25 km. les poston, however, fluctuates N and during the season, Outside tropics iow level westerly winds usually increase with height with litele change indirection. On the other hand easterlies rend to weaken and eventuaily ‘hecome westerly. Due to this the easterlies are often shallows ‘westerly chermal wind aso implis thar northerly winds would backe with height and southecly winds would veer Fn sinters, dhe speed of the westettis above the tropopause reduces and eventually bocome Ely, which strengchen with height. The strongest westeties in troposphere Serer ac about 40,000 fen abel benveen 25 N-40N, Dueto weak ehemnal gradienn Sees isbeofsonger winds shifss0 40-45, Tere isalmos cinardsbion of winds in the S hemisphere but with a smaller seasonal varation ie speed. {n the low stratosphere in winters, cemperaite i lowest in polar regions and from he iesen 40a 60" atte. Hence, westerly winds increase wth eight from che xopospheeinto he stratosphere In ower lasudes,equnonvaee ofthe “eperacue maximum, westely decrease with height above the tropopause, {nthe summer hemisphere, temperatures inthe suatosphere are highest in the polar ‘esions and lowest over the ropics resulting in an easterly cherial wine Vorticity Vorticity is a measure of rotation or turning, The rotation can be eyclonic or anticyclonnic. Voricty plays a imporcane roe in she formation and development 58 Wings of weather ystems, sucha clones, depressions, antcyelones, ‘Change in Vorticity auses divergence and convergence. Iris caused by + (@) Horizontal Wind Shear : When a bee of strong winds lies slong side a beh offighter winds, he faster flow rates around the slower lon i may Seojlonic or anteyclonnc dependingonthe orientation oftherwo ane (©) Curvature of the Flow : Flow around a curve has cyelonic Vorticiey when ai deflects et (asin a trough inthe Neispher td anteylorsie (G5 in a tidge) when it deflects to right. (©) Rotation ofthe Earth. Earth rotates fom W to (anticlockwise, which Absolute Yorticity, It is che sum of all the above vortictes, Since Vortcity due to cart s always cyclonic, and it predominates, the absolue Vanity always cyclonic, Beaufort S:ale ‘The Beaufore Force (BF) scale as adopted by Admiral Beaufort to estimate wind force is as follows:- BrScale Speed at 10 m (ki) BEScale Speed at 10 m te) 0 ain “1 7 NearGile 28-33 2 hear 1-3 8 Gale 34-49 2 Ligh breeee 4-6 9 Strong Gale 41-47 3 Gentle breeze 7-10 10 Som 48-55 § Moderuetreeze 11-16 —‘Vilene Storm 36 263 5 Fash reese (7-21 12 Hurdcane 64 of more 6 Seong brecee 2.7 Tables.2 Names of Winds of the World Bora Cold Katabatic wind that originaes in che mountains ‘of Yugoslavia and NE Traly and flows in the coastal plans of she Adriatic sea, Buran (Russian Buran Teukish Bora) : Serong NEly wind in Rosi and central ‘sia. Te oceus most frequently in winters and often blows snow Ge then called ‘Pug’, 9AVIATION METEOROLOGY Chinook, Warm dry Why wind on the eastern side of Rocky Mountains Dol Drams - Calm wind near Equator where opposing ttade winds converge. Haboob- (Arabic hubbub: blowing furiously): Any strong wind which raises sand into a sand storm, particulary in Suda, Harmattan, Hot dusty NEly wind in central Asis. Khamsia: Oppresiv, hor, dr often laden with snd, Sly wind over Egype Apr - Jone, : Mistral: A well known Katabatic wind which descends: from snow clad Alps down ‘he Rhone River Velly of France and into Gulf of Lyons along the Medicerranean coast. Monsoon. Any markedly seasonal wind, particulatly in E and SE Asia. Roaring Fortcs. These are Wly winds which blowin both the hemispheres between 35° and 60° lat In § hemisphere they are of a very stormy nature beyond 40° lat throughout the yea. In the olden days suilocs called them Roaring Forties ot Brave ‘West Winds, Furious Fifties, and Crying Ssces, since ches winds crested very avsy sorroundings and were not favourable to them. ‘Trades. Steady wind blowing between lastudes 10° and 30° from the NE in N hemisphere and fcom SE in hemisphere. They were of importance to sailing ships, hence were called ‘wind that blows trade’ by rvigatorsin 18th century. Trade winds

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