FoMRHI Comm 2003 Marco Tiella

A triangular spinet of unknown Italian maker (second part)

The article describes the results of a series of physical investigations on the
remains of old metal strings for keyboard instruments.1

A) Old metal strings possibly drawn in Nurnberg

Fourteen reels of wire were found in a cardboard box together with the small
triangular spinet2 whose details were published in the Comm.1983.
The little wooden reels, all of the same weight (2 loth – 1 loth =1/30-1/32 of a
pound) have four different designs imprinted on them (see the following table)
and were numbered by the same hand (presumably that of the wire producer or
dealer) that also wrote n6 on the reel (picture published by Domoulin).3 Wires of
different gauges were wound around the reels.
Designs imprinted on the reels:

1
The values published here are to be regarded as average evaluations. Denzil Wraight checked string samples
very precisely by measuring the diameters in different directions. D ENZIL WRAIGHT “Principles and Practice in
Stringing Italian Keyboard Instruments”, Early Keyboard Journal 18 (2000), 175-238.

2
At the time, many questions arose regarding the opportunity of getting wires with physical characteristics like
those of the original old strings , having checked that the use of spring steel wire was completely inappropriate
for getting any “old” tone colour, as was generally done for pre-war reconstructed keyboard instruments. Word
was going around that in the Nürnberg Germanishes National Museum, wire strings, specially produced in
Sweden for imitating the “old” tone colour, were being used. In fact, the remaining pieces of old strings showed
that the iron alloys were lacking in carbon proving that the kind of wire drawn for the thin diameters required
(as little as 0.15 mm) was at that time not yet on the market.
It is unknown from where the firm Zuckermann got the wire that was sold with their harpsichord kits.
To get strings of truly old iron, at the IROR (Istituto per la Ricerca Organologica e il Restauro, Milano, 1990)
strings were made from shanks of nails pulled out of a wooden structure dating back to the end of 18th century.
So, iron strings as thin as .20 mm were readily made by hand (the thinnest diameter obtained in the process of
drawing before the breaking point at 120÷140 Kg/mmq, following the procedures depicted in RÉMY GUG
“Histoire d’une corde de clavecin …”, musique ancienne 15 (1983), fig. XVI, p.18.

3
PIERRE DUMOULIN, “La decouverte des bobines des cordes de clavicins du XVIIIe siecle”, Revue de Musicologie,
Tome LXI – 1975 N°1, p. 115, planche A, where four different reels are shown. From the resemblance between
the shape of reel N°6 in the picture (with the impression of an eagle) and the imprinted design of those
preserved in the cardboard box (with the impressions of the initials HMF with a rose and a flamingo), it is now
possible to suppose that all the reels might have had a common commercial origin in Nuremberg. Indeed RÉMY
GUG (“En remontant la filière de Thoiry à Nuremberg”, musique ancienne 18 (1984), p. 30) quotes J.CH. SCHEDEL’s
statement (Neues …Warenlexikon, Wien, 1811, p.398) that “the wires for musical instruments made in Nuremberg
on reels … [are] marked with a deer, the Imperial Pommel or the globe”. The last two imprinted designs
correspond exactly with the ones within the spinet cardboard box.

1
a) Imprinted designs on the reels found together with the spinet:
”Bell” (n.12), “II Flamingo” (n.9), “Imperial pommel” (n.11?) and “HMF
rose” (n.6)

2
 b) Imprinted designs on two of the reels published by Dumoulin:
”Winged lion”and “Eagle” (n.6).

Iron (I) or brass (B) wire drawing chart:

Draw number Diameter Amount of wire on reel
4 B 37/100 full or nearly full
5 B 33/100 full or nearly full
6 I 33/100 nearly full
7 I 28/100 nearly full
7? I 25/100 small
8 I 25/100 nearly full
8 I empty
8 I empty
8 I empty
9 I empty
9 I empty
11? B 17/100 empty
12 I 16/100 nearly full
12 I empty
12 empty

