Chapter v - The theory of production

Introduction - Production refers to a process by which goods and services are made available to
consumers. In other words, it refers to conversion of raw material into finished goods. And to
produce goods and services firm needs following inputs
1. Labour – skilled and unskilled labour and entrepreneur’s efforts
2. Material – steel, plastic, electricity, water etc
3. Capital – machinery, building, land, inventories and other equipments

One should know that Material is known as non factor inputs and capital and labour
together is known as factor inputs. Therefore, to produce goods firm needs factor inputs and
non-factor inputs.
This relationship between output of a good and its determinants is known by a technical term
called production function

Production function
“It is the technical relationship between factor inputs and output under given technology
and given factor price. It explains in what proportion, factor inputs should be combined to
increase the production”.

Generally, the production function of goods in the form of equation is written as

Q = f (V, L, K, R, E, S, T) where;
V = level of output
L = Labour and it bears direct and positive relationship with the level of output
K = Capital and it bears direct and positive relationship with the level of output
R = raw material and it bears direct and positive relationship with level of output
E = Efficiency and it bears inverse relationship with level of output
S = Land and it bears direct and positive relationship with level of output
T = Technology and it bears inverse relationship with level of output

But by assuming that a firm needs only two inputs labour (L) and capital (K), the production
function is written as Q = f (L, K)
For example, the production function of wheat can be written as by assuming it needs labour and
tractor Qw = f (L, K)
Therefore, now we can define production function as:

Properties of production function:

1. It includes only technical efficient inputs that leads to minimum cost of production

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 2. It specifies either the maximum output that can be produced with the given inputs or
minimum inputs required to produce a given level of output
3. Production function is always defined with respect to given technology.
4. Production function expresses flow of output resulting from inflow of inputs in a specific
time period

All factor inputs and non factor inputs that are used in production process are of two types

a) Variable factors - These factors are those factors which are directly related to the
volume of output and amount of these factors can be changed easily in short run such as
labour, fuel and raw material, electricity supply etc.
b) Fixed factors - These factors are not directly related to the level and volume of
production and amount of this factor can’t be changed in short run like plant and
machinery, land and building etc.

Therefore, production function is studied in following three time periods

1. Market period – It refers to a time period which is so short that it is not possible to
change the level of output by changing any factor of production in response to increase in
demand of the commodity produced and sold by the firm.
2. Short period – According to Samuelson it refers to a time period in which a firm can
change the output by changing only variable factors of production such as labour, raw
material, fuel, electricity etc., in response to increase in demand for the commodity
produced and sold by the firm. In such time period supply curve of the firm is less elastic.
The change in output in short run is known as change in level of output. In short run
factors of production are divided into two categories (a) Variable factors and (b) Fixed
factors. In short run, demand for a commodity plays major role in determining the price
of commodity as supply is relatively inelastic.
3. Long run – Long run – it refers to a time period in which output can be changed by
changing all factors of production proportionally. The change in output in such time
period is known as change in scale of output, supply curve in such time period is more
elastic. All factors of production are variable. Both demand and supply play significant
role in price determination

TIP – TOP - Knowledge enhancement

The actual length of short run can not be told. It can vary from 1 hour to 10 hours to 2 years to 10
years and so on. It depends upon how long fixed factors iof production take to become variable
in supply.
Example – a firm with a machinery and with the use of 10 units of labour and 80 kg of raw
matrial can produce maximum 100 units of chair.
At present as per the level of demand is producing only 30 units of chair with the use of 4 units
of labour and 50 kg of raw material. Let us suppose demand for chair rises by 60 units
Therefore now firm needs tp produce 90 units of chair which is within productive capcaity of
machine. So firm can produce this unit of chair just by chnaging variable factors like raw
material and units of labour. However if demand for chair would have increased by 80 units then
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firm requires to produce 110 units of chair which is beyond productive capapcity of firm now
employing more units of laboura and raw material firm can’t produce 110 units of chair, for this
firm needs to change machinery. Hence firm is operating in short run now.

Types of production function

In short run anaylsis production function is divided in two types

1. Short run production function – It shows the technical relationship between change in
level of output due to change in varaiable factors of production only, keeping the amount of
fixed factors constant. It is also known as “varaiable proportion type” production function,
since factor proprtion are changed.
Mathematically : Short run production function = f( L, K )
Where L = labour, which is a variable factor of production

K = captal , which is fixed factor of production

2. Long run production function - It shows the relationship between change in scale of
output due to change in all factors of production. It is also known as “constant proportion
type’ production function since factor proprtions are not changed.

