1950 - Downs D - An Experimental Investigation Into Pre-Ignition in The SI Engine

125
An Experimental Investigation into Pre-ignition in the

Spark-ignition Engine
By D. Downs, B.Sc. (Eng.), A.M.I.Mech.E.*, and J. H. Pigndguy, A.M.I.Mech.E.*
Pre-ignition and auto-ignition are uncontrolled ignition of combustible mixture in an engine by a hot
surface. Pre-ignition is distinct from “knock” or “detonation” which is caused by the Apid com-
bustion of the last part of the mixture following the initiation of flame by a spark. More work has
been carried out on knock than pre-ignition because knock sets the primary limit to the possible
power-output and fuel economy of an engine. Owing to increases in engine power in recent years,
however, interest in pre-ignition has been revived, and this paper describes an investigation which
was primarily directed to finding the pre-ignition ratings of various fuels.
Two methods of obtaining pre-ignition ratings have been developed; with one a 500 C.C. single-
cylinder water-cooled unit is used, having an electrically heated hot-spot to induce pre-ignition,
and with the other a single-cylinder air-cooled air& engine with an air-cooled pre-igniter is used.
A rating scale has been constructed in which iso-octane has been given the value of 100, and cumene
zero. A large number of pure fuels from the paraffin, naphthene, aromatic, and alcoholgroups have been
rated for pre-ignition tendency using these methods. In addition, typical commercial motor-fuels,
motor-racing fuels, and water-alcohol injection fluids have been tested. The relationship between
pre-ignition tendency and the temperature of the hot-spot with normal running and with pre-ignition
conditions has been established. *
The effects of engine variables, for example, mixture strength, speed, ignition advance, and air and
cylinder temperatures, on pre-ignition, have been studied, in addition to the effects of important fuel
additives such as tetraethyl lead and the aromatic amines. The additive tests include substances, such
as formaldehyde and nitrogen peroxide, which are of interest from the chemical aspect and, based on
the results, some information on the fundamental chemical processes involved in hot-spot ignition
has been obtained.
INTRODUCTION Corrington 1942, Corrington and Fisher 1948, Male and Eward
So far as the fuel is concerned, knock or detonation places the 1945, Male 1946) and, since 1945, by the French Institute of
greatest restriction on the power output and thermal efficiency Petroleum at Bellevue (Vischnievsky 1947).
of the spark-ignition engine because of the limit which it places This paper gives an account of the development of test
on the permissible compression-ratio and boost pressure. For methods and apparatus for investigating the phenomenon of
this reason work on the development of high-grade fuels for air- pre-ignition. The ratings of numerous fuels, including pure a m -
craft and road-vehicle engine use has been concentrated on the ponents and commercial blends, have been obtained, and the
evolution of materials having the highest possible anti-knock effects of engine variables and the important fuel anti-knock
value. Pre-ignition has been of secondary importance, especially additives have been determined. Finally, the conclusions of some
since the development of sparking plugs of high heat-factor fundamental work on the nature of the chemical processes
and improved cylinder-head cooling arrangements. During the involved in hot-spot ignition have been given.
1939-45 war, however, engine power and operating temperatures
were considerably increased, and the lead content of aviation PRE-IGNITION A N D AUTO-IGNITION
fuel was raised well above the pre-war level. It was not surprising,
therefore, that there were aircraft engine failures, usually due Pre-ignition and auto-ignition are uncontrolled inflammation
to burnt or fractured pistons or bent connecting rods, which of combustible mixture in a engine by a hot surface. The hot
appeared to have resulted from pre-ignition rather than knock. surface may be the central electrode or insulator of the sparking
A revival of interest in the phenomenon of pre-ignition followed, plug or, in certain circumstances, combustion chamber
particularly with respect to the part played by the fuel in deter- deposits or the exhaust valve. With sufficientlysevere operating
mining whether pre-ignition would occur. conditions, t h i s surface may become hot enough to ignite the
An investigationwas started at Shoreham towards the middle charge independently of the sparking plug. If the hot-spot tem-
of 1943 into pre-ignition and the relative pre-ignition tendencies perature is not high, there may be insuftiaent time for hot-spot
of various fuel blends and components used in aircraft practice. ignition to develop before the whole charge is ignited by the
Before then little systematic work on pre-ignition had been flame from the spark. I n this case no unusual effect would be
carried out and the only published information was that of observed in the operation of the engine and the phenomenon
Serruys (1937)t, who was concerned with the temperature of could only be detected by switching off thi ignition when
pre-ignition rather than with pre-ignition itself, and Spencer irregular firing would occur for a few strokes before the engine
(1941), who did much valuable work principally with a “single speed fell. This is frequently called “after-firing” and is
combustion” apparatus. Concurrently with work in Great illustrated in Fig. lu, which shows cylinder-pressure d i a m
Britain, investigationswere conducted by the National Advisory with various intensities of hot-spot ignition.
Committee for Aeronautics (N.A.C.A.) and other organizations With further increase in the hot-spot temperature, when the
in the United States (Alquist and Male 1944, Biermann and ignition is switched off, the engine w i l l continue to run n o m y
as if the charge were still being fired by the spark, indicating
The MS. of this paper w a s first received at the Institution on 21st that, until the temperature of the hot-spot falls, the miaure is
June 1950.
* Research Engineer, Messrs. Ricardo and Company, Engineers effectively ignited at about the same instant as it would be by
(1927), Ltd. the spark. This effect is often called auto-ignition.
t An alphabeticalfist of references is given in the Appendix, p. 139. As the temperature of the hot-spot increases still furthe, it
8
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126 EXPERIMENTAL I N V E S T I G A T I O N I N T O P R E - I G N I T I O N I N THE S P A R K - I G N I T I O N ENGINE
will eventually fire the charge before the normal spark ignition The occurrence of pre-ignition depends upon the margin
(pre-ignition), and the effect on the engine will be s w a r to that between the temperature to which it is necessary to raise the
of over-advancing the spark timing. Inflammation of the charge hot-spot in order to cause pre-ignition, and the temperature at
will probably be more rapid with a hot-spot than with a spark, which the hot-spot operates under normal conditions. If these
however, owing to the generally larger area of igniting surface two temperatures are close, the engine is operating near to the
.and greater time during which it is in contact with the mixture. pre-ignition limit, but if they are widely separated, the charge
Accordingly, the rate of pressure development in the cylinder will be less liable to pre-ignite. This fact has been utilized in
may be much greater, resulting in excessive “negative” work all the methods used for determining the relative pre-ignition
before the end of the compression stroke. This would increase tendencies of fuels.
PRELIMINARY T E S T S
To enable the maximum possible information to be obtained
it was necessary to develop an artificial hot-spot, the temperature
of which could be varied independently of the usual controlling
engine-factors. This was particularly necessary because the
factors which normally promote pre-ignition also promote
knock, and to avoid knock, restriction of the investigation to fuels
of high anti-knock value might have been necessary.
While work on the development of a suitable instrument was
in progress, and to enable information to be obtained quickly
on the differences between fuels with regard to pre-ignition
WD tendency, and the effect of engine variables on pre-ignition, some
LATE
work was carried out with a thermocouple sparking plug.
T.D.C. This plug, which has a low heat-factor, readily gives rise to
pre-ignition under test conditions. The central electrode (nickel-
silicon) is drilled to accommodate a fine platinum alloy thermo-
couple, the hot junction being located within inch of the end
of the central electrode. Compensating leads connect the
thermocouple to a millivoltmeter.
For the preliminary tests, the plug was used as the spark
source on the Ricardo E.6 variable-compression engine, and the
compression ratio was raised in small increments, the thermo-
couple temperature and power output being recorded at each
step until pre-ignition occurred. This was indicated by an abrupt
rise in the reading of the sparking-plug thermocouple and a fall
~ D E G EARLY
. CRANK ANGLE l\x in engine torque. The charge would auto-ignite if the ignition
were switched off at about one compression-ratio setting before
that at which pre-ignition occurred.
BENZENE
Fig. 1. Development of Pre-ignition (Napier “Dagger” Unit)

a Cylinder-pressure diagrams.
b Rate of change of pressure diagrams.
- - - - - - - Normal firing.
--__ Motoring.
Hot-spot ignition.
Nos. 1 and 2. After firing.
Nos. 3,4, and 5. Auto-ignition.
No. 6. Pre-ignition.
the rate of heat transfer to the combustion chamber walls. The
process can become self-accelerating and the charge ignition
could be sufficiently premature to bring a single-cylinder engine
t o a halt. With a multi-cylinder engine, one cylinder of which is 5 6 7 8 10
pre-igniting, the power developed by the cylinders which are COMPRESSION RATIO
not pre-igniting may keep the engine running, and the high Fig. 2. Pre-ignition Tests with a Thermocouple Plug
temperatures and pressures developed on the compression stroke (E.6 Engine)
may cause mechanical failure of the piston or connecting rod.
Knock and pre-ignition are different phenomena. Knock is Test conditions: engine speed, 2,500 r.p.m.; inlet-air temperature,
due to the rapid combustion of the last part of the mixture 30 deg. C. ;jacket temperature, 70 deg. C.; maximum-power mixture
following the initiation of flame by the spark, whereas pre- strength;optimum ignition advance for each compression ratio.
ignition is ignition of the charge by a hot body before the spark
occurs, or in the case of auto-ignition, during the combustion Some typical results are shown on Fig. 2. The sparking plug
normally initiated by the spark. The flame front produced by operates at a higher temperature on benzene than on either of
a hot body is identical to that produced by the spark (Miller the two paraffinic fuels under comparable conditions, and the
1947). The two phenomena may be partly interdependent. temperature of the central electrode at which pre-ignition com-
Severe knock, by increasing the local heat transfer, can form a mences is about 100 deg. C. higher in the case of benzene. Under
hot-spot in the combustion chamber which may lead to pre- these conditions, the compression ratio for benzene when pre-
ignition. Pre-ignition, by giving early development of pressure ignition commences is 6.4/1, compared with 95/1 for iso-octane.
and high maximum pressures, can lead toknock. Thereis evidence With methanol, pre-ignition occurred at the lowest compression
to suggest that the destruction often attributed to knock, for ratio of the engine, namely, 5/1, even when the engine was
example, fracture or burning of the piston, may be due to throttled to give as little as 65 lb. per sq. in. brake mean effective
pre-ignition itself caused by knock. pressure.

EXPERIMENTAL I N V E S T I G A T I O N I N T O P R E - I G N I T I O N I N T H E S P A R K - I G N I T I O N E N G I N E 127
The effect of mixture strength on pre-ignition was then Pre-igniter. Various types of electrically heated hot-spot
investigated. Results for representative fuels are shown in were tested before a suitable design was evolved. The prime
Fig. 3. The mixture strength is expressed as a percentage of the requirement was that the temperature of the pre-igniting surface
stoichiometric mixture. The change in pre-ignition charac- should be measurable. The hot-spot was also required to be’
teristics owing to a change in mixture strength of a given fuel, was resistant to erosion and other ill effects of high temperature, so
comparable with the variation in characteristics between different that the recorded temperature would remain consistent in
fuels. The mixture having the greatest tendency to pre-ignite, in relation to engine conditions.
these experiments, was between 10 and 15 per cent rich, that is, The instrument used was an electrically heated hot-spot con-
in the region of maximum-power mixture strength. sisting of three and a half turns of Nimonic 75 wire. The hot-
The thermocouple plug, although useful for giving indications spot was screwed into the combustion chamber diametrically
of differences between fuels, had the disadvantage that the tem- opposite to the sparking plug (Fig. 4). Under normal operating
1.300
1.200 A.
1.100
I .m
IONIZATION
GAP
900
Km
INVERTED PLAN
SPARKING PLUG
SECTION AA I SECTION 88
MIXTURE STRENGTH -PERCENTAGE OF CHEMICALLY j POSITION OF PISTON AT T.O.Ci

CORRECT STRENGTH I I
b Fig. 4. Diagram Showing the Positions of Pre-igniter, Ionization