3
Pieces of the wire strings were still present on the instrument when the spinet
was acquired. It is impossible to ascertain how it was originally strung due to
the fact that the instrument seems to have been shoddily modified at some stage
so that the keyboard lost its original shape as well as the correct order of the
keys.
From the confused pieces of strings found on the spinet, it is not possible to
reconstruct any tone succession but the series of reels, even if not complete,
allows us to assume that it is what remains of the actual string assortment.
Amount of wire on the reels:
full or nearly full: 4 (brass), 5 (brass), 6, 7, 8 , 12 (brass)
empty 8, 8, 8 , 9 , 9 , 11 , 12 empty, 12 empty.
Seeing that the number 8 reels are the most numerous, it is reasonable to assume
that the spinet was basically strung with wires of 0,25 mm thickness, in
accordance with what is usually thought to be normal for plucked keyboard
scalings. It is more uncommon to find remains of wire thinner than 0,20 mm
(0,17 and 0,16) on old instruments. The presence of brass wire of 17/100 mm is
rare and we suppose that this gauge was produced for musical purposes also.
Metallurgical investigations
Up to the moment when I acquired the reels of wire and started my research,
the most detailed investigation into seventeenth-century metal string
production was to be found in the articles by Remy Gug, where there appeared
a picture of reels similar to the four above-named.
Data not obtained before, has since been provided thanks to the intervention of
several scientific institutions.

Collation of metallurgical specifications of strings of different origin

(1981) Work done by prof. G. Wolf and L. Calliari4

The micro-hardness was tested on at least 6 points of the string cross section

4
G. WOLF - L. CALLIARI, Università di Trento and IRST, Trento, “Caratterizzazioni meccaniche e chimiche di
spezzoni di corde per strumenti musicali”, published in Comune di Milano, Atti del seminario per la didattica del
restauro liutaio, Premeno (Novara) 1982, pp. 37-80.

4
using the Vickers method
1) Samples of iron strings
- Tensile strength.
Material Abbreviation Max and min diameter Surface condition
Piece of old iron string N° 8 0,24÷0,23 corroded
Piece of “Zuckermann” iron string 0,225÷0,24 corroded
Piece of “GNM”(5) iron string 0,24÷0,24 fair
Hardness Standard deviation Estimate stress
Piece of old iron string 356 kg/mmq 22 120 Kg/mmq
iece of “Zuckermann” 431 Kg/mmq 25 145 Kg/mmq
Piece of “GNM” iron string 386 Kg/mmq 22 130 Kg/mmq
The “Zuckermann” sample was found to have the maximum micro-hardness
dispersion value.
2) Samples of brass strings
- Tensile strength.
Material Abbreviation Max and min Diameter Surface condition
Old brass string N° 5 0,315÷0,34 good
Old brass string (17th C.) 0,21÷0,22, good
“Ormiston” brass string 0,25÷0,26 good
Hardness Standard deviation Estimate stress
Old brass string N° 5 232 Kg/mmq 15 78 Kg/mmq
Old brass string (17th C.) 248 Kg/mmq 18 83 Kg/mmq
“Ormiston” brass string 254 Kg/mmq 28 85 Kg/mmq
The “Ormiston” sample was found to have the maximum micro-hardness
dispersion value.
- Chemical characteristics.
In order to accurately identify the chemical composition of a wire’s external
layers, a spectroscopical analysis with Auger electrons was carried out. Thus,
any chemical substances were able to be detected through the examination of
their energy spectrum. When the sputtering technique was combined with the
Auger spectroscopy, the bombardment by Argon ions was able to wear away

