What is ethics?

Ethics is the branch of philosophy that deals with moral principles and values. It is concerned with
questions of right and wrong, good and bad, and the nature of moral duty and obligation. Ethics
seeks to provide a framework for making decisions about how we ought to behave, both as
individuals and as members of a society.

In very broad terms, ethics is the study of codes of conducts or systems of rules that govern our
behaviour, especially as this affects people and other sentient beings.

In practical terms, ethics involves examining and evaluating the choices we make in our personal and
professional lives, and considering the potential impact of those choices on ourselves and others. It
also involves reflecting on the values and principles that underlie our decision-making, and assessing
whether those values and principles are consistent with our ethical beliefs.
Overall, the study of ethics is aimed at developing a clear understanding of what it means to act in
an ethical manner, and providing guidance for individuals and organizations to make responsible and
moral decisions in their interactions with others.

Ethics can be understood better by contrasting it with other codes or systems like Law and Religion.
1. Law: Law is a system of rules that govern how we ought to act. There are three major factors
that distinguish morality or ethical codes from law.
1.1 Voluntary Compliance: Ethical codes are typically voluntary and self-imposed by individuals
or organizations. They represent a set of guidelines or principles that reflect the values and
beliefs of the individuals or groups that adopt them. In contrast, laws are mandatory and
enforced by a governing authority, with the threat of punishment for non-compliance.
1.2 Flexibility: Ethical codes are often more flexible than laws, allowing for a greater degree of
interpretation and discretion in their application. They may be influenced by cultural, social,
or personal factors, and may vary depending on the context in which they are applied. In
contrast, laws are generally more rigid and standardized, with clear and specific rules and
penalties for violating them.
1.3 Scope: Ethical codes typically cover a broader range of issues than laws. While laws are
designed to regulate specific types of behaviour, such as criminal activity, ethical codes may
address a wider range of concerns, such as social responsibility, fairness, and respect for
human dignity. Ethical codes may also extend beyond legal requirements, setting higher
standards for conduct than what is required by law.

2. Religion: Religion and ethical codes have a lot of similarities. Both are broadly concerned
with individual well-being and behaviour wrt other people. Many things that are considered
morally right or wrong are also claimed by religion to be right or wrong. Nevertheless, many
people want to separate morality from religion because:
2.1 Motives: Many people, believers and non-believers alike, are motivated to act morally
without any thought about such conduct being commanded by God.
2.2 Another reason explained by Plato in the dialogue Euthyphro, is that the idea that morality
upon god’s idea commands faces a difficulty. For either god commands us to do things which
are right, in which case rightness is distinct from what god commands; or things are right
only because god commands us to do them, in which case god’s commands are arbitrary or
made for no reason, which undermines the view of God as perfectly good.