Gap, and Sparking Plug in the E.6 Cylinder Head
Fig. 3. Effect of Mixture Strength on Pre-ignition
Tendencies of Various Fuels cE.6 Engine)
conditions, and with a low compression ratio (6/1), the tempera-
Thermocouple plug temperature at pre-ignition.
(I ture of the wire was not sufficiently high to cause either pre-
b Compression ratio limited by pre-ignition. ignition or auto-ignition on most normal fuels. The temperature
Test conditions : engine speed, 2,500 r.p.m. ; inlet-air temperature, of the plug was therefore raised and pre-ignition was induced by
54 deg. C.; jacket temperature, 100 deg. C.; optimum ignition passing A.C., which was steadily increased, through the wire.
advance for each &/fuel ratio and compression ratio. The electrical energy (measured with a wattmeter) necessary to
cause pre-ignition was taken as a measure of the pre-igniting
tendency of the fuel. A high energy indicated a high pre-ignition
perature of the electrode was a fixed function of the engine resistance and wice oersu.
conditions and so, as a pre-ignition device, it was somewhat in- I n the early tests the onset of pre-ignition was detected by
flexible. In addition, under given conditions there was a tendency noting the rapid increase in temperature d the coil, and the fall
for the compression ratio, limited by pre-ignition, to increase in torque of the engine. This procedure was dropped, however,
with engine runnhg time, suggesting that deposits collected in as it placed a severe thermal load on the pre-igniter wire.
the air annulus surrounding the central electrode causing it to The new method was to place an ionization gap in the com-
operate cooler under given engine heat-flow conditions. For bustion chamber in close proximity to the pre-igniter (Fig. 4).
these reasons an electrically hqated controllable pre-igniter was A potential difference of 40 volts was placed across the gap and
adopted at this stage. the resultant current was fed to the “Y” axis plates of a cathode-
ray oscilloscope, a sharp rise in ionization current indicating the
arrival of the flame at the gap. Under normal engine conditions,
THE E . 6 R A T I N G METHOD
the ionization gap recorded the arrival of the W e , initiated by
Engine. A Ricardo E.6 variable-compression engine was the spark, at about 10-15 deg. late (Fig. 5a). When the tem-
used for these tests. This is a single-cylinder, poppet-valve, perature of the pre-igniter was raised sufficiently, the mixture
four-stroke unit, with a 3-inch bore and 4+inch stroke. A in the vicinity of the filament ignited before the arrival of the
shrouded inlet-valve was fitted to improve the cyclic regularity normal flame from the sparking plug. This was indicated on the
of combustion. oscillograph by the movement of the ionization signal to an

128 E X P E R I M E N T A L I N V E S T I G A T I O N I N T O P R E - I G N I T I O N I N THE S P A R K - I G N I T I O N E N G I N E
10 deg. early f b 10 deg. early f d

Fig. 5. Ionization Traces at Progressively Increasing Electrical Energy Inputs to the Pre-igniter
u Normal combustion. by c, d Auto-ignition of increasing seventy.
earlier timing. As more current was supplied to the pre-igniter, ignition resistance near to that of the test fuel and the resulting
ignition of the charge occurred earlier in the cycle and the rating was obtained by interpolation.
ionization signal was recorded correspondingly earlier (Fig. 5b, c, The information which is available on the fuels used in these
and d). The standard degree of pre-ignition adopted for these tests is shown in Table 2 .
tests was that which gave an ionization signal 10 deg. early on The second column of Table 1 shows knock ratings of fuels
the compression stroke. using the E.6 engine and the power drop highest useful com-
For tests in which it was desired to measure the relative normal
pression ratio (H.U.C.R.) method of test. There is no simple
running and pre-ignition temperatures of the fuels, the pre- relationship between the pre-ignition and knock tendencies of
igniter coil was made in two parts, one of alumel and the other the fuels. Thus, benzene, which has a higher knock rating than
of chromel, forming a junction in the middle of the coil. The iso-octane, has a much lower pre-ignition rating, and the
A.C. component was removed by a filter and the resultant thermal alcohols have high knock ratings but low pre-ignition ratings.
E.M.F. was recorded on a millivoltmeter inserted in the heater The paraffins, particularly iso-octane, have high pre-ignition
circuit. ratings while the naphthene, cyclohexane, has a low rating. The
The standard engine conditions used for the fuel rating tests behaviour of the aromatics is curious. The simplest, benzene,
were :- and the two with long side-chain substitutions, victane and
Engine speed : 2,500 r.p.m. cumene, have low ratings. Toluene, xylene, pseudo-cumene, and
Compression ratio : 6/1. mesitylene, on the other hand, have high ratings. Methyl alcohol
Ignition advance: optimum, 19 deg. early. has a very low rating, lower than cumene, but isopropyl alcohol
260 watts to induction air at 25 deg. C. (corresponding to has a rating number in the region of 40.
an air temperature of 54 deg. C.). The Air Ministry 100-130 grade aviation fuel has the fairly
Coolant temperature: 70 deg. C. high value of 77, probably partly owing to its mainly isoparaf€inic
Mixture strength: that giving maximum pre-ignition base and partly to the high lead content, namely, 5.47 C.C.
tendency. tetraethyl lead per imperial gallon (T.E.L. per I.G.). The two
150 grade fuels tested, had ratings of 62 and 51. The lower rating
Fuel Ratings Using the E.6 Method. Results of rating tests of the second fuel is possibly due to the presence of monomethyl
on both pure substances and typical aircraft-engine blends, are aniline which, later work showed, favoured pre-ignition.
shown in Table. 1. The ratings have been expressed with Table 1 shows, by the widely differing tendencies to pre-ignite
reference to a scale on which iso-octane (2-, 2-, &rimethyl of the various members of the benzene group, that a high aromatic
pentane) is rated at 100, and cumene (isopropyl benzene) at zero. content alone does not necessarily indicate a low pre-ignition
Blends of these two fuels have ratings equivalent.to the volume rating.
percentage of iso-octane. Thus, the blend 60 per cent iso-octane T o determine the differences which might be expected in the
and 40 per cent cumene has a pre-ignition rating of 60. On this pre-ignition performances of typical British motor fuels, tests
scale, a high number indicates a good pre-ignition resistance. were carried out on Petroleum Board reference fuels with octane
Each test fuel was bracketed with two standard blends of pre- numbers varying from 71 to 87, and fuels of widely different

E X P E R I M E N T A L I N V E S T I G A T I O N I N T O P R E - I G N I T I O N I N T H E S P A R K - I G N I T I O N ENGINE 129
composition blended to 80 octane (motor method). T h e com- 2. COMPOSITION OF THE FUELS
TABLE
position of these fuels is given in Table 2.
T h e pre-ignition ratings, together with the Octane numbers
and E.6 H.U.C.R.’sare given in Table 3. Three ratings were
obtained for each fuel, and the results were averaged. Alkylates . . Synthetic gasolenes consisting largely of
octane isomers
TABLE
1. hE-IGNITION AND KNOCK RATINGS OF A SELECTION Hydropetrol . . Produced by hydrogenating a gasolene
OF FUELS derived by cracking gas-oil
~-
Fuel
1 Pre-ignition
E.6
Knock
lE.6H.U.C.R.
Standard No. 2
Standard No. 3
.
.
25 per cent neohexane, 75 per cent alkylates
20 per cent benzolized hydropetrol, 30 per
Iso-octane (2-,2-,4trimethylpentane) 1 100 I 10.96 1 cent toluene
Neohexane . . .I 80 I 9.85
Isododecane . 66 9.30 Experimental 150 35 per cent hydropetrol, 30 per cent octanes,
grade, fuel 1 15 per cent avaro, 10 per cent benzole,
Mixedoctanes . 72 10.85 10 per cent cumene
Alkylates . 77 10.05 Experimental 150 i 85 per cent benzolized hydropetrol, 15 per
grade, fuel 2 1 cent octanes+2 per cent monomethyl ani-
Hydropetrol . 56 7.95 i line(M.M.A.)with7.2c.c.T.E.L.perI.G.
Hydropetrolwith6 C.C. T.E.L. per I.G. 1 75 1 11.80 100-130 grade avia-

tion fuel
Aromatic content 15.2 per cent, lead content
5.47 C.C. T.E.L. per I.G.
Cyclohexane
Benzene
Toluene
.
.
.
: :1-
4 91
:::1
:
15.00
Base for D.T.D. 230 60 per cent paraffins, 33 per cent naphthenes,
6 per cent aromatics, 1 per cent olehs
35 per cent paraffins, 34 per cent naph-

Xylenes (mixed) . . >loo 11.25 thenes)
Cumene (isopropyl benzene) . 0 12.55

Gctane (iso- and n-butyl benzene) . I 10 I 10.30
P.B.3 (motor fuel) . “Pool” spirit with 3.35 C.C. T.E.L. per I.G.
Pseudo cumene (1-, 2-,
benzene) . 1 9.65 P.B.4 (motor fuel) .
Percentage composition as for P.B.l
79 per cent “Pool” spirit, 21 per cent octanes
with 3.6 C.C. T.E.L. per I.G. (13 per cent
Mesitylene (1-, 3-, 5-trimethyl ben-
zene)
Di-isobutylene
.
. .
.
.I
I 100
50
lI - 10.00 80 octane, blend 1
olehs, 9 per cent aromatics, 46 per cent
paraffins, 32 per cent naphthenes)
24 per cent olefins, 22 per cent aromatics,
(motor fuel) 43 per cent paraffins, I 1 per cent naph-
Methylalcohol . <O
-
15.00 thenes
Ethyl alcohol (absolute) . -28 - 80 octane, blend 2

(motor fuel)
57 per cent olehs, 19 per cent aromatics,
12 per cent paraflins, 12 per cent naph-
Ethyl alcohol with 5 per cent water . 4 - ~~
thenes
Industrial methylated spirits (74 over

proof) . . I -19
I
1 13.80
80 octane, blend 3
(motor fuel)
1 per cent olefins, 16 per cent aromatics,
42 per cent paraffins, 41 per cent naph-
thenes with 1 C.C. T.E.L. per I.G.
Isopropyl alcohol . . .1 62 1 13.96 80 octane, blend 4 24 per cent olefins, 17 per cent aromatics,
1 I
(motor fuel) 35 per cent paraffins, 24 per cent naph-
Acetone . 78 c 18.00 thenes with 1-5C.C. T.E.L. Der I.G.
Methyl ethyl ketone . . . -32 15.00 80 octane, blend 5 19 per cent olefins, 12 per cent aromatics,
(motor fuel) 45 per cent paraffins, 24 per cent mph-
Isopropyl ether . . .I 92 I 11.42 thenes with 2.5 C.C. T.E.L. per I.G.
100-130 grade aviation fuel . 77 1238 80 octane, blend 6 9 per cent olehs, 29 per cent a r o m t h
(motor fuel) 30 per cent paraffins, 17 per cent naph-
Standard No. 2 . _____
70 - thenes, 15 per cent ethyl alcohol
Standard No. 3 . 62 - 80 octane, blend 7 17 per cent olehs, 48 per cent aromatics,
(motor fuel) 24 per cent parffis, 11 per cent mph-
StandardNo.4 . .I 71 I - thenes
Experimental 150 grade fuel 1 . 62 - ‘Pool” petrol (motor 1 15 per cent olefins, 14 per cent aromatics,
fuel) i 40 per cent paraffins, 31 per cent naph-
Experimental 150 grade fuel 2 . . 51 - , thenes
1
Base for D.T.D. 230 . 62 - Racing blend 1 . 1 50 per cent aviation gasolene (73 octane
i number), 50 per cent benzole
Racing blend 2 30 per cent ethyl alcohol, 40 per cent aviation
gasolene (73 octane number), 30 per cent
benzole