5
the external layers so as to arrive at the internal core of the sample. Therefore,
by drawing up a profile of the consecutive layers, it was possible to reconstruct
the history of the samples.
1) iron and steel wires
The surface of the original iron wire had obviously been corroded by
environmental pollution, so large amounts of carbon, oxygen and chlorine were
detected, whereas traces of tin were present in the modern “Zuckermann” and
“GNM” samples. It has to be presumed that the presence of tin is due to the
wire drawing process. Moreover, the tin was also present in the deeper layers of
the “Zuckermann” sample. Carbon and oxygen were still present at the depth of
ca 0.5 mm where an interesting peculiarity appears; namely, the presence of a
peak of aluminium. As this phenomenon could not be accounted for, further
investigation is needed.
2) brass wires
The spectra and profiles of the three types of wire were similar. At the first
sputtering, carbon, oxygen, chlorine and sulphur peaks were present but
thereafter the most evident element became copper. The quantity of zinc varied
between 27% and 30 % in both the original and modern alloys.
Some remarks
Brass wires
Differences in the chemical composition and physical properties regarding the
three samples of brass strings did not turn out to be evident but analyses on the
re-crystallization phenomena of the string materials, which had been under
stress for many years, were at a level near the maximum that they could
withstand.
Iron wires
The coating of ferrous oxide covering the badly corroded original N° 8 string
would presumably change its acoustic response. Therefore, replacements with
suitable modern wires should not give a tone quality presumably near to the
original one.

6
Profiles of three iron samples “MHF”(1), “Zuckermann”(2), “GMN”(3)
Brass wires

7
Profiles of three brass samples (1) “Ormiston”, (2) “HMF Rose” 5 and (3) Brass
String found on the Spinettino

(1981) Work done by Prof. Gianni Podda5

The tests were done with an Instrom material testing instrument, although the
machine attachments used to hold the samples proved to be not firm enough.
For this reason it was impossible to determine the elasticity modulus of the
wires.
A sample of an Ormiston brass wire was tested to draw parallels with the other
iron wires.
Material Abbreviation Diameter Breaking stress Breaking tension
Ancient wire N° 8 A 0.225 mm 3.18 Kg 80 Kg/mmq
“GNM” wire S 0.235 mm 4.9 Kg 13 Kg/mmq
5
Prof. GIANNI PODDA – Politecnico di Torino, published in the Comune di Milano, Atti del seminario per la
didattica del restauro liutaio, Premeno (Novara) 1982, pp. 32-36

8
“Zuckermann” wire K 0.225 mm 5,9 Kg 48 Kg/mmq
Ormiston” brass wire O 0.225 mm 4,6 Kg 0 Kg/mmq
Stress/elongation diagrams are shown.

9
Figures from 1 to 5 show which stressing cycle each diagram refers to

B)
Other investigative techniques which were applied:
- Spectroscopy ICP-MS (Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry)
A highly sensitive technique which can detect a range of metal at concentrations
below one part per trillion by linking together an inductively coupled plasma as
a method of producing ions with a mass spectrometer as a mean of separating
and detecting the ions. Thus the presence of various metals (impurities) in the
wire can be ascertained.
(1991)Work done by Dr. Giovanni Intelisano, Dr. Vanes Poluzzi, Dr. Massimo
Baldi6
6
GIOVANNI INTELISANO, Dr. VANES POLUZZI & Dr. MASSIMO BALDI, Presidio Multizonale di Prevenzione USL31,
Ferrara, “Analisi delle corde mediate spettroscopia ICP-MS”, published in MARCO TIELLA & ROMANO VETTORI,

10
The results obtained from testing a number of strings found on ancient
keyboard instruments are listed:
1) Reels in the box with brass wire
HMF N° 4 – Fe 1% Zn 70% Cu 37%
HMF N° 5 – Fe 0,3% Zn 72% Cu 14%
HMF N° 10 – Fe 1% Zn 74% Cu 25%
2) Reels in the box with iron wire
HMF N° 7 – Fe >95% Zn traces
HMF N° 8 – Fe >95%
HMF N° 9 – Fe >95% Zn traces
HMF N° 12 – Fe >95%

Strumenti per Mozart, Rovereto, Longo Ed. 1991, pp. 357-360.

11
Fig. 1 – Scansion of the so-called “white” (the comparison sample)
Fig. 2, 3, 4, 5 – Scansions of the iron wire samples HMF 7 and Pianoforte N° 12
at different scales.