Mathematically: long run production function = f( L, K )

Where L = labour, which is a variable factor of production

K = captal , which is variable factor of production

Land Labor Factor

Ratio

2 1 2:1

2 2 2:2

2 3 2:3

2 4 2:4

2 5 2:5

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Main types of output

The production function showing relationship between inputs and output can be explained in
terms of total physical product, average physical product and marginal product.

1. Total Physical Product: It refers to the total volume of goods and services produced
during specified period of time.
TP = ∑ MP or

2. Average Physical Product: It is obtained when we divide total output by the quantities
of a variable factor.
AP = TP / L Here, L = labour i.e., No. of units of variable factor

3. Marginal Physical Product: It is the addition to total product by the employment of an

additional unit of a variable factor.
MP = TPn - TPn-1

Relationship between TP, AP, MP with the help of a schedule and graph

The relationship between TP, AP, and MP can be explained with the help of following imaginary
schedule and diagram

Hypothetical schedule of TP, AP and MP

Land and capital(fixed factor) Units of labour TP MP AP

(variable factor)
1 1 3 3 1
1 2 7 4 3.5
1 3 12 5 4
1 4 16 4 4
1 5 19 3 3.6
1 6 19 0 3.1
1 7 17 -2 2.4

Relationship between MP and TP

1. When with the increase in units of variable factors, MP of additional unit of labour
increases TP rises at increasing rate ( till 3rd unit of output)
2. After a certain level of output (from 4th unit onwards), when MP starts falling, TP starts
increasing at a diminishing rate. When MP becomes 0 (at 6th unit), TP becomes
maximum. Therefore as long as MP remains positive, TP rises.
3. When MP becomes negative (at 7th unit), TP starts falling and AP keeps on falling but
remains positive. Its economic meaning is that additional labour slows down the
production process.

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Relationship between MP and AP

1. When with the increase in units of variable factors, MP of additional unit of labour
increases AP rises at increasing rate ( till 3rd unit of output) but rise in MP > rise in AP.
2. When AP becomes equal to MP (at 4th unit), AP attains its maximum value and becomes
constant.
3. When MP starts falling, AP also falls but fall in MP > fall in AP
4. MP can be zero and negative but AP can never be zero or negative since TP always
remains positive.

Diagrammatically

1. When MP increases, TP increases at increasing rate till point A ( point of inflexion). Both
AP and MP increases but the rate of increase in MP is more than rate of increase in AP
2. When MP curve changes its slope from point of inflexion ( ponit A), TP starts increasing but
at a diminshing rate ( from point A to point H). AP curve keeps on rising and MP curve lies
above it.
3. When MP curve cuts AP curve, AP becomes maximum and constant. Therefore MP curve
can cut AP curve at its maximum point only because as long as AP rises MP lies above it
and when AP falls MP lies below it.
4. After MP = AP both start falling but rate of fall in MP is more than rate of fall in AP
5. When MP = 0, TP becomes maximum and AP falls but remains poistive and TP keeps on
rising at diminishing rate.
6. When MP becomes negative, TP falls. Its economic meaning is that additional labour slows
down the production process.

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AP and MP in a single diagram and their relationship

a) Due to epmployment of varibale factors on fixed factors both AP and MP increases, but
rate of increase in MP is more than that of AP as MP curve lies above AP curve
b) When MP curve cuts AP curve, AP = MP and AP reaches its maximum point and
becomes constant
c) After MP = AP, both MP and AP fall but rate of fall in MP is more then rate of fall in AP
d) MP curve can cut AP curve at its maximum point only because as long as AP rises MP
lies above it and when AP falls MP lies below it.
e) MP can become zero and negative but AP always remains positive.

The law of variable proportion or diminsihing marginal returns

Introduction - The law of variable proportion was initially called the law of diminishing
returns by Marshall. Marshall applied this law only to agriculture. Joan Robinson, Stigler and
other modern economist called it the law of variable proprtion which could be applied in all
sectors of the economy.