130 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION I N T O P R E - I G N I T I O N I N T H E S P A R K - I G N I T I O N ENGINE
TABLE
2. COMPOSITION
OF THE FvELs-continued TABLE 3. PRE-IGNITION AND KNOCK RATINGS OF MOTOR
FUELS
Fuel Composition
Pre-ignition rating
Racing blend 3 . 75 per cent ethanol, 14 per cent benzole,
5 per cent acetone, 6 per cent water
1 1
~~~~
Racing blend 4 . 60 per cent methanol, 10 per cent aviation

benzole
P.B.l .
I. 1 11 36 37 1
I 1
(motor
F+t Second Third Average method)
ratmg rating rating
38 I 37 1 71 1 6.55
Racing blend 5 . 96 per cent methanol, 3 per cent acetone,
1 per cent castor oil P.B.2 . . 38 38 39 38 75 7.09
Racing blend 6 . 80 per cent methanol, 10 per cent aviation P.B.3 . . ~~~~~~~~~~~ 7.72
benzole P.B.4 . . I 56 I 57 I 55 I 56 I 87 I 9.17
Racing blend 7
Racing blend 8
.
.
56 per cent ethanol, 3 per cent aviation
benzole, 1 per cent castor oil
84 per cent methanol, 10 per cent benzole,
80octane,blend 1
800ctane~blend2 46
80octane,blend3
1 I 1I 1 1 1
I
59
- 59
-58 -59 80.6
-
51
7.97
~
I
46
49
40
50 I
44
50 I
79.7
81.5 I
7.82
8.08
5 per cent acetone, 1 per cent castor oil
80 octane, blend 4
Racing blend 9 . 80 per cent methanol, 6 per cent benzole,
2-5 per cent acetone, 4 per cent water, 80 octane, blend 5
4.5 per cent aviation gasolene (87 octane
number), 2 per cent nitrobenzene, 1 per
cent lubricating oil
80octane,blend6 I 32 1 32 1 31 1 32 1 80.4 1 8.43
Racing blend 10 . 75 per cent methanol, 14 per cent benzole,

5 per cent acetone, 6 per cent water
Racing blend 11 . 56.5 per cent methanol, 28 per cent ethanol, Benzole blend .I 10 1 9 I 8 1 9 I 70.0 I -
4 3 per cent acetone, 7 per cent hydro-
petrol, 4 per cent water with 1 C.C. T.E.L.
per I.G.
Toluene blend . I 38 1 38 I 39 I 38 I 70.0 1 - ~
Match for Gennan 85 parts methanol, 10 parts acetone, 1 part NOTE.-The test conditions for knock ratings (H.U.C.R.’s) were
Grand Prix fuel ether, 2+ parts water, 5 parts nitrobenzene identical with those for the pre-ignition tests except that the inlet-
(racing fuel) air temperature was 35 deg. C. and maximum knock mixture-
strength was used.
Benzole blend Base petrol spirit with addition of 50 per cent
benzene to give octane number of 70
Toluene blend . Base petrol spirit with addition of 40 per cent
toluene to give octane number of 70
Again there is little relationship between the pre-ignition

ratings and the knock ratings of the fuels. T h e ratings of the Fuel Pre-ignition Knock
series P.B.1, P.B.2, and P.B.3 show the tendency of tetraethyl E.6 E.6 H.U.C.R.
lead to prevent pre-ignition. The high rating of P.B.4 is a
reflection of its high iso-octane content. Blends 6 and 7 (alcohol Racing blend 1 . 25 9.46
and benzole) have, as expected, low ratings. T h e relatively high
rating of the sample of “Pool” sMrit is probably due to the
Racing blend2 . . . I 12 1 11.62
presence of tetraethyl lead.
Table 3 indicates the repeatability of pre-ignition ratings with
Racing blend3 . . .I 0 1 13.71
fuels of this type. The repeatability for the fuels listed in Table 1 Racing blend 4 . . . 1- -lor 1 ~ - - 1 2 6 0
which had unusual volatility or combustion characteristics was,
however, not so good. Racing blend 5 . . .I -168 1 1356
In Table 4 the pre-ignition ratings of some typical motor
racing fuels are compared with their corresponding H.U.C.R.
Racing blend 6 . . .1 -139 I 12.85
knock ratings.
Although all these fuels have low pre-ignition ratings, the
figures relate to maximum pre-ignition mixture strength, whereas
the mixture generally used in racing practice is considerably
richer, when the tendency to pre-ignite is much less.
Racing blend 7
Racing blend 8
Racing blend 9
.
.
. . .
1I -137
-133
2
j
12.61
13-36
1359
~
The fuels fall into two well-defined groups, consisting of those

containing methanol, which have very low ratings, and those Racing blend 10 . . . I -100 [ -
without methanol whose ratings are considerably higher, but not
so high as those of fuels such as iso-octane and toluene.
Racing blend 11
.
Match for German Grand Prix fuel
.
.. 1 -77
-112 I 13.90
15.33
THE cc DAGGER” RATING METHOD
Initially the pre-ignition investigation was mainly concerned
with aircraft engine fuels, and, as there was some doubt whether
Match for German Grand Prix fuel
(without nitrobenzene) . . . 1 -96 154.9
the ratings obtained on the small normally-aspirated E.6 engine NOTE.-The test conditions for knock ratings were identical with those
would be applicable to aircraft conditions, tests were commenced for the pre-ignition rests except that the inlet-air temperature was
on a Napier “Dagger” aircraft engine cylinder. 35 deg. C. and maximum knock mixture-strength was used.

EXPERIMENTAL I N V E S T I G A T I O N I N T O P R E - I G N I T I O N I N T H E S P A R K - I G N I T I O N ENGINE 131
Engine. A standard Napier “Dagger” piston, cylinder, and towards the exhaust-valve side of the combustion chamber. A
valve gear were assembled with a Ricardo crankcase, crankshaft, Standard-Sunbury pressure pick-up was mounted in the
and connecting rod. The engine bore is 97 rnm.and the stroke opposite side and was used for the detection and assessment of
95 mm. The compression ratio is 7.1 /I. pre-ignition.
At the start of a test the air flow to the pre-igniter was such
Pre-igniter. Preliminary tests were carried out using thermo- that pre-ignition was avoided on all fuels. The air flow was then
couple plugs and coiled pre-igniters, but these were either in- slowly reduced, and was recorded when the standard degree of
sufficientlyrobust or caused pre-ignition without added electrical pre-ignition was obtained. The amount of air necessary to
energy under supercharged conditions. prevent pre-ignition was used as a measure of the pre-ignition
Electrically heated pre-igniters are inherently unsuitable for tendency of the fuel. A high air-flow indicated a fuel of low pre-
use in a boosted engine because the temperature of a thermally ignition resistance and vice versa. The air flow was metered by
isolated spot in the combustion chamber is suf€icient to cause inserting a restricting orifice in the cooling-air line to the pre-
pre-ignition at a low boost without the addition of electrical igniter plug, and measuring the pressure drop across it.
energy. If, to cool the plug, the heat path to the outside air is Typical rate of change of pressure diagrams are shown in
improved, the electrical energy is not completely utilized in Fig. lb. The standard intensity of pre-ignition used in these
heating the plug, an appreciable proportion being dissipated to tests corresponds with curve No. 3 of Fig. lb. The degree of
the outside air. Under these conditions the energy input required pre-ignition was not severe but was deliberately chosen to avoid
to cause pre-ignition is an inaccurate guide to the pre-ignition possible damage to the engine and pre-igniter from continuous
tendency of the fuel. operation under excessively severe pre-ignition conditions.
An air-cooled pre-igniter plug will overcome these difliculties The standard engine conditions used for fuel rating were :-
as it can be constructed to run at a temperature high enough to Engine speed : 3,000 r.p.m.
cause pre-ignition on any fuel without added energy, the tem- Compression ratio : 7.1/1.
perature being controlled by an internal air current. Ignition advance : 56 deg. early.
The pre-igniter used with the “Dagger” rating method had a Induction air temperature: 80 deg. C.
central tube constructed of Nimonic 75 or 80 material mounted Induction air pressure :35 inches of mercury (abs.).
in an adaptor of stainless steel (Fig. 6). An alumel wire was Constant cooling-air supply to cylinder.
Mixture strength: that giving maximum pre-ignition
tendency.
A‘R TPLY Fuel Ratings Using the “Dagger” Method. Table 5 shows the
F7 ratings obtained on a selection of fuels using the “Dagger”

method. The results are again based on an iso-octane and
cumene scale.
k TERMINALS FOR
PYROMETER LEADS
CHROMEL LEAD
Mixedoctanes
Cydohexane
Benzene .
.
.
Fuel
Iso-octane (2-, 2-, Ctrimethyl pentane) .

. .)
Pre-ignition
rating
100
92
<O
9
Toluene . . . I 120
Xylenes (mixed)
Cumene .
Victane .
.
::I
. . (
100
13
0
INSULATING TUBE
Methylalcohol . . .I (0
.I
~ ~~ ~
(FUSED ALUMINA)
100-130 grade aviation fuel . . 87
Standard No. 3 . . .I 77
The relative ratings are, in general, similar to those obtained

on the E.6 engine. An exception is toluene which the E.6 method
rates lower than iso-octane but which the “Dagger” method
SPOT WELDED places higher. Methyl alcohol pre-ignited most readily and auto-
THERMOCOUPLE * ignition occurred even when the cooling air to the pre-igniter
CENTRAL TUBE
S 75 OR 80)
was increased to the maximum available (30per cent more than
that required for cumene, the low standard).
Fig. 6. Air-cooled Pre-igniter Evidence suggests that the differences in pre-ignition ratings
of aircraft fuels of normal compositions are small, except when
welded to the tube in the position of maximum temperature, methanol-water injection is used. An appreciable proportion of
to form a thermocouple. The temperature of the pre-igniter was methanol could be expected to increase the tendency to pre-
raised by contact with the combustion gases and was controlled ignite, particularly as, in practice, the engine boost-pressure is
by a variable air supply conveyed to the inner end of the central increased as the fluid is introduced.
tube by hypodermic tubing. The pre-igniter was screwed into Tests were conducted to find the relative pre-ignition ten-
a holein the combustion chamber near to the sparking plug and dencies of a selection of alcohol-water power-boosting mixtures.

132 E X P E R I M E N T A L I N V E S T I G A T I O N INTO P R E - I G N I T I O N I N THE S P A R K - I G N I T I O N ENGINE
Each mixture was injected in the proportion of 25 per cent by Some idea of the value of rating numbers in terms of engine
volume of the fuel (100-130 grade aviation fuel). Table.6 lists variables is given in Table 7, which shows, for a selection of
the blends tested and the pre-ignition ratings obtained. These fuels, the induction pressures, limited by pre-ignition, at a
ratings were obtained under standard test conditions at constant constant cooling air flow to the pre-igniter.
induction pressure. The results for the alcohol-water mixtures,
while comparative among themselves, should not be related to
P R E - I G N I T I O N TENDENCY A N D HOT-SPOT TEMPERATURE
T A S6.~PRE-IGNITION RATINGS WITH VARIOUS
ALCOHOL- Some earlier workers used the hot-spot temperature necessary
WATER PO--BOOST INJECTION MIXTURES to induce pre-ignition as the measure of the pre-ignition tendency
of the fuel-the lower the temperature the greater the pre-
I
ignition tendency. This method, however, fails to take a c c o ~ t
Reference
-
number
I Blend
100-130 grade aviation fuel

Pre-
igniuon
rating
87
of the variations in engine operating temperatures with different
fuels.
I,200
1 100-130 grade aviation fuel with 25 per cent 78

by volume of a 60140 mixture of methanol >/ I
and water I
q I.IO0:- PRE-IGNITION TEMPERA IRE -
2 100-130 grade aviation fuel with 25 per cent
by volume of a 60/40mixture of methanol
82 BI
and water and 1 per cent by volume of YI
cd
Dromus oil 3
I- 1.000-
3 100-130 grade aviation fuel with 25 per cent 78 2

n
by volume of a 50/50 mixture of methanol 5
and water I-
-~
4 100-130 grade aviation fuel with 25 per cent 83
by volume of a 50/50 mixture of methanol
and water and 1 per cent by volume of ATURE
Dromus oil
100-130 grade aviation fuel with 25 per cent 72
by volume of a 70/30 mixture of methanol
and water
by volume of a 50/25/25 mixture of water,
methanol, and ethanol
7
I 100-130 grade aviation fuel with 25 per cent
by volume of ethanol
8
1 100-130 grade aviation fuel with 25 per cent
by volume of methanol
30

by volume of water
100-130 grade aviation fuel alone, as in practice the induction

pressure without injection will be lower.
No. 2 mixture is that commonly used in Europe, while No. 3 PERCENTAGE OF ISO-OCTANE IN BLEI
OF ISO-OCTANE AND CUMENE
is used in the United States. No. 2 mixture has a slightly higher
rating, evidently owing to the presence of 1 per cent Dromus oil Fig. 7. Pre-ignition Tests on Blends of Iso-octane and
Cumene (E.6 Engine)
7. PRE-IGNITION
TABLE RATING NUMBWS IN TERMS
OF Standard test conditions.
INDUCTIONPRESSURES
With a two-component fuel blend, for example, iso-octane
Fuel Induction pressure, and cumene, there is a simple relationship between the pre-
limited by pre-ignition, ignition temperature, the normal running temperature, and the
inches ofmercury (abs.) pre-ignition tendency (Fig. 7), but this relationship does not
exist for all fuels.
Cumene . 35.0 It might be expected that the normal running temperature of
the hot-spot would be related to the fiame temperature of the fuel.
Iao-octane . * .I 38.9 Fig. 8 shows calculated flame-temperatures and experimentally
1W130 grade aviation fuel . - .I 385 determined normal running temperatures, plotted against the
carbon/hydrogen ratio of some pure hydrocarbons. The flame
100-130 grade aviation fuel with 25 per cent