Examples were selected from 43 tests of various strings7 as:

3) Reels in a box found in an antique shop (Turin - Italy)
N°0, N°1/0 ½ , N°2/0, N°3/0 ½ , N°4, N°4 ½
Fe >95% nd traces of Zn in all the samples

7
MARCO TIELLA & ROMANO VETTORI, Strumenti per Mozart, Rovereto, Longo Ed. 1991, pp. 359.

12
4) Other pieces of strings found elsewhere:
a) on a harpsichord modified into a fortepiano (Sicily, 17th-18th C. shown in
Comm. 1915, 2010)
brass string : Fe 3% Zn 61% Cu 42%
iron strings : Fe >95%, traces of Zn in a single sample
b) on a fortepiano constructed by Luigi Rasori (Bologna, Italy, first half of 19th
C.)
brass string : Fe 5% Zn 72% Cu 31%
c) on a fortepiano constructed by F.lli Sander (Turin, Italy, end of 18th C.)
iron string : Fe >95%in all the samples
d) on a fortepiano constructed by an unknown maker (Austria, first half of 19th
C.)
iron string : Fe >95%in all the samples
f) on a fortepiano constructed by Streicher (Austria, 1820).
iron string : Fe >95%; traces of Ag in a single sample
- Microanalysis by SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope)
(1991) Work done by Dr A. Aleotti and Prof. F. Zucchi8
The samples were prepared according to the procedure for metallographical
tests, by incorporating the sample within a slide of acrylic resin and then
corroding the wire section with NITAL. The samples were previously covered
with an Edwards 4 carbon film. The tests were carried out by a Cambridge
Stereoscam 360 at 20 KV and 70 nA.
Traces of Ca, Al, Mg came evident on the wires by using nitric acid diluted in
water.
Due to the presence of chemical elements traces in the comparison sample in
concentrations near to those of the impurities detected in the string alloys, it
would be incorrect to assign reliable values to the elements Pb, Ni, Al, Ar, Ba,
Cu and Zn, if present. So, the results clearly show that it is the presence of traces
of Zn, Ag in the iron samples (Fe) and Fe in the brass (Sn, Cu) samples which
have enlarged the spectra graphs. In fact, other chemical substances (ArN, Cr.

8
A. ALEOTTI, Centro di Microscopia Elettronica, & Prof. F. ZUCCHI, Dipartimento di chimica, Università di
Ferrara, “Osservazione e microanalisi al microscopio elettronico a scansione SEM”I, published in MARCO TIELLA
& ROMANO VETTORI, Strumenti per Mozart, Rovereto, Longo Ed. 1991, pp. 369-373

13
ArO, ArOH) had interfered with the Fe isotopes.
In contrast, in the brass wire samples the Fe peak does not prevail over Cu and
Sn peaks, thus remaining a mere impurity.
- Microanalysis by EDAX (Energy Dispersive X-ray Analysis)
This method detects the X-rays produced as the result of the electron beam
interaction with the sample under SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope)

14
Fig. 1 - Micography of a cross section of the string HNF 4 at 200 enlargements.
Fig. 1 A - Scansion microanalysis of the string HNF 4 by retrodiffused electrons.
15
Fig. 1 A bis - Scansion microanalysis of an impurity in the string HNF 4.
a) Brass strings
Results :
A number of linear flaws are visible on the brass string of fig.B. They have been
enlarged (fig. A) and an extraneous substance highlighted (fig. A bis). As
elements not pertaining to the alloy Cu/Zn were not made evident, the
extraneous substance was probably produced by oxidation. A Zn phase rich of
Zn, presumably of “beta” phase, was found in negligible quantity.

Fig. B – “Sander n. 3” iron string - Microscopy scansion by secondary electrons

(on the left); Microscopy scansion by retrodiffused electrons (on the right)
b) Iron strings
Results :
Extraneous substances were not found in iron strings, except for flaws visible on
the iron string “Torino 4 ½ “possibly of earth substances (fig. C).

16
Fig. C – “Torino 4 ½” iron string - Microscopy scansion by retrodiffused
electrons (on the left); Microanalysis (on the right)
- Hardness
Microhardness values (HV) tested by “Vickers” Miniload Leitz gave the
following result for the iron string samples:
HMF 4 HV 297
“Turin” 4 ½ HV 311
“Sander” N°23 HV 306
Interesting to note the uncommon structural flaw found in a sample of an
ancient iron string by C. Canevari, IROR, Milano, 1981.

17