Statement of the law

This law explains the relationship between proportion of fixed and variable input on one hand
and change in level of output on the other hand.
(i) In terms of TP
As more and more units of variable factor are employed with fixed factor, total product initially
increases at an increasing rate then increases at decreasing rate and ultimately starts decreasing.
(ii) In terms of MP

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As more and more units of variable factor are employed with fixed factor, marginal product
initially increases, then decreases but remains positive and falls to zero and finally becomes
negative.
Assumption to the law
1. It opertaes in short run only.
2. All units of variable factors are homogenous
3. Fixed and variable factors are not perfect subsititue of each other.
4. This law applies to all fixed factors including land.
5. The law applies to the field of production only.
6. Only one factor at a time is assumed to be variable.
Various stages of the law of variable proportion can be explained with the help of the
following diagram and table:

Fixed Variable MP TP
factor factor
(Land)
1 0 - -
2 1 3 3 Increasing
3 2 4 7 return
4 3 5 12
5 4 4 16 Decreasing
6 5 3 19 return
7 6 0 19
8 7 -3 16 Diminishing
return

1. First Phase (Increasing Returns to Factor)

It goes from the origin to the point A (point of inflexion) where the marginal product increases
and is the maximum. Here TP increases at an increasing rate. This stage is known as stage of
increasing returns. This stage arises because of better and fuller utilization of fixed factors and
increased efficiency of variable factors.
2. Second Phase (Diminishing Returns to Factor/ Diminishing positive marginal
product)
This stage begins from point A and goes till point B. in this stage MP starts falling but remains
positive due to which TP keeps on rising but at a diminishing rate. In this phase TP becomes
maximum and MP reaches to zero. This phase arises because of optimum combination factors of
production and imperfect substitution of factors.

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 3. Third Phase (Negative Returns to Factor/ Diminishing negative marginal
product)
This phase arises from point B onwards. In this phase total product starts declining and marginal
product becomes negative. This is the stage where total output and marginal output fall. This
phase arises because of overcrowding and management problem.

Stage for a producer/firm

1. A rational firm will never operate in stage I, In phase I, there is a scope of more efficient
utilization of fixed factors and TP rises at increasing rate due to which AP rises. When
price of labour is constant, a rising APL means average cost decreases as output is
increased. It means profit will rise if output is increased further.
2. A rational firm will not operate in stage III because employment of additional unit of
labour cause TP to fall and MP becomes negative, which economic meaning is additional
unit of labor slows down production process.
3. So, the producer will find equilibrium in phase II where MP decreases but remains
positive due to which
a) TP is also maximum under this phase and
b) There is ideal combination of factors and there is maximum efficiency of scare factor
labour.

CHECK YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Give reasons, state whether following statements are true or false

Q1. Why MP curve cuts AP curve at its maximum point?

Ans. MP curve can cut AP curve at its maximum point only because as long as AP rises MP lies
above it and when AP falls MP lies below it.
Q2. AP can rise when MP is declining. True or false give reason
True, AP can rise even when MP is falling and it is possible as long as MP lies above AP
Q3. When MP is less than AP, AP falls. True or false give reason
True, When MP is less than AP, AP falls and rate of fall in MP is more than rate of fall in AP
Q4. AP increases only when MP rises. True or false give reason
False, AP can rise even when MP is declining. MP starts falling from point of inflexion but as
long as MP lies above AP, AP keeps on rising
Q5. When MP falls, AP will also fall. True or false give reason
False, AP can rise even when MP is declining. MP starts falling from point of inflexion but as
long as MP lies above AP, AP keeps on rising
Q6. When MP < AP, AP falls. True or false, give reason
True, When MP is less than AP, AP falls and rate of fall in MP is more than rate of fall in AP
Q7. AP falls only when MP < AP. True or false, give reason
True, because as long as MP lies above AP, AP keeps on rising and when MP = AP and MP
starts falling MP lies below AP and AP starts falling.

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Give reasons, state whether following statements are true or false:

