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Xenophobia

Article · January 2008

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Marina A. Adler
University of Maryland, Baltimore County
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 Adler, Marina A. Xenophobia, pp. 1419-1420 in Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity,
and Society, edited by Richard T. Schaefer. Vol. 3. Sage: Thousand Oaks, CA.
2008.

Xenophobia

Originating in the Greek language, the term xenophobia refers to the unreasonable fear

(phobia) of strangers (xeno) or foreigners. Xenophobia has been defined as a general fear

of difference, as an intense discomfort with people from other cultures, or hostility and

intolerance towards those who look, speak, dress, and act differently. In modern

multicultural societies xenophobia mainly entails the rejection of a different lifestyle

and/or cultural or religious value system of immigrant groups, the fear of society

becoming “flooded” by immigrants, and the perceived threat to prosperity by heightened

economic competition. Akin to ethnocentrism, racial prejudice and anti-semitic feelings,

anti-foreigner sentiments are grounded in an intense dislike for “otherness” or

“outsiders,” as well as ideas of the cultural superiority of the in-group. It also involves

unexamined prejudices and scapegoating, such as blaming foreigners for a variety of

societal problems, from moral decay to unemployment and crime. Nevertheless, not all

foreign minorities are considered equally “threatening” to societal safety and prosperity –

some are more easily identified by physical appearance and language than others, and

thus, are more likely to become targets of contempt or even violent attacks.

The Causes of Xenophobia

Traditional evolutionary approaches to human history assume that in the process of

adapting to the natural environment for survival, humans developed psychological

mechanisms to secure kinship bonding and ethnic boundaries. It is argued that an

essential human fear of the unknown and a fear of intrusion by others have created

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suspicion of and hostility towards “outsiders.” From a sociological perspective

xenophobia is not “inherently natural” but socially constructed; it is motivated by social

mechanisms designed to ensure group cohesion, to maintain social stratification, and to

increase solidarity with one’s own ethnic group. The resulting regional loyalties and

national identities are socially maintained and reinforced by the nationalistic ideologies

and values of any given society.

Various social science theories identify economic, social psychological, and

cultural causes for xenophobia in contemporary societies. Accordingly, the causes of

xenophobia are thought to originate in a societal judgment about a particular group of

“others,” rather than in individual hatred of specific members of this group. Xenophobia

is seen as a collective reaction to the perceived threat of a group, for which actual

personal experience is unnecessary. The economic and social structure of modern

society, characterized by growing competition for scarce economic and social resources

may lead to increased hostility towards foreigners. Western capitalist democracies

maintain ethnic barriers and inequality among majority and minority groups by

encouraging competition over jobs in segmented labor markets characterized by high un-

or underemployment. The resulting rivalry and the continued erosion of the social safety

net provided by the welfare state has revived an “Us vs. Them” mentality between local

and immigrant groups. Similarly, ethnic hostilities tend to intensify in times of political

turmoil like civil war, leading to attacks on refugees.

Hence it appears that xenophobia also increases in times of rapid social change

and economic instability, where feelings of disgruntlement, disappointed expectations,

frustration, and anxieties about an unknown future are heightened. In a climate of

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insecurity those who have fewer opportunities, capabilities and resources to deal with

social changes will be at higher risk of feeling threatened and open to anti-foreigner

sentiments. According to social psychological theories, the lower the self-esteem, the

more threatened we feel by the unknown: everything foreign is devaluated at the same

time as opportunities to increase our self worth are sought. The political system with the

help of the major media may encourage a climate in which xenophobia and violence are

tolerated or even accepted as normal. By fostering the perceived threat of large numbers

of immigrants as well as spreading arguments about cultural incompatibility, the media

can serve to reinforce hostile feelings. These processes are fertile ground for the

institutionalization of racist ideologies through increased organization of right-wing

parties and militant groups.

Immigration and Xenophobia

Collective fear of groups like immigrants, refugees, or asylum seekers leads to negative

attitudes about such minorities, which in turn can lead to active hostilities, such as

ethnoviolence. Evidence suggests that xenophobia has become more prevalent in Europe

in the last few decades, supporting the notion that the economic conditions created by the

rapid transition processes in Eastern Europe after the collapse of the Soviet Union in1989

have fostered the re-emergence of xenophobic thinking. In addition, the integration of

the European Union, combined with a culture increasingly favoring individualism over

collectivism, have accelerated sentiments supporting the exclusion of non-nationals. The

global rise in fundamentalist sentiments, including nationalism, right wing

conservativism, and religious fundamentalism shows that state governments are taking a

passive stance in policy making that counteracts these processes.

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 Current immigration debates in Europe and the US center on ideological

arguments about inclusion, exclusion, immigration policies, and how to deal with asylum

seekers and undocumented immigrants. Many European nations’ resistance to

multiculturalism and diversity reflect a lack of policies offering alternatives to

xenophobic attitudes and violence, or to ameliorate the perceived threat of immigration.

As a multicultural society from its conception as a “melting pot,” the US faces growing

criticism regarding its exclusionary policies towards Mexicans who attempt to cross the

Southern border. A recent proposal to build a 700 mile fence along the border to keep

undocumented Mexican workers from entering the US reflects not only the deeply held

hostile sentiments against Mexicans but also shows the inadequacy of US immigration

policy.

The new Millennium with its globalization processes and the September 11, 2001

terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center have brought into focus a new form of

xenophobia, which seems to equate Islam with terrorism, and can result in the use of

military force, torture of prisoners, surveillance, and racial profiling as preferred method

of “protecting the public” and making citizens feel safe. The fear of terrorism has lead to

increasing intolerance towards those of Middle Eastern descent and conflicts with

processes of global intercultural understanding and human rights protections.

Further Readings

Castles, Stephen. 2004. "Why Migration Policies Fail." Ethnic and Racial Studies 27:

205-227.

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 Kunovich, Robert M. 2002. “Social Structural Sources of Anti-immigrant Prejudice in

Europe: The Impact of Social Class and Stratification Position.” International Journal of

Sociology 32: 39-57.

Wimmer, A. 1997. “Explaining xenophobia and racism: A critical review of current

approaches.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 22:101-132.

Cross References

Prejudice, racism, anti-semitism, immigration

Author Information

Marina A. Adler

Department of Sociology and Anthropology

University of Maryland Baltimore County

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