by volume of water . . I 44.6
temperature appears to increase in a regular manner with the
carbon/hydrogen ratio but, although there is a general tendency
for normal running temperature to increase similarly, the scatter
of points is much greater than with the flame-temperature curve.
(added as a corrosion inhibitor). The beneficial effect of the Cyclohexane, for instance, has a much higher normal running
Dromus oil is also reflected in the enhanced rating of blend temperature relative to iso-octane than would be expected from
No. 4. its flame temperature. Methanol, with a normal running tem-
An increase in the methanol content of the mixture reduces perature of 940 deg. C. and a flame temperature of 2,585 deg. C.,
the pre-ignition rating, and substitution of ethanol for methanol is another fuel which appears to give an unexpectedly high hot-
in the mixture raises it. spot temperature in the engine (although the general level of

engine temperatures is usually much lower with methanol). The This would appear to parallel some work of David (1943), who
slope of the normal running temperature curve is similar to that observed that the temperature recorded in the flame gases with
of the flame-temperature curve, although the former is a mean a platinum-rhodium wire was higher than that recorded by a
and the latter is the maximum cycle-temperature. It appears, quartz-covered wire of the same material. No difference was
therefore, that there is a factor in addition to flame temperature observed, however, in the case of over-rich mixtures. David
which helps to determine the normal running temperature of the attributed this temperature difference to the catalytic effect of
fuel. This factor is probably surface catalysis. the platinum in the recombination of abnormally dissociated
products in the flame gases.
Coward and Guest (1927) observed higher surface ignition
temperature with platinum than with other materials and
suggested that the mixture in contact with the platinum was
consumed so rapidly that it was incapable of propagating a W e ,
even though its temperature was higher than the ignition tem-
perature of the mixture. This may explain why, in the engine
experiments, although the pre-igniter temperature was higher
with platinum, pre-ignition did not always occur at a lower
compression-ratio with this material.
T H E EFFECT O F E N G I N E VARIABLES O N P R E - I G N I T I O N
Increase of induction pressure at constant speed, by increasing
either the throttle opening or the boost pressure, promotes pre-
ignition by increasing the rate of heat transfer to the hot-spot,
PRE-IGNITION TEMPERATURE I
40
D-9- ’I I
NORMAL RUNNING TEMPERATURE
FUEL MOLECULE CARBON/HYDROGEN RATIO
Fig. 8. Variation of Flame and Pre-igniter Temperatures

with the Fuel Carbon/Hydrogen Ratio (E.6 Engine)
Standard test conditions. Single alumel-chrome1 wire pre-igniter.
Calculation: compression ratio 7/1; mixture 12 per cent rich;
mixture at inlet valve closure assumed at 100 deg. C.; atmospheric
pressure, fuel completely vaporised.
Pre-ignition temperature is a rather more complex variable

and is related to the chemical properties of the fuel in addition
to the physical properties. Insufficient laboratory data on these
fuels are available to enable much to be said about the correlation
between them. So far as engine pre-ignition temperatures are
concerned there are some apparent anomalies. Thus, benzene,
which in the E.6 engine was observed to have a generally higher
pre-ignition temperature than iso-octane, had a lower pre-
ignition temperature than iso-octane in the “Dagger” unit. This
again is possible due to a catalytic effect resulting from the
generally higher level of pre-igniter temperatures in the E.6
engine.
T H E EFFECT OF H O T - S P O T M A T E R I A L
During the course of the investigations some interesting
results were obtained when using hot-spots made of different
materials. Comparative tests on thermocouple sparking plugs Ib i0
fitted with platinum and nickel-silicon central electrodes showed WEAK MIXTURE STRE$GTH-PER CENT RICH
that, at mixture strengths ranging from very weak to about 20 per Fig. 9. Effect of Mixture Strength on the Pre-ignition
cent rich, the platinum plug operated at about 100 deg. C. higher Tendency of Various Fuels (“Dagger” Unit)
than the nickel-silicon plug. With richer mixtures, on the other
hand, there was a tendency for the platinum plug temperature Standard test conditions.
to fall to the same level as that of the nickel-silicon plug, and at Fuels: x 100-130 grade. A Cumene.
very rich mixtures, to be lower. o Benzene. Iso-octane.

134 EXPERIMENTAL I N V E S T I G A T I O N I N T O P R E - I G N I T I O N I N T H E S P A R K - I G N I T I O N E N G I N E
intake air pressure. Curves of boost pressure, limited by pre-
and increasing the temperature and pressure of the charge.
Increasing the compression ratio has a similar effect. ignition, were obtained at speeds of 1,750-3,750 r.p.m. with
leaded iso-octane. Maximum pre-ignition mixture-strength and
The effect of mixture strength on pre-ignition (“Dagger”
unit) is shown in Fig. 9. At the mixture strength givbg optimum ignition advance were used in all cases.
The results are shown in Fig. 11. The boost pressure, limited
maximum pre-ignition, 5-10 per cent richer than the chemically
correct mixture, the pre-ignition temperature is, in general, at
a minimum and the normal running temperature is at a
maximum. : 0 I-0 9
Similar results were obtained on the E.6 engine (Fig. 10). All
the fuels were found to have similar characteristics, with regard
to the effect of mixture strength on pre-ignition, the maximum
pre-ignition mixture-strength occurred with a mixture about
2 1.500 I I I I I 1
d
YI
a
700 6
+
CL
u1
I-
z
Y
17 500 2
n
W
zz
z
a
3
i
20 ,sbo
I 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500
z ENGINE SPEED-R.P.M.
Fig. 11. Effect of Engine Speed on Pre-ignition, Limited by
Boost Pressure (“Dagger” Unit)
Test conditions : inlet-air temperature, 80 deg. C. ;ignition advance,
optimum for each engine speed; constant cooling air-flowto cylinder;
maximum pre-ignition mixture-strength.
Fuel : iso-octane with 4 C.C. T.E.L.per I.G.
by pre-ignition, decreases with increase in speed from 1,750 to

between 3,000 and 3,500 r.p.m., and at higher speeds rises again.
A similar result was obtained with leaded cumene.
The effect of engine speed on pre-ignition is twofold. Firstly,
increase in speed decreases the induction time interval for
ignition to occur, and consequently necessitates an increase in
hot-spot temperature to cause ignition of the mixture ;secondly,
MIXTURE STRENGTH -PERCENTAGE OF CHEMICALLY in general, increase in speed increases the heat flow to the hot-
CORRECT STRENGTH
spot, thus raising the normal operating temperature of the
Fig. 10. Effect of Mixture Strength on the Pre-ignition hot-spot. Heat flow, however, increases with speed only up to a
Tendency of Various Fuels (E.6Engine) certain limit, and thereafter decreases owing to reduction in
Standard test conditions. engine volumetric efficiency and other factors. This is shown in
Fig. 12, the curves 0f which were obtained under normally
Fuels: x Standard No. 4. A Toluene.
aspirated conditions in the absence of both knock and pre-
0 Iso-octane. + Benzene. ignition. The pre-igniter temperature peaks between 3,250 and
0 Cyclohexane.
3,500 r.p.m., the same speed range over which the cylinder tem-
perature becomes a maximum. Even before the peak, the rate of
10-15 per cent rich, that is, at about maximum power mixture- increase with speed has reduced considerably.
strength. This agrees with earlier findings on the engine, when At all speeds just below that for maximum heat flow therefore,
the variable compression method of test with a thermocouple the normal running temperature of the hot-spot increases at a
plug was used. With the possible exception of iso-octane, the greater rate than the pre-ignition temperature of the mixture,
pre-ignition temperatures do not appear to be greatly affected by thus increasing the tendency to pre-ignite. At higher speeds,
mixture strength. The normal running temperature of the plug owing to a reduction in the rate of rise of normal running
is, however, highest at about *maximum-power mixture, thus temperature, and eventually to its actual decrease, there is a
giving maximum pre-ignition tendency at this mixture-strength. reduction in the tendency to pre-ignite. Maximum pre-ignition
The effect of speed on pre-ignition was determined in the tendency appears to occur at an engine speed just below that
“Dagger” unit by a test in which the heat factor of the pre- for maximum heat flow.
igniter was held constant by an unvarying cooling air-flow, and Fig. 11 also shows a curve of knock-limited boost against
the onset of pre-ignition was controlled by adjusting the engine speed, obtained on the “Dagger” unit under conditions similar
8

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION I N T O P R E - I G N I T I O N I N THE S P A R K - I G N I T I O N E N G I N E 135
m
n.
I40 m
1
4
y!
I30 f
--
’ 60 ‘
I,h
I
1,500
I
2,000
I
2,500
I
3,000
I
I
3,500
I
4,000
IGNITION ADVANCE--DEGREES
Fig. 13. Effect of Ignition Timing on Pre-ignition (“Dagger”
ENGINE SPEED-R.P.M. Unit)
Standard test conditions.
Fig. 12. “Dagger” Unit Characteristics over a Speed Range
Fuels: A Iso-octane. 0 Cumene.
Test conditions : inlet-& temperature, 80 deg. C.;ignition advance,
optimum for each engine speed; constant cooling air-flow to cylinder;
maximum power mixture-strength; normal aspiration.
Fuel: iso-octane plus 4 C.C. T.E.L. per I.G.
to those used in the pre-ignition tests. With knock, the decreasing

induction time interval for the knocking reactions to occur,
results in the anti-knock effect of increasing speed.
Fig. 13 shows the effect of ignition advance on pre-ignition.
The tendency to pre-ignite is increased as the ignition is
advanced, owing to the rise in normal running temperature
resulting from the generally higher temperatures and pressures
associated with the more advanced timing. The pre-ignition
temperature remains sensibly constant over the ignition-advance
range.
The effect of the inlet-air temperature on pre-ignition is small
(Fig. 14). With iso-octane, a rise in inlet air temperature increases
the pre-ignition tendency and with cumene a slight decrease is
apparent. Tetraethyl lead appears to be more effective as a pre-
ignition prevention agent at the high temperature than at the
low. The effect is similar, but not so pronounced, with aniline.
Fig. 15 shows that the pre-ignition tendency increases with
increase in cylinder temperature. Leaded .fuels were used
because clear (unleaded) iso-octane and cumene knocked at
cylinder temperatures above 230 deg. C. The increase in pre-
ignition tendency appears to be due to a combination of increase
in normal running temperature and decrease in pre-ignition
temperature, as the temperature of the cylinder is raised.
T H E EFFECT OF F U E L A D D I T I V E S O N P R E - I G N I T I O N
Experiments with the thermocouple plug showed that the

addition of lead to a fuel lowered the normal operating tempera-
ture of the plug and raised the compression ratio necessary to
cause pre-ignition (Fig. 16). For a given fuel, the effect of
tetraethyl lead is approximately constant over a range of mixture

136 E X P E R I M E N T A L INVESTIGATION I N T O P R E - I G N I T I O N I N T H E SPARK-IGNITXON ENGINE
1,000 enables the compression ratio, limited by pre-ignition, to be
u: increased by 0.7511 whereas the same quantity of tetraethyl lead
2
n would enable the knock-limited compression ratio to be raised
w
I by as much as 311.
800 5 Fig. 17 shows some lead response curves obtained on the
I-
“Dagger” unit. The curve on cyclohexane was commenced with
dw a lead concentration of 4 C.C. T.E.L. per I.G. to avoid knock.
E
600
:t:
I-
Z
w&
400
I
HEAT TRANSFER
I 0
3
-300 5
Y
4
d
c
250
ul
r
-kz--Lu 220 2-40
CYLINDER TEMPERATURE-0EG.C.
260 280
(EXHAUST SIDE)
Fig. 15. Effect of Cylinder Temperature on Pre-ignition
3M)
(“Dagger” Unit) I !--!

II I2 13 14 IS I6
Standard test conditions. AIR
Fuels: o Benzene. A Iso-octane plus 4 C.C. T.E.L. per I.G.
RATIO-FUEL
Fig. 16. Effect of Lead on Pre-ignition with Iso-octane

strengths from chemically correct mixture to 45 per cent rich. (E.6 Engine)
Table 8 gives the effect of the addition of 4 C.C. T.E.L. per Fuels : 0 Iso-oaane. x Isosctane plus 4 C.C. T.E.L. per I.G.
I.G. on the pre-ignition characteristics of a number of fuels, at Test conditions:speed, 2,500 r.p.m. ;inlet-air temperature, 54 deg. C. ;
3naximum power mixture-strength. The effect of the same jacket temperature, 100 deg. C.; optimum ignition advance for each
&/fuel ratio and each compression ratio.
TABLE
9. ~ OF AMINas ON AN
C OF AT SELECTION
ISOPARAFPINIC
FUEL
Fuel Effect of tetra- Effect of tetra- Effect of tetra-
ethyl. lead on ethyl lead. on
pre-igmtion
ethyl lead on
compression normal running
Aromatic amine I Dropinrating
temperature,
deg. C.
rauo a!
pre-igmtion
temperature,
deg. C.
Aniline (2+ per cent by volume)
~~ ~
.
~~~~
. .I 9.5
Benzene . . I -10 1 +0.25 I -77