Q1. TP will increase only when MP increases

Ans. False, in second phase of LVP, MP starts falling but TP keeps on increasing at diminishing
rate
Q2. TP and MP both decline in phase of diminishing returns
Ans. False, in second phase of LVP, MP starts falling but TP keeps on increasing at diminishing
rate
Q3. When there are diminishing return to a factor TP always decreases
Ans. False, diminishing return to a factor refers to second phase in which MP starts falling but
remains positive due to which TP keeps on increasing at diminishing rate
Q4. Increase in TP indicates that there are increasing return to a factor
Ans. False, because in first phase TP increases at increasing rate but in second phase when MP
starts falling TP keeps on increasing at diminishing rate.
Q5. Under diminishing return to a factor, TP continues to increase till MP reaches to zero
Ans. True, because due to employment of additional units of variable factor MP keeps on falling
but remains positive due to which TP increases but at a diminishing rate, therefore a firm keeps
on employing more and more units till MP becomes zero and TP reaches to maximum.
Q6. When there are diminishing returns to a factor TP first increases and then start falling.
Ans. False, when there are diminishing returns MP falls but remains positive due to which TP
increases but at a diminishing rate.
Q7. TP always increases whether there is a stage of increasing return or stage of decreasing
return
Ans. True, when there is a stage of increasing return TP increases at increasing rate and when
there is stage of decreasing return, TP keeps on increasing but at a diminishing rate
Q8. A manager of a firm says that due to employment of one more unit of a variable factor TP
starts falling and average product of variable factor also falls. Identify the phase in which firm is
operating and explain this stage with the help of diagram.
Q9. A manager of a firm says that when he employs one more unit of a labour, MP of labour
falls and TP also rise but at diminishing rate. He suggests his management that we should
continue in this stage only and should not employ further units of variable factors. Identify the
stage manager is referring to and explain this stage with the help of diagram
Q10. What do you mean by point of inflexion?

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Point of inflexion is a point from where MP changes its slope and TP starts increasing at
diminishing rate
Reasons for the operation of various phases of law of variable proportion

Reasons for increasing return to a factor

1. Better utilization of fixed factor – When in the beginning the variable factor is relatively
smaller in quantity, some amount of fixed factor remains unutilized. So, when more and
more units of variable factor are employed on fixed factor, the fuller and efficient utilization
of fixed factor become possible due to which both AP and MP rise of variable factor rises
and TP increases at increasing rate.

2. Increased efficiency of variable factors – When there is sufficient quantity of variable

factor, it becomes possible to introduce specialization or division of work which results in
higher productivity. The greater the quantity of variable factor, the greater the scope of
specialization and division of work between different units of variable factors and hence
greater the increase in MP of labour due to which TP rises at increasing rate.

Reasons for diminishing returns

1. Breaking of optimum combination – When the optimum combination of fixed and variable
factors is reached, then further increase in the amounts of variable factors lead to decline in
MP. It is because fixed factor becomes inadequate in relation to the quantity of variable
factor and as a result variable factor gets less and less aid from the fixed factor.

2. Imperfect substitution – Factors of production are not perfect substitute of each other.
Therefore, we can’t substitute more and more units of labour in place of capital and vice
versa. Therefore, beyond the optimum limit they become imperfect substitution which leads
to diminishing return

Reasons for negative returns

1. Overcrowding – if we keep on employing variable factor on a given quantity of fixed

factor, this will lead to overcrowding on the fixed factor. There will be lower availability of
fixed factors per worker and moreover there are too many workers on a given amount of
fixed factor, they will come in each other’s way and disturb others. All these lead to fall in
production.

2. Management problem – Use of too much of a variable factor say labour also creates the
problem of effective management. When there are too many workers, it becomes difficult to
manage them. The labourers can avoid the work