MORAL RULES
A more positive and a deep way to understand what ethics is to understand what moral rules are
and what is common between these rules. Moral rules are principles that guide behavior and actions
based on what is considered right or wrong, good or bad, just or unjust, fair or unfair, and ethical or
unethical. They are a set of guidelines that individuals or groups use to determine what is morally
acceptable and what is not. Moral rules can be informed by a variety of sources such as religion,
culture, philosophy, and personal beliefs, and they can vary across different societies and contexts.
Some common examples of moral rules include honesty, respect for others, kindness, empathy,
fairness, and responsibility. These rules can help individuals navigate complex ethical dilemmas and
make decisions that align with their values and principles.
Traditionally, there are two types of moral rules/duties-Negative and Positive. Negative duties
include duties which involve not lying, stealing, harming, manipulating, or maltreating others, and
Positive duties include helping those in need, being honest, promoting justice, etc.
Features of Morality/ Moral rules
1. Overriding: This feature means that moral considerations can override other considerations
such as self-interest, personal gain, or social norms. In other words, moral rules are seen as
more important than other types of rules or principles. For example, if someone is faced
with a moral dilemma where they have to choose between telling the truth or protecting
someone they care about, moral considerations would suggest that telling the truth is more
important even if it causes harm to the other person.
2. Universality: This feature means that moral rules apply to all individuals regardless of their
culture, religion, or personal beliefs. Moral principles are not just subjective opinions or
preferences, but they are based on objective standards that apply to everyone. For example,
the principle of fairness or justice requires that people be treated equally and that everyone
should have access to basic human rights such as freedom, safety, and respect.
3. Connection to a particular motive: The feature of connection to a particular motive in terms
of morality refers to the idea that moral actions are often motivated by a desire to do what
is right or good rather than by self-interest or personal gain. In other words, moral behaviour
is characterized by a sense of duty or obligation to act in accordance with ethical principles.
For example, someone who donates money to a charitable cause out of a genuine desire to
help others would be considered to be acting morally, even if they do not receive any
personal benefit from their action. Their motive for donating is not based on self-interest or
personal gain, but on a sense of responsibility or compassion for others.
DIVISIONS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY
1. Meta-ethics: This subfield explores the nature of moral language, concepts, and judgments.
It asks questions such as "What is morality?" and "What do moral claims mean?"
2. Normative ethics: This subfield is concerned with developing and justifying moral principles
and rules that guide human behavior. It asks questions such as "What is morally right or
wrong?" and "What makes an action good or bad?"
3. Applied ethics: This subfield is concerned with the practical application of moral principles
and rules to real-world ethical dilemmas. It includes subfields such as bioethics, business
ethics, environmental ethics, and animal ethics.
In conclusion, ethics refers to the moral principles and values that guide human behavior and
decision-making. It is concerned with determining what is right and wrong, good and bad, and
just and unjust in various contexts, such as personal, professional, and societal. Ethics provides a
framework for evaluating and resolving ethical dilemmas and conflicts that arise in different areas
of life. It helps individuals and groups to make informed choices and act responsibly, with
consideration for the consequences of their actions on others and the world around them.
Ultimately, ethics is a fundamental aspect of human existence, shaping our relationships,
societies, and the world we live in.
1. Meta ethics: Meta ethics is concerned with the nature of ethical language, concepts, and
beliefs. It investigates the meaning and justification of moral claims and examines the
foundations of ethical theories. Meta ethical questions include whether moral statements
 are objective or subjective, whether ethical properties exist in the world, and whether
moral disagreements can be resolved. Meta ethics is concerned with the analysis and
clarification of ethical concepts and language, rather than the evaluation of specific moral
issues or actions.
2. Normative ethics: Normative ethics is concerned with the evaluation of moral actions and
judgments. It seeks to determine the principles, rules, and standards that should guide
human behavior in different contexts. Normative ethical theories provide criteria for
assessing the morality of actions and decisions, and they aim to identify the values and
virtues that lead to a good life. Normative ethics includes various approaches such as
consequentialism, deontology, and virtue ethics, which differ in their emphasis on the
consequences of actions, moral duties, or character traits.
3. Applied ethics: Applied ethics is concerned with the practical application of ethical
theories and principles to specific issues and cases. It involves the examination of moral
problems and controversies in various domains such as healthcare, business,
environment, and technology. Applied ethics aims to provide guidance and
recommendations for resolving ethical dilemmas and conflicts that arise in real-world
situations. It requires the application of normative ethical theories and principles to
concrete cases and contexts, taking into account the relevant facts, values, and
stakeholders.
In summary, meta ethics deals with the nature of ethical language and concepts, normative ethics
deals with the evaluation of moral actions and judgments, and applied ethics deals with the
practical application of ethical theories and principles to specific issues and cases.

Why morality isn’t based on religion

1. Moral principles predate religion: Many ethical principles, such as the golden rule ("treat
others as you would like to be treated"), have been present in various cultures and societies
throughout history, and they are not necessarily tied to specific religious beliefs or practices.
These principles are often based on empathy, compassion, and social cooperation, which are
innate human tendencies.
2. Moral diversity across religions: There is no single moral code that is shared by all religions.
Different religions have different ethical beliefs and practices, and even within a particular
religion, there may be diverse interpretations and opinions about what is right and wrong.
Moreover, religious traditions have evolved over time, and some moral principles that were
once considered acceptable are now seen as immoral or outdated.
3. Non-religious sources of morality: People can derive their moral values and principles from
various sources, such as reason, experience, and culture. Moral reasoning can be based on
rational reflection, empirical evidence, and dialogue with others, rather than on dogmatic
religious beliefs. Moreover, secular ethical theories, such as utilitarianism, deontology, and
virtue ethics, provide alternative frameworks for evaluating moral actions and decisions.
4. The problem of divine command theory: If morality is based solely on divine commands, it
raises the question of whether an action is good because God commands it or whether God
commands it because it is good. This dilemma undermines the idea that morality is based on
religion alone, and it suggests that there are independent standards of goodness and justice
that are not dependent on divine authority.
In summary, morality is not necessarily based on religion because moral principles predate
religion, there is moral diversity across religions, there are non-religious sources of morality, and the
problem of divine command theory challenges the idea that morality is based solely on religious
authority.
 Yes, there are other features that make a rule a moral rule. Some of these features include:
1. Impartiality: Moral rules are impartial and apply to everyone equally, regardless of their
personal preferences or interests. They do not favor one individual or group over another
and are not influenced by social or political factors.
2. Prescriptivity: Moral rules are prescriptive and provide guidance on how people ought to
behave. They are not descriptive or explanatory in nature but rather tell us what we should
or should not do.
3. Reason-giving: Moral rules are supported by reasons and justifications that can be subject to
rational scrutiny and debate. They are not arbitrary or based on personal opinion or
preference but are grounded in objective reasons that can be evaluated and assessed.
4. Publicity: Moral rules are public and open to scrutiny by others. They are not private or
hidden from view but are subject to public discourse and debate.
5. Universalizability: Moral rules are universalizable and can be applied to all individuals and
situations. They are not limited to specific contexts or circumstances but are meant to apply
to all people in all situations.
These features are not exhaustive but provide a general sense of what makes a rule a moral rule.
Moral rules are distinct from other types of rules, such as legal rules or social norms, in that they are
grounded in ethical principles and are meant to provide guidance on how to live a good and virtuous
life.