Monomethyl aniline (5 per cent by volume) .I ~ 16.0
. .I
I 1 I
Dimethyl aniline (5 per cent by volume) 21.5
Iso-octane. . -85 +0.75 -27
Mixed octanes . -50 +0.75 -54

Ethyl aniline (5 per cent by volume) . .I 26.5
Cyclohexane .I -60 I +0.75 I -70

Xylidines (5 per cent by volume) . . .I 9.5
Standard No. 2 . -77 I +1.0 I -66

There is a marked difference between the effects of the
aromatic amines on pre-ignition and knock. Aniline and mono-
methyl aniline are strong anti-knocks but favour pre-ignition.
Table 9 shows the effect of a selection of amines in an iso-
paraffinic fuel (Standard No. 2).
The amines had very little effect upon either the normal
running temperature or the pre-ignition temperature of the fuel.

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION I N T O P R E - I G N I T I O N I N THE S P A R K - I G N I T I O N ENGINE 137
with fuels which also have a cclow’’temperature peninsula
(Downs and Walsh 1949). Correlation between the effect of
additives on the knock tendencies of the two types of fuel in the
engine and their effect on the “high” and “low” temperature
ignition-processes in the laboratory assisted in the establishment
of this theory.
Townend and Mandlekar (1933) found that the curve of
ignition temperature against pressure, for a higher para5nic
fuel, showed two main regions. One was a so-called “high”
temperature region and, superimposed upon this, was the other,
a so-called “low” temperature ignition-peninsula (Fig. 18).
The chemical mechanisms assodated with combustion in these
two regions appear to be quite different. Thus cool flames and
peroxides are associated with ignition in the “low‘y but not in
the “high” temperature region. It might be expected that the
600
1 1
I I I I I
I 2 3 4
I
5 6 7
I
I8
PRESSURE-ATMOSPHERES
Fig. 18. Ignition Temperature and Pressure Curve for
Iso-octane
Miaure :4.7 per Cent iso-octane; 95.3 per cent air.
pre-ignition process, occurring at relatively high temperatures

and short induction periods when compared with knock, would
occur by a “high” temperature mechanism. A test with
CONCENTRATION OF TETRAETHYL LEAD-C.C. PER IMPERIAL GAL. formaldehyde on the E.6 engine appeared to confirm this.
Formaldehydehas a pro-oxidant effect in the “high” temperature
Fig. 17. Auto-ignition Lead Response (“Dagger” Unit) process in the laboratory (Chamberlain and Walsh 1949) and
Standard test conditions. in confirmation it has been found to favour pre-ignition in
iso-octane, cumene, benzene, and other fuels, in the engine,
the effect being most pronounced with benzene.
COMBUSTION UNDER PRE-IGNITION CONDITIONS The results of further tests on additives in the “Dagger” unit
At this stage it was decided to extend the additive investigation are shown in Table 10. Tetraethyl lead is the only additive which
to cover other additives which are known to have a significant resists pre-ignition in all fuels. Methyl iodide resists pre-ignition
effect on hydrocarbon combustion, and it was hoped to learn in the two fuels of low pre-ignition resistance, benzene and
something of the chemical nature of the pre-ignition process. cumene, but promotes pre-ignition slightly in toluene and iso-
Such an approach has proved valuable in an associated funda- octane. Nitrogen peroxide, in agreement with its effect on the
mental knock investigationand enabled two chemicalmechanisms high temperature oxidation process, strongly promotes pre-
whereby knock may occur to be isolated, one with fuels which ignition. Organic peroxides, M.M.A.,amyl nitrite, nitro-benzene,
oxidize only by a “high” temperature process, and the other and nitro-ethane, all have promoting effects. Acetaldehyde
TABLE
10. EFFECT
OF ADDITIVES ON PRE-IGNITION RATINGS
b
Fuel Nitro- Acetalde- Methyl Nitrogen
benzene hyde iodide tetroxide
2 1.25 1 5
0 I -6 I -8 -18 I +17 1 -15
Benzene . .I I -18 I -21 I -25 1 -35

Toluene . -19 -20 -19 -35 -19
Iso-octanewith 4 C.C.
T.E.L. per I.G. . -2 -6 -4 -15 !i
138 EXPERIMENTAL I N V E S T I G A T I O N I N T O P R E - I G N I T I O N I N T H E S P A R K - I G N I T I O N E N G I N E
appears to be without effect. This is unexpected in view of the and this would put the mixture in a condition favourable for
strong oxidizing effect of this substance in the laboratory ignition by the hot-spot, Conversely, a large hot-spot, such as an
(Chamberlain and Walsh). exhaust valve, might heat a volume of gas in its immediate
The effects of these additives on the normal running and vicinity thus predisposing it to ignite spontaneously.
pre-ignition temperatures of the fuels is shown in Tables 11 T o investigate the relationship, if any, between pre-ignition
and 12. I n most cases the effect of an additive is explicable in and running on, two blends were made to have the same
terms of its effect on pre-ignition temperature. The effect on Co-operative Fuel Research (C.F.R.) knock rating but widely
normal running temperature is in all cases very small, even with differing pre-ignition ratings, This was achieved by adding
tetraethyl lead, which other experiments suggested lowered the 40 per cent toluene and 50 per cent benzene to a base to give,
normal running temperature. in both cases, a fuel of octane number 70. As expected, the .
These tests, while not conclusive, are in accord with the theory benzole blend had a much lower pre-ignition rating than the
that pre-ignition occurs by a chemical mechanism similar to toluene blend (Table 3). These fuels were tested for running
“high” temperature oxidation in the laboratory. on tendency in a typical road-vehicle engine and gave similar
11. EFFECT
TABLE OF ADDITIVES ON NO+ RUNNINGTEMPERATURES
Temperature changes are given in deg. C.
Fuel
1 1 1
Additive t-Butyl M.M.A.
hydro-
peroxide
2: 1 Nitro- Acetalde- Methyl
benzene hyde iodide
Nitrogen
tetroxide
Nitro-
ethane
Tetra- Formalde-
ethyl
lead
hyde
2 2 1.25 1 0.05 1 5
Isooctane . .I 1 0 1 - 5 1 - 1 0 0 +5 +I0 0
. -
:I
Cumene 0 0 0 0 0 +I0 -10
Benzene . 1 - 5 1 O I + 5 I - - l a 0 0 0 0 - 15
0 - 0
TABLE
12. EFFECT
OF ADDITIVES ON m - I G N I T I O N TEMPERATURES
Temperature changes are given in deg. C.
Fuel Additive t-Butyl Acetalde- Methyl Nitrogen Nitro-

hydro- hyde iodide tetroxide ethane
peroxide
Percentage
mol/mol 2 5 2 2 1.25 1
Iso-octane . 0 -75 - -80 0
Cumene . - -20 -20 -35 -- -20
Benzene
-
. -35 -35 -35 -60 0 -45 -50 -40
Toluene . -70 -60 1 -45 1 -105 I 0 I -35 1 -45 I -70 1 - 1 ~~
-80
“RUNNING ON” results. The toluene blend was rather worse than the benzole.
“Running on” is the term applied to the condition in which This result suggests that there is little relation between high-
the engine continues to idle after the throttle has been closed and speed pre-ignition and running on.
the ignition switched off. There has been considerable interest in
this phenomenon since the 1939-45 war. CONCLUSION
One suggestion with regard to running on has been that it is The experimental investigation did not yield much informa-
related to high-speed auto-ignition from a hot-spot, and another tion on the destructive effects of pre-ignition in service, because
that it is due to spontaneous ignition of the fuel-air mixture. If, it was necessary to limit the severity of conditions in order to
under normal running conditions, the temperature of a com- obtain repeatable observations. Pre-ignition of sufficient severity
bustion chamber hot-spot is below that required to give auto- to stop the engine was frequently encountered on the E.6 engine,
ignition or pre-ignition, it is possible that, as the ignition is and had no serious consequences. The E.6 engine is, however,
switched off and the speed falls, the increase in the time interval a sturdy unit of large thermal capacity and would be capable of
available for ignition would favour hot-spot ignition. I n addition, absorbing a considerable increase of heat flow without iil effect.
it might be expected that the hot-spot would require time to I n a multi-cylinder engine of small thermal capacity, such as an
cool from its normal operating temperature and so, for a time, air-cooled military aircraft unit, the destructive effects of pre-
would be above the equilibrium temperature for the low speed ignition are more obvious (Hundere 1948; Hundere and Burt
condition. Spontaneous ignition, on the other hand, would be 1948; Cattaneo and Viscia 1947). Pre-ignition failures often
assisted at the low speed condition by the low rate of air flow take the form of burning of the piston on one side, caused by a
through the induction pipe, often in close proximity to the hot combination of increased heat-flow and blow-by owing to failure
exhaust, resulting in a high inlet mixture temperature, and also, of the piston rings to retain the increased pressures. There have
in some cases, to a low rate of cooling of the combustion chamber been instances of pistons having burned through at the crowns.
at low speeds owing to poor circulation of the coolant. Photomicrographs show that pre-ignition can fuse the aluminium
The two phenomena are related in that some pre-reaction of alloy of the piston, but knock erodes it, that is, physically removes
the mixture undoubtedly o c m s under running on conditions the metal without melting it. The major damage is, therefore,