Mathematical proof of relationship between AP, MP and TP

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Knowledge capsule
▪ Law of variable proportion is not applicable to those cases where factors of production must be used in
fixed proportion to yield a product, this is because in such situation increase in one factor would not lead
to any increase in output.
▪ It may be noted that stage I and stage 3 are completely symmetrical. In stage l the fixed factor too much
relative to the variable factor. Therefore. in stage l, marginal product of the fixed factor is negative. On the
other hand, in stage 3 the variable factor is too much relative to the fixed factor. Therefore, in stage 3, the
marginal product of the variable factor is negative.
▪ The Stage of Operation: A rational producer will also not choose to produce in stage l where the
marginal ‘Product of the fixed factor is negative. A producer producing in stage 1 means that at he will not
be making the best use of the fixed factor and further that he will not be utilising fully the opportunities of
increasing production by Increasing quantity of the variable factor whose average product continues to
increase throughout the stage 1. Thus, a rational entrepreneur will not stop in stage 1 but will expand
further.
▪ The statement of non-operation by a rational firm in stage 1 is applicable in case of a firm facing perfect
competition in both product market and factor market where price of both products and goods are fixed
with the change in output. In case of monopoly and imperfect competition where prices of goods and
factors do not remain fixed with the change in level of output, the producer find it more profitable to
operate in stage 1.
Indivisibility and divisibility of fixed factors
Increasing return and decreasing return to a variable factor occur due to indivisibility of fixed factor. Indivisibility
of fixed factor answers the question that why not the fixed factor initially taken in appropriate quantity which
suits the available quantity of variable factor?
• Indivisibility of fixed factor implies that due to technological requirements a minimum amount (how
large it may be) of fixed factor must be employed whatever the level of output.
• If the factors were perfectly divisible, then there would have not been the necessity of taking a large
quantity of fixed factor in the beginning to combine with varying quantities of variable factor. In the
presence of perfect divisibility optimum proportion between factors would have been always achieved.
Perfect divisibility of factor implies that a small firm with small machine and one worker would have been
as efficient as a large firm with large machine and with so many workers.
Applicability of law of diminishing returns
• Law of diminishing returns is applicable in agriculture sector as well as in manufacturing sector,
provided there is no advancement in technology and science. Like in case of developed countries,
despite increase in labour force, average productivity of labour force has increased due to
advancement in technology and science, therefore, this law of diminishing returns is applicable more
in case of developing countries like India, where due to continuous rise in labour force, a given piece
of land becomes inadequate in supply as compared to size of labour force and due to absence of
technological advancement, we see diminishing returns and face food shortage.

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PRODUCTION FUNCTION
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. Which of the following statements accurately describe the relationship between AP and MP?
(a) AP rises when MP is above it and falls when MP is below it.
(b) MP intersects AP at its minimum point.
(c) AP and MP are always parallel to each other.
(d) AP is always rising when MP is falling and vice-versa.

2. When MP is zero, what can you say about TP?

(a) TP is increasing (b) TP is maximum
(c) TP is falling (d) None of the above

3. Marginal Product refers to addition to total output when one more:

(a) Unit is produced (b) Unit is sold
(c) Unit is consumed (d) Unit of variable factor is employed

4. The period of time in which the plant capacity can be varied is known as:
(a) Short run (b) Long run
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) Neither (a) nor (b)
5. _____________is the extension of "Law of Diminishing Returns".
(a) Law of Variable Proportions (b) Law of Demand
(c) Law of Equi-marginal utility (d) Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility
6. Law of Variable Proportions is also known as:
(a) Law of Returns (b) Returns to Variable Factor
(c) Law of Returns to Factor (d) All of these

7. The maximum possible output for a firm with two units of labour (L) and ten units of capital
(K), if its production function is given as: 5L + 2K
(a) 0 units (b) 30 units
(c) 200 units (d) 50 units

8. Identify the phase in which TP increases at an increasing rate and MP also increases.
(a) Increasing returns to a factor (b) Diminishing returns to a factor
(c) Negative returns to a factor (d) None of these

9. Which of the following is not a reason for operation of increasing returns to a factor?
(a) Better utilisation of fixed factor (b) Limitation of fixed factor
(c) Increase in efficiency of variable factor (d) Indivisibility of fixed factor

10. When average product increases, the marginal product is:

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(a) Less than average product (b) Equal to the average product
(c) More the average product (d) None of these
11. What happens to AR when MP is more than AP?
(a) AP rises (b) AP falls
(c) AP remains constant (d) None of these

12. What is the behaviour of TP, when MP becomes negative?

(a) TP increases at an increasing rate (b) TP increases at diminishing rate
(c) TP is at its maximum point (d) TP decreases
13. According to Law of Variable Proportions, there are_____ phases.
(a) 1 (b) 3
(c) 2 (d) 4

14. Average product cannot be negative because:

(a) Total product can never be zero (b) Total product can never be negative
(c) Neither (a) nor (b) (d) Both (a) and (b)

15. The law of diminishing returns refers to an eventual fall in:

(a) Productivity of factors of production (b) Total earnings of the firm
(c) Marginal product of the variable factor (d) None of these
16. The 2nd phase (diminishing returns to a factor) is exhibited by the following total product
sequence:
(a) 50, 50, 50, 50 (b) 50,110,180, 260
(c) 50,100,150,200 (d) 50, 90, 120, 140