brought about by the increased heat flow j the pressures may not BIERMANN, A. E., and CORRINGTON,L. C. 1943 N.A.C.A.,
be more than 40 per cent higher with pre-ignition if the normal A.R.R., “Relation qf Pre-ignition and Knock to Allowable
spark-ignition is near the optimum. Engine Temperatures”.
The most common source of pre-ignition is the sparking plug.
Ceramic plugs, which were generally introduced in 1940, are CATTANEO, A. G., and VISCIA,E. P. 1947 JI. SOC.Automotive
capable of withstanding more arduous Conditions than mica Eng., vol. 55, p. 54, “Pre-ignition Piston Failures
plugs but, particularly in the early days of the war and in the Diagnosed in Single-cylinder Tests”.
United States, there was trouble owing to insulators cracking. CHAMBERLAIN, G. H. N., and W ~ S HA. , D. 1949 Revue de
Pieces of the ceramic became trapped in the space behind the 1’Inst. Franpis du Pet., vol. 4, p. 301, “The Slow
electrodes, and these, being thermally isolated, could become Oxidation of Diisopropyl Ether m the Temperature
very hot and cause pre-ignition. Range 360-460 deg. C.”.
The use of a low-tension surface discharge plug for ignition COMBINEDINTELLIGENCE OBJECTIVESSUB-COMMITTEB1945
purposes would eliminate the possibility of pre-ignition from the Report No. 33, Appendix No. 38A.
sparking plug. Their “self-cleaning” action permits a high heat- CORRINGTON, L. C., and FISHW,W. F. 1948 N.A.C.A.
factor without the risk of oiling at low-duty conditions. Work was Technical Note No. 1637, “The Effect of Pre-ignition on
carried out on these plugs in Germany during the war (Com- Cylinder Temperatures”.
bined Intelligence Objective Sub-committee 1945) and further
experiments are now proceeding in Europe and the United COWARD,H. F., and GUEST,P. G. ’ 1927 Jl. h e r . Chem.
States. If certain difficulties owing to erosion of the electrode SOC., vol. 49, p. 2479, “Ignition of Natural Gas-air
material and the insulator can be overcome, these plugs will Mixtures by Heated Metal Bars”.
probably prove useful for both road-vehicle and aircraf3-engine DAVID,W. T. 1943 Nature, vol. 152, p. 278, “Temperature of
applications. Flame Gases”.
The exhaust valve is another probable source of pre-ignition. DOWNS,D., and WALSH,A. D. 1949 Nature, vol. 163, p. 370,
Its temperature will, in general, be lower than that of the spark- “Knock in Internal Combustion Engines”.
ing plug, but its area is greater. Over-heating of the valve as a
result of improper seating, and scaling of the crown from HUNDERE,A. 1948 Symposium on Aircraft Reciprocating
oxidation and corrosion, may lead to pre-ignition. Data obtained Engines and Their Fuels (Co-orbating Research
by the N.A.C.A. have shown that in a particular engine pre- Council, Inc., 20 Rockefeller Plaza, New York 20).
ignition was obtained from the exhaust valve at a temperature of HUNDERE,A., and BURT,J. A. 1948 Quarterly Trans. SOC.
730 deg. C. when the crown was scaly. With a clean and smooth Automotive Eng., vol. 2, p. 546, “Pre-ignition and its
crown no pre-ignition was obtained at a temperature of 1,000 Deleterious Effects in Aircraft Engines”.
deg. C. (Sutor, Corrington, and Dudugjian 1947). MALE, D. W. 1946 N.A.C.A. Technical Note No. 1131,
Combustion chamber deposits are possible sources of hot-spot “The Effect of Engine Variables on the Pre-ignition
ignition. Lead compounds may be particularly harmful because Limited Performance of Three Fuels”.
they may be deposited under low head-temperature, low power,
and weak mixture cruising-conditions. I n these circumstances, MALE,D. W., and EWARD,J. C. 1945 N.A.C.A. Report
if the power is suddenly increased, pre-ignition may occur before No. 811 and A.R.R. No. E5411, “Pre-ignition Limited
the deposits can be burned off. A dZiculty in the diagnosis of Performance of Several Fuels”.
pre-ignition failures, owing to combustion chamber deposits, is MILLER,C. D. 1947 Trans. SOC.Automotive Eng., vol. 1,
that they are often purged from the cylinder by the pre-ignition p. 98, “Roles of Detonation Waves and Auto-ignition in
process (Hundere 1948). Spark-ignition Engine Knock as Shown by Photographs
The differences in pre-ignition ratings between aviation fuels Taken at 40,000 and 200,000 frames per sec.”
of similar octane numbers blended from normal components are N m n , D. M., and TOWNEND, D. T. A. 1938 Science of
small. Pre-ignition would become of importance only if the use Petroleum, vol. 4, p. 2958, “Ignition in Gases with
of special blending agents, such as M.M.A. or cumene or Special Reference to Knock Problems”.
injection fluids containing methanol, were contemplated. It is
as well, however, to have the pre-ignition resistance of the fuel ROTHROCK, A. M. 1941 Trans. SOC.Automotive Eng., vol. 48,
always in mind and to remember that it is not so closely con- p. 51, “Fuel Rating-Its Relation to Engine Per-
trolled as the knock rating. formance”.
In the ordinary road-vehicle engine there would appear to be SERRWS,M. 1937 Publications Scientifiques et Techniques
little danger at the moment with normal petrols. Pre-ignition Du Minisdre de l’Air, No. 115, “Auto-ignition in Internal
troubles are more likely to be encountered in motor racing Combustion Engines”.
engines, particularly where alcohol blends are used. Even then, SPENCER, R. C. 1941 N.A.C.A. Report No, 710, “Pre-ifpition
pre-ignition is more a problem of correct engine design than fuel Characteristics of Several Fuels under Simulated Engine
quality, and providing steps are taken to ensure that all potential Conditions”.
hot-spots are kept cool, no pre-ignition troubles should be
experienced. SUTOR,A. T., CORRINGTON,L. C., and DUDUGJIAN, C. 1947
N.A.C.A. Technical Note No. 1209, ‘‘Operating Tem-
AcknowZe&ements. The investigation described in this paper peratures of Sodium-cooled Exhaust Valve as Measured
was carried out in the laboratory of Ricardo and Company by a Thermocouple”.
Engineers (1927), Ltd., on behalf of the Shell Petroleum Com- TOWNEND, D. T. A., and MANDLEKAR, M. R. 1933 Proc. Roy.
pany, Ltd. The authors are indebted to both these companies SOC.,vol. 141, p. 484, “The Influence of Pressure on the
for permission to publish this paper. SDontaneous Ignition of Inflammable Gas-air Mixtures
(Butane-air Mi;rturey’.
1934 Proc. Roy. SOC.,vol. 143, p. 168, “The M u e n c e of
APPENDIX Pressure on the Spontaneous Ignition of Inflammable
Gas-air Mixtures (Pentane-air kfixture)”.
REFERENCES VISCHNIEVS&,R. 1947 Academie des Sciences Comptes
ALQUIST, H. E., and MALE, D. W. 1944 N.A.C.A., A.R.R. Rendus, vol. 225, pp. 565 and 992, “Tendencies of
No. E4125, “Trends in Surface Ignition Temperatures”. Various Fuels to Self-ignition at a Hot Point”.

140
n .
U iscus sion in London
Dr. E. A. WATSON, O.B.E., M.I.Mech.E., said that although the employed as a pre-ignition detector in the case of the “Dagger”
authors stated that with the ordinary road vehicle engine there engine, instead of the ionized gap used with the E.6. He
was at the moment little risk of trouble due to pre-ignition, the wondered whether the authors had any preference. The ionized
paper was of great value and importance and deserved careful gap was a very simple and effective device which he had found
study, particularly by the designers of sparking plugs, some of of great value.
whom he hoped were present. He found some difficulty in interpreting Fig. 12, as the
He recalled that the phenomenon of auto-ignition, which in meaning of normal running temperature was not clear. He asked
its extreme form became pre-ignition, had once formed the whether he was correct in assuming that that was the running
standard method of igniting the charge, and many would temperature of the pre-igniter unit with a constant but arbitrary
remember the old hot tube ignition on the gas engine, which was cooling air flow so chosen that no pre-ignition occurred in the
just the pre-igniter turned inside out, with heat applied to start absence of boost.
the process. He was interested in the authors’ reference to surface discharge
In some experiments which had been carried out in 1935, plugs, but he thought they were incorrect in ascribing a self-
in conjunction with a firm of spark-plug manufacturers, at cleaning action to the plug. The plugs were not self-cleaning. In
the time of the development of the platinum pointed plug. I n fact, many depended for their action on a carbon f ilm on their
those experiments they had endeavoured to determine the surface. The real point was that a plug of that type must be used
relationship between the temperature of the electrode which with a condenser discharge Circuit which was inherently capable
would give auto-ignition and its total area. They had used a of dealing with heavy r&ge,
and in consequence there was no
plug very similar to the one shown in Fig. 4. Two interesting necessity to run the electrodes hot to burn off any oil. One must,
points had emerged, the 6rst being the way in which surface however, remember that, other things being equal, a very cool
area affected the auto-ignition temperature. With a small plug reduced the range of mixture strength which could be
exposed area, temperatures as high as 1,200 deg. C. were neces- ignited.
sary; with a large area 700 deg. C. or less sufficed. That effect
was brought out indirectly in the authors’ results. With the Mr. J. G. WITHERS, B.Sc., A.M.I.Mech.E., said that there
thermocouple plug, and again with the pre-ignition unit used could surely be few fields in which there were as many indepen-
on the E.6 engine, electrode temperatures for pre-ignition were dent variables as there were in the study of pre-ignition, and the
of the order of 1,000-1,300 deg. C. With the unit used on the authors had provided a mass of experimental data which added
“Dagger”, with its much greater surface, temperatures were very very considerably to knowledge of the subject.
much lower and were of the order of 550-700 deg. C . a s shown He had one point of criticism, which could be rectified easily
in Figs. 10 and 11. when the paper appeared in the PROCEEDINGS. While the figures
The second point of interest was that by suitably controlling gave full details of the tests concerned, the tables did not do so;
the current to the heater, it was possible to run the engine in a and in reading the paper it was sometimes difficult to be certain
perfectly normal manner on auto-ignition. The engine in to which engine the data applied.
question had been a small water-cooled stationary one, and no The most important factor affecting pre-ignition seemed to be
di5culty had been experienced in making it carry full load the temperature at which the hot spot operated, and that was
satisfactorily. Increasing the igniter current was, of course, the shown to be affected markedly by fuel type. The effects of fuel
equivalent of advancing the ignition. That experience might, of latent heat and fuel composition on maximum flame tempera-
course, set some of the inventors-particularly electronic engi- tures were discussed in the paper, and it was shown that those
neers-thinking. It would, on paper, be possible to devise an did not give the whole story. Intensity and duration of flame
electrical system responsive to speed and inlet depression which luminosity probably played a large part in determining the
would vary the heater current and hence the ignition advance amount of heat received by the hot spot, and that would account
in any way desired. One drawback, however, was the life of a for the marked influence of fuel additives in some cases. Further,
plug of that type. the radiation of heat from combustion gases was largely a result
The relative ease with which pre-ignition was obtained with of the presence of carbon dioxide and water vapour. Thus, if
benzene and methanol was, he thought, a surprise to most of oxygen was present in the fuel, as in alcohols and ethers, there
them. He remembered, from old motor-cycling days, operating would be more water vapour present in the combustion gases
on nearly neat benzol, and although the engine did not knock, which would tend to increase the temperature of the hot spot.
it would sometimes thump in a manner strongly indicative of The same argument would apply for water when injected
pre-ignition; but it was certainly surprising to note the marked separately. However, it must be remembered that the charge
difference between benzene and other fuels shown in Figs. 2 cooling associated with the higher latent heat would operate
and 3. in the reverse direction, and that illustration served to show
The surprisingly poor behaviour of methanol under those how complicated the subject was.
conditions was, however, still more unexpected. No figures He did not agree with the authors that the knock rating had
appeared to be given for the plug electrode temperatures with nothing to do with pre-ignition. On the contrary, he believed
methanol as fuel, but they would appear to be appreciably lower that pre-ignition was similar in character to detonation, the
than with benzene, and the effect was presumably not due to major difference being that the former was the auto-ignition of a
excessive electrode temperature. He wondered whether that thin layer adjacent to the hot spot, which started a progressive
meant that either the self-ignition temperature or the igniting flame front; and the latter was the auto-ignition of a pocket of
energy of methanol was lower than that of normal fuels. gas with the sudden release of energy.
The authors ascribed the difference in plug electrode tem- The data in Fig. 3 were not inconsistent with the theory that
peratures between various fuels and various electrode materials the pre-ignition temperatures were directly related to the knock
in part to catalysis and surface combustion. That was doubtless ratings, given as highest useful compression ratios (H.U.C.R.’s)
a contributory factor, but it was just possible that some of the in the paper. The reversal of benzene in the “Dagger” series
heat received by the electrodes was electrical and came from the of tests was not surprising, as here the conditions were much
ignition circuit. Although the heating due to the current was not more severe (using the term in its knock rating sense) than those
large, it was not negligible, and its value might depend on a for the E.6 engine, and the E.6 H.U.C.R.’s would no longer be
number of factors, including the type of fuel and the ionization appropriate. It was known that benzene gave a lower knock
present in the combustion chamber. With regard to ionization, rating than iso-octane when tested by the C.R.C. F-3 method,
he would be interested to know why the Sunbury indicator was and F-3 results were probably more appropriate to the “Dagger”

DISCUSSION O N P R E - I G N I T I O N I N THE SPARK-IGNITION ENGINE 141
tests. It was clear that in most cases pre-igniting conditions test bed experimental conditions the effect seemed to be almost
would be more severe than detonating conditions, as both the proportional.
speed and charge temperature were likely to be higher in the A second feature that might indicate that spontaneous ignition
former case. That would tend to penalize such hydrocarbon was causing the trouble was the very high pressures obtained on
types as the aromatics. a running on cycle. In his experience, the pressure was at least
Thus, pre-ignition might not be different in character from 50 per cent higher than the normal maximum pressure in the
normal detonation. However, the overriding factor seemed to engine, and in addition the maximum pressure was not reached
be the normal operating temperature of the hot spot, which early in the cycle but considerably after top dead centre. He
depended on many other variables. supposed that was not surprising, as the heat exchange con-
With regard to after running, he had a theory that it might be ditions in the charge when the engine was running slowly must
associated with high exhaust residual concentrations, as engines be lower.
with large valve overlaps seemed to be more prone to it ;and he
felt that a multi-cylinder engine might back-charge its own Mr. C. D. CARMICHAEL, B.Sc. (Eng.), A.M.I.Mech.E., said
cylinders by a pulse charging type of operation and that exhaust that perhaps the most interesting genera1 conclusion on the
residual might tend to reduce pre-igniting temperatures. programme of tests outlined in the paper was the fact that the
relative pre-ignition ratings of fuels in the normal aspirated and
Dr. J. H. WEAVING, B.Sc. (Eng.), A.M.I.Mech.E., said that in the supercharged engine were similar, with the exception of
although, as the authors stated, the automobile engine was not toluene. He wondered whether that could be due to the fact that,
very adversely affected by pre-ignition troubles, he did not feel in the case of the supercharged engines, the conditions were of
they could afford to ignore the problem or fail to take advantage moderate supercharge only. The test conditions had approxi-
of the work which the authors had done. He felt that the auto- mated to the cruising output rather than the take-off output, and
mobile engine was not very far off the condition of auto-ignizion, very likely that had been in the interests of conserving the life
and with increasing compression ratios and the possibilities of of the unit ;but he thought that probably it had had some effect
varying fuels, there might well be need for all the information on the actual ratings obtained.
that could be obtained on the subject of fuels. He asked the authors whether they had made any attempt to
It would be. interesting to apply the fuels to a standard multi- vary the position of the pre-igniter in the cylinder, or whether
cylinder engine rather than to a single-cylinder engine. I n the the position had been settled for them by the necessity of using
single-cylinder work that had been done, the many variables had existing bosses in the cylinder head.
been kept constant, which was, of course, most essential for a He had been interested to note the low pre-ignition rating of
systematic study ;but he thought that it would be very useful if monomethyl aniline (M.M.A.), which had been a blending agent
the gap between academic work and its practical application in the early type of 100/150grade fuel. Some years ago, when
could be bridged by applying the results to an actual commercial testing this fuel on the Sabre engine, it had been found that
engine, which the authors might have done. ’
there was some combustion roughness when running under
For instance, if the temperature of the auto-ignition device combat power conditions, without there being, however, any
was kept constant while using various fuels of various ignition effect on the engine life or the anti-knock response of the fuel.
properties, the increased rates of pressure rose and the increased By using an ionization gap apparatus similar to that described,
maximum pressures would give another less systematic but incipient pre-ignition had been detected. In later blends of the
perhaps more practical rating. Stated in a slightly different fuel without M.M.A. the combustion roughness had entirely
way, if the authors could make an engine that would pre-ignite disappeared.
easily (he thought that an exhaust valve having a very narrow He had been surprised to note that the pre-ignition ratings of
seat would suffer badly from pre-ignition), fuels could be methanol additives was, relatively speaking, low, and he
rated in a very practical, though less scientific manner. He felt wondered whether, in the “Dagger” unit, that was due to the
that such information would be very valuable in specifying the fact that the induction air temperature was maintained constant
various fuels, and it might perhaps give some answer to the at 80 deg. C. for those tests, as also for the test of the base fuel.
question why the benzene and alcohol fuels were so bad from In practice a considerable amount of charge cooling occurred
that point of view. with water-methanol injection, with a consequent reduction in
He had a slight criticism to offer on the question of rating the hot spot temperature.
fuels by means of measuring the heat transfer. The temperature He asked the authors whether the study of pre-combustion
of the hot spot was presumably the criterion, as the area was reactions in an engine undertaken by Pastell* in the United
constant ;but the heat transfer was a function not only of tem- States of America offered any possibilities for exploring the pre-
perature but also of the local velocity that was prevailing. He ignition problem without the complications arising from the
would like to have the authors’ opinion on that point. existence of the flame front.
The problem of running on was one with which the automobile He wondered whether the authors had any evidence to
engineer was not unfamiliar. Most overhead valve engines that indicate that detergent oils, which were now coming into pro-
filled well would run on under test-bench conditions, even if minence in the road vehicle field, had any tendency to promote
they did not actually do so on the road. If the engine was run pre-ignition from combustion chamber deposits. He had seen
under full load, at high speed, and the throttle closed, the engine it stated that such oils left deposits having high melting points
would generally run on. It had been a very great surprise to him which prevented their elimination from the engine cylinder.
to read the authors’ conclusion that benzene should be so bad
from the auto-ignition point of view as to lead one to anticipate Mr. G. M. BARRETT, M.B.E., T.D., B.Sc., A.M.I.Mech.E.,
that it would cause running on. That conclusion would suggest said that it was appreciated that running on had a high nuisance
that the authors had made a very considerable contribution to value, and it was aggravated by any condition which tended to
the theory of running on, namely, by establishing that the cause raise the inlet charge temperature. In order to investigate the
was due to the spontaneous ignition of the charge as distinct more fundamental aspects of running on, some work had been
from auto-ignition due to a hot spot in the cylinder. done at the Research Laboratories of the Shell Group.
Being suspicious of the suggestion that spontaneous ignition A Ricardo E.6 single-cylinder variable-compression engine
was the more likely cause, he had tried a benzene petrol mixture had been used under the following basic operating conditions :-
to see whether that really was so, and he had obtained the
same effect as the authors. That would seem to suggest that Speed : 2,500 r.p.m.
auto-ignition was not the trouble as far as running on was con- Coolant outlet temperature : 165 deg. C.
cerned. Mixture temperature: 40 deg. C.
That conclusion might perhaps be borne out by a few observa- B.m.e.p.: 95 lb. per sq. in.
tions in experiments which he had done. Running on was very Compression ratio : 65/1.
sensitive to octane number. There was no running on with a * PASTELL, D. L. 1950 Quarterly Trans. SOC.Automotive Eng.,
small multi-cylinder engine with 100 octane fuel, whereas with vol. 4, p. 438, “Pre-combustion Reaction in the Spark-ignition
a lower octane fuel the running on was quite considerable. Under Engine”.
9
142 DISCUSSION ON P R E - I G N I T I O N I N T H E S P A R K - I G N I T I O N E N G I N E
Spark timing: 30 deg. E. I70
&/fuel ratio: 12.5/1. I I
The engine had been run until the required conditions were
stabilized and then simultaneously the throttle was closed to the
normal idling position, the brake load removed and the ignition
switched off. The duration of after run was then measured from
the moment at which the engine reached idling speed.
Fig. 19 showed the effect of a jacket temperature and com-
INITIAL JACKET TEMPERATURE-DEGL.
Fig. 19. Effect of Jacket Temperatures and Compression

Ratio on the Duration of Running On
pression ratio on the duration of running on. It would be seen

that at each compression ratio there was a limiting coolant tem-
perature, below which the engine would not run on. That was uI
shown more clearly in Fig. 20. An increase in compression ratio 8
from 5.5 to 6-5 was equivalent to a decrease in limiting jacket
temperature of 46 deg. C. 4 I
I80
lJ
; 160
n
LA
d
0
a.
E MIXTURE TEMPERATURE-DEG.C.
r Fig. 22. Effect of Mixture Temperature on Critical Jacket
;
I-
-< 120 Temperature
35 loo
U e
v
I50
80
?,
d
5 3
6 7 8 9 10 k
COMPRESSION RATIO 2 140
2
Fig. 20. Minimum Coolant Temperature for Running On 5
It was soon found that the duration of running on was not a
2 130
good comparator for measuring the effects of other variables, 2
since the repeatability was poor. However, the limiting jacket i
temperature could be repeated within f5 deg. C., and that was 2 I*' 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 Y 24
adopted as a measure of the running on tendency and was 4 AIR/ FUEL nmo
referred to as the critical jacket temperature.
Fig. 21 showed the effect of the cooling rate on the duration Fig. 23. Effect of &/Fuel Ratio on Critical Jacket
ofrunning on, using three different cooling rates. For those tests, Temperature

DISCUSSION ON P R E - I G N I T I O N I N THE S P A R K - I G N I T I O N ENGINE 143
after cutting the ignition the coolant circulation had been main- the inlet closed 53 deg. after bottom centre. The second had an
tained and passed through an electrical heater which controlled overlap of 30 deg., and the inlet closed 65 deg. after bottom
the rate of cooling. For subsequent tests, the cooling rate had been centre. The run on times were 7 min. 17 sec. and 6 min. 10 sec.
controlled at 2.6 deg. C. per min. respectively. Presumably with less valve overlap there was less
Fig. 22 showed the effect of mixture temperature on critical tendency for material to be drawn back into the cylinder from
jacket temperature for two fuels, one being unleaded with an the exhaust manifold. That material would contain fuel which
octane number of 70, and the other being leaded with an octane had been subjected to compression without combustion during
number of 80. The effect of mixture temperature was more the previous cycle, and would be in an activated state and hence
marked with the leaded fuel. more prone to auto-ignition. Also, the later closing of the inlet
Fig. 23 showed the effect of the air/fuel ratio on critical valve would reduce the cylinder charge at low speeds and hence
jacket temperature. A ratio of about 17/1 showed the greatest lower the compression pressure. In that engine, as in the E.6, .
tendency towards running on. However, air/fuel ratio had only leaded fuels tended to run on longer than unleaded fuels of the
a comparatively minor influence, and the change of ratio from same octane number.
17 to 10 only increased the critical jacket temperature by 5 It was suggested that the reason why running on was more
deg. C . prevalent since 1945 than before 1939 might be partly attributable
T o examine the effects of sparking plug hardness, five types to seven causes :-
of plugs, ranging from the soft to very hard, including an aero (1) The use of hot spots was more widespread, and the hot
plug having platinum fingers, had been tried, but there had been spots had become hotter.
no apparent difference in running on tendency in that engine. (2) Radiator sizes had shrunk at the same time as coolant
The effect of fuel quality had been examined using various circulation rates at running speeds had increased, so that there
fuels of different types. It had been found that there was an was less reserve to mop up heat at idling when the circulation
approximately straight line relationship between octane number rate was low.
and critical jacket temperature, although there had been con- (3) There was less underbonnet ventilation with modem
siderable scatter at the points about that line. For example, at crocodile type bonnets, and therefore the temperature of the
the 80 octane number level the spread in critical jacket tem- air entering the carburettor was higher.
perature had been 39 deg. C., which was almost equal to that (4) Interior heaters had become popular, and in order to
observed for the change of compression ratio from 5.5 to 6.511. obtain sufficient heat, it was common practice to adjust the
The characteristics of the combustion process during running thermostat to a higher jacket temperature.
on had been examined with the aid of a cathode-ray oscilloscope (5) The use of anti-freeze mixtures of the glycol or glycerine
and an electro-magnetic pick-up. The disconnected sparking type had become more general, and that increased the tem-
plug had also been used as an ionization gap. It had been found perature of the liners and cylinder heads, even though the
that combustion took place on the average only one in five cycles. coolant temperature and circulation rate were maintained
Usually the combustion pressure rise and theionization occurred constant.
at approximately 30 deg. after top centre, accompanied by a (6) In the expectation of an eventual increase in the octane
normal combustion thump. Occasionally, however, the com- level above Pool standards, engine designers may have tended
mencement of combustion pressure rise had advanced to 10 deg. to increase compression ratio, while at the same time retarded
after top centre, and that had been accompanied by an extra ignition advance, thus keeping the anti-knock requirement
heavy thump. the same. Running on was independent of spark advance, but
It had been found that the maximum rate of pressure rise was strongly influenced by compression ratio.
under full load at 2,500 r.p.m. was two and a half times that (7) Pool gasoline was leaded, whereas before 1939 the
under running on conditions at 240 r.p.m. The maximum pres- greater proportion of gasoline consumed in the United
sures had been 975 and 300 Ib. per sq. in. and the b.m.e.p.’s Kingdom had been unleaded.
95 and 6.5 lb. per sq. in. respectively. It was therefore con-
sidered that the unpleasant mechanical knock associated with Mr. S. B. BAILEY, M.Sc. (Eng.), A.M.I.Mech.E., said that
running on was due to a moderate rate of pressure rise occurring on p. 128 of the paper the authors had shown how their pre-
at low engine speed. The rate of pressure rise per crankshaft ignition ratings were expressed with reference to a blend of iso-
degree under running on conditions was four times the rate octane and cumene, the rating being equivalent to the percentage
which was obtained under full load at 2,500 r.p.m. of iso-octane present. That method of fuel rating was easily
For investigating some of the more practical considerations, understood for ratings between zero and 100, but it was not
a modem four-cylinder car engine had been used. I n that stated how the negative ratings, which appeared in Table 4, or
engine the duration of run on had been used as a measure of the positive ratings greater than 100, which appeared in Table 5,
the running on tendency under various conditions, and the had been derived.
figures quoted were the average of eight runs. For examining Clearly there could not be a negative quantity of iso-octane
the relative contributions of the four cylinders, the sparking in an iso-octane/cumene mix; nor could there be more than
plugs had been used as ionization gaps during run on, and it had 100 per cent iso-octane present.
been found that No. 2 cylinder was firing for the whole time, He wondered whether the authors had employed a method
the duration being 7 min. 6 sec. ;No. 3 cylinder was firing for similar to that used for grading the anti-knock ratings of fuels
2 minutes ; No. 1 cylinder for 30 seconds ; and No. 4 cylinder superior to iso-octane. If so, he thought they ought to explain
not at all. However, in all cylinders fring had been intermittent their method, as there appeared to be no precedent for the use of
when it had occurred, and had taken place only about one in five negative fuel ratings.
cycles. The maximum ionization voltage had been reached Referring to Table 1, which gave the pre-ignition and knock
between 30-40 deg. after top centre. ratings of a selection of fuels, he observed that there was a large
In that engine the induction manifold was immediately above number of dashes in places where one would like to see figures.
the exhaust manifold, and the two were bolted together at the I n particular, the E.6 highest useful compression ratio was not
hot spot joint face. To investigate the effect of a drastic reduction stated for the two experimental blends of 150 grade fuel. He
+
in mixture temperature, an air space of inch had been left asked whether those two missing figures could be supplied, or
between the hot spot joint faces. That had had the effect of whether they had been purposely withheld.
reducing the run on time from 6 min. 3 sec. down to 40 seconds. Mr. J. B. PERRETT,A.M.I.Mech.E., said that he wished to
The corresponding induction temperatures measured at the hot refer briefly to residual exhaust gases, which had been mentioned
spot drain bosses had been 125 and 33 deg. C. under full power by Mr. Withers and which might have some real effect on auto-
conditions, and 88 and 59 deg. C. at the termination of run on. ignition.
That modification had naturally made the engine very sluggish There were engines-usually two-stroke engines-which, by
in responding to the throttle, and it would have had little their construction and design, must run with a considerable
flexibility on the road. proportion of residual exhaust gases. Those engines were very
T o study the influence of valve timing, two different cam- subject to auto-ignition, as would be appreciated by anyone
shafts had been tried. The first had an overlap of 42 deg., and who had at any time operated a two-stroke engine.

144 DISCUSSION ON P R E - I G N I T I O N I N T H E S P A R K - I G N I T I O N ENGINE
The point he wanted to make was that those engines were not If that was meant to imply that the rate of initiation and subse-
at all subject to running on. He therefore thought that there was quent propagation of the explosion was the same, then he thought
a case there for saying that running on was in no way connected the statement needed some qualification; and indeed he felt that
with auto-ignition. It might be that there were factors which he the paper itself bore out the fact that there was a difference. The
had not taken into consideration, but there was the fact that on time-lag between the spark and the initiation of the explosion
an engine which was very subject to auto-ignition, there was was extremely small; otherwise, the high-speed engine would
absolutely no running on. not be possible. On the other hand, the hot spot ignition would
vary according to both temperature and the area of the hot spot.
Mr. H. MOORE,M.Sc. Tech. (Manch.), Assoc.I.Mech.E., in That raised the question of the theory of the process of ignition.
making a suggestion concerning the mechanism of pre-ignition, While there was abundant support for the purely thermal theory,
said that it appeared that there was a spontaneous ignition there were many adherents of the theory that spark-ignited
reaction probably in a very localized region very near to the hot engines were assisted by electrical effects. He thought that the
spot, and that the actual ignition reaction was only in that region. paper had given support to the latter viewpoint. Moreover,
It could be seen from Fig. 1 that the rates of pressure rise were Muller-Huebrand*, in an investigation into the ignition of
not very different for the various conditions of pre-ignition. explosive gas mixtures by low voltage sparks, had asserted that
Moreover, as stated in the paper, it was known that the rates of an electric spark could not simply be considered as a hot
h m e propagation in the cylinder were very similar whether the cylinder, and that the molecules were activated not only by the
flame was initiated by a spark or by a hot spot. The authors heat release, but also by the electrical effects. The absence of any
had shown in a most interesting way that the conventional appreciable time-lag with the electric spark gave support, he
additives had a profound effect on pre-ignition. It was also considered, to the combined electrical and thermal theory for
known that additives were almost without effect on normal flame the process of ignition.
travel, so that it would appear that they could act only in the
initial stages of the pre-ignition. Mr. HADLEY asked for more information on the surface
He asked the authors whether the effect of two possible discharge plugs, and wondered what advantages, if any, they
variables had been investigated. One was the general volume of had over the others, apart from the advantage of not causing
the region that was subjected to heating round the plug. The hot spots; and the nature of the change in the equipment that
other was the air movement in the combustion chamber. It was necessary to produce the condenser discharge circuit to
seemed to him that that should be of considerable importance which Dr. Watson had referred.
in sweeping away the products before they built up to a spon-
taneous ignition. For instance, he asked whether the effects had Mr. A. PORTER, A.M.I.Mech.E., said that he had been trying
been compared with the E.6 unit masked and unmasked on its to burn benzole in a converted three-cylinder gas engine, with a
inlet valve. bore of 18 inches and a stroke of 22 inches, and he had been
He also asked the authors whether they had applied their having trouble. The compression ratio had been varied from
sampling technique to a study of the types of reaction which 4-5 to 6, and the mixture strength from theoretical up to about
occurred during the initial stages of the pre-ignition reactions. 10 per cent rich.
Many interesting points had been made in the discussion, and It had been possible to run the engine from 20 minutes to
he wished to make a reference to the point about two-stroke half an hour without pre-ignition, and after that period pro-
engines. He also had considered that matter, and he thought ignition due to overheated exhaust valves had commenced at
that probably in the two-stroke engine the compression ratios somewhere about 80 per cent of the stroke. The revolutions had
were so low that true spontaneous ignition reactions were not fallen back and the power disappeared. He had med water
likely to take place. injection to as much as 10 per cent of the weight of the benzole,
and that had brought about a very considerable improvement j
Mr. L. GRIFFITHS, M.I.Mech.E., said that it appeared to him but the engine was not yet running correctly.
that the cathode-ray oscillograph and the ionization method of He did not know whether those facts gave any further informa-
signifying pre-ignition was not only reliable, but would give a tion on the effect of engine size on pre-ignition.
higher precision than other methods. * MULLER-HLLL~BIWND, D.1948 Engineers’Digest (BritishEdition),
It was stated on p. 126 of the paper that the flame front pro- vol. 9, p. 50, “The Ignition of Explosive G a s Mixtures by Low-voltage
duced by a hot body was identical to that produced by the spark. Sparks”.
Discussion in Coventrv
Dr. J. N. H. TAIT,M.Eng. (L’pool), M.I.Mech.E., said that There seemed under those conditions, little chance of any hot
pre-ignition was not a trouble with which he had had much spot in the combustion chamber causing running on. The con-
experience, except when sparking plugs ran at too high a tem- clusion he came to was that ignition was due to spontaneous
perature. He had, however, some experience with “running on”, combustion of the mixture. He found subsequently that
particularly on a small four-cylinder engine during its develop- various things which would reduce the temperature of the mix-
ment stage. That engine was very prone to running on. If it was ture at the end of compression would also reduce the running
run at maximum power at about 4,000 r.p.m., and the throttle on time. For example, reducing the induction pipe hot spot
then closed to a position which would normally run the engine temperature, and therefore the mixture temperature, reducing
at about 1,000 r.p.m. and the ignition was switched off, the the cooling water temperature, or the compression ratio slightly,
engine would run on for several minutes. That was a severe con- had the same effect. The thing which had the most effect was
dition for investigation. He noticed that during that time the reducing the valve overlap, and the conclusion there was that
induction pipe which was heated by contact with the exhaust the mixture of the charge with products of combustion was
manifold got hotter because the gas speed was reduced and heat reduced, which in turn reduced the compression temperature.
soaked through from the exhaust manifold. When that engine Reducing the valve overlap had also another benefit; it enabled
had stopped running on, it was possible to start without switch- a slower idling speed to be used, which, in itself, reduced
ing on again. He found that if the hot spot on the induction pipe running on. The combination of those changes solved the
was heated by means of a blow lamp, one could start the engine running on problem. At the time he thought that the trouble
after it had been stopped for an hour without switching on. was due more to spontaneous ignition of the charge, than to a

DISCUSSION O N P R E - I G N I T I O N I N THE S P A R K - I G N I T I O N E N G I N E 145
hot spot in the combustion chamber. When he read the paper It was always possible to cut out pre-ignition entirely by
he wondered whether the temperature of the artificial hot spot, choosing the correct grade of plug. That covered many different
which the authors had introduced, would give some indication types of engine with compression ratios up to 1011 unsuper-
of the spontaneous combustion temperature of mixture. He charged and boosts up to 20 lb. per sq. in. gauge with 6 5 / 1 com-
thought that the mixture in contact with that hot spot, would pression ratio.
rise to the hot spot temperature and that would give some The internal cooling of alcohol fuels appeared to keep piston
indication of the spontaneous ignition temperature. head and valve temperatures adequately low, but very much
He was surprised to see in the “Dagger” unit that the pre- harder sparking plugs had to be used on the same engine when
igniter temperatures were in the region of 500-700 deg. C., as a change was made from petrol-benzol to alcohol mixtures.
shown in Fig. 10, whereas in the E.6 unit, the results of which One particular engine would invariably crack cylinder heads
were shown in Fig. 11, the pre-igniter temperatures were more on petrol-benzol, but never on alcohol blends.
in the region of 1,100-1,300 deg. C. He noticed too that the Since the sparking plug electrode was the hottest part of the
“Dagger” unit required an ignition advance of 56 deg., whereas combustion chamber, it would appear that a much cooler plug
in the E.6 unit only 19 deg. was stated. As ignition advance was required to keep the temperatures below the pre-ignition
sometimes gave an indication of the amount of turbulence in an temperature for alcohol mixtures.
engine, he queried whether it was possible that the “Dagger” In general, the tendency for pre-ignition increased with
unit had less turbulence, and whether, therefore, a lower pre- r.p.m. up to the peak of the power curve, and the cooler the
igniter temperature gave pre-ignition, as the gas was not swept plug the higher the speed that could be reached before the onset
so rapidly past the pre-igniter unit. of pre-ignition.
He was very interested in Fig. 19 which gave ignition tem-
peratures of an iso-octane mixture, and he noticed that reactions
could take place at quite low temperatures in the order of Mr. L. H. DAWTREY, M.I.Mech.E., said that he was most
300 deg. C. That, compared with recent work carried out in interested in what the authors said about running on as his
the United States of America, showed that chemical reaction experience was identical. The majority of his firm’s products
took place during the compression stroke. have been side valve engines, and running on trouble was not
experienced with them except under very arduous conditions,
Mr. A. N. L. WCLACHLAN, B.A. (Oxon.), A.M.I.Mech.E., such as when the engine was used in a car with very low axle
thought that running on was a phenomenon which was practically ratio, which was heavily loaded and driven hard. It was true,
unknown before the 1939-45 war, and since compression ratios in his experience, that the overhead valve engine had been more
had changed little since then, it was presumably connected with prone to it. Having experienced that and having run a prototype
fuel quality. His experience was that side valve engines were not motor car for 10,000 miles with no running on, he thought he
prone to running on, but overhead valve engines were. He asked was lucky and that the new engine was free from that trouble,
whether the authors considered that due to surface volume ratio but after stripping the engine for examination and rebuilding,
or to greater turbulence in the engine. it never ceased to run on. That showed how elusive it was to
It also appeared to be a low-temperature effect since, under trace that fault.
idle conditions, exhaust valve temperatures could hardly exceed He was quite sure running on was