17. Which phase of Law of Variable Proportions has been ruled out on the grounds of technical
inefficiency:
(a) Increasing returns to a factor (b) Diminishing returns to a factor
(c) Negative returns to a factor (d) None of these
18. A rational producer always aims to operate in__________ of Law of Variable Proportions:
(a) 18t Phase (Increasing returns to a factor)
(b) 2nd Phase (Diminishing returns to a factor)
(c) 3rd Phase (Negative returns to a factor)
(d) Either 1st Phase or 2nd Phase
19. In general, most of the production functions measures:
(a) Productivity of factors of production
(b) Economical relation between the factors of production
(c) Technical relation between inputs and output.
(d) None of these
20. Product per unit of labour employed is termed as:

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(a) Average product (b) Marginal product
(c) Total product (d) None of these
21. When AP is maximum, MP is equal to:
(a) AP (b) TP
(c) Zero (d) One
22. Variable factors refer to those factors of production:
(a) Which can be only changed in the long run
(b) Which can be changed in the short run
(c) Which can never be changed
(d) None of these
23. Both AP and MP curves are generally:
(a) U-shaped (b) Inversely U-shaped
(c) Rising (d) Falling
24. In describing a given production technology, the short run is best described as lasting:
(a) Up to six months from now (b.) Upto five years from now
(c) As long as all inputs are fixed (d) As long as at least one input is fixed
25.________is the period of time in which all the factors of production are variable.
(a) Short-run (b) Long-run
(c) Medium-run (d) None of these
26. The 'Marginal Product' of a variable input is best described as:
(a) Product divided by the number of units of variable input
(b) Additional output resulting from a unit increase in the variable input
(c) Additional output resulting from a unit increase in both variable and fixed inputs
(d) Additional output resulting from a unit increase in the units produced
27. On the basis of following schedule, answer the following questions:
Units of Labour Total Product (TP) Marginal Product
(MP)
1 10 10
2 ? 12
3 36 ?
(i) What is TP at 2 units of labour?
(a) 10 (b) 12
(c) 22 (d) 20
(ii) What is MP at 3rd unit of labour?
(a) 22 (b) 12
(c) 36 (d) 14
(iii)The given schedule indicates the phase of:
(a) Diminishing Returns to a Factor (b) Increasing Returns to a Factor
(c) Negative Returns to a Factor (d) None of these
28. What is the maximum point of TP?

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(a) When AP becomes zero (b) When MP becomes zero
(c) When MP cuts AP (d) None of these
29. Average Product can have:
(a) Positive values only (b) Negative values only
(c) Both positive as well as negative values (d) Neither positive nor negative values
30. Which of the following is correct?
(a) When MP is positive and falling, TP rises at a decreasing rate.
(b) When MP is rising, TP rises at an increasing rate.
(c) When MP is negative and falling, TP falls.
(d) All of these
31. At the Point of Inflexion:
(a) Total Product is maximum (b) Average Product is maximum
(c) Marginal Product is maximum (d) Marginal Product is zero
32. When AP falls due to increase in quantity of variable input:
(a) MP<AP (b) MP = AP
(c) MP>AP (d) None of these
33. The Law of__________ deals with input-output relationship, when the output is increased by
varying the quantity of one input.
(a) Variable Proportions (b) Supply
(c) Demand (d) Equi-marginal utility
34. According to Law of Variable Proportions, when we increase quantity of only one input
keeping other inputs fixed,__________ initially increases at an increasing rate, then at a
decreasing rate and finally at a negative rate.
(a) Total Product (b) Average Product
(c) Marginal Product (d) None of these
35. Which of the following is not a phase in the Law of Variable Proportions?
(a) Increasing returns to a factor (b) Constant returns to a factor
(c) Diminishing returns to a factor (d) Negative returns to a factor

36. The total output generated by the first four units of variable input is 200 units, 350 units, 450
units and 500 units. The marginal product of the third unit of input is:
(a) 50 units (b) 100 units
(c) 150 units (d) 200 units

Ans. 1. (a); 2. (b); 3. (d); 4. (b); 5. (a); 6. (d); 7. (b); 8. (a); 9. (b); 10. (c); 11. (a); 12. (d); 13. (b);
14. (b); 15. (c); 16. (d); 17. (c); 18. (b); 19. (c); 20. (a); 21. (a); 22. (b); 23. (b); 24. (d); 25. (b);
26. (b); 27. (i - c, ii - d, iii - b);
28. (b); 29. (a); 30. (d); 31. (c); 32. (a); 33. (a); 34. (a); 35. (b); 36. (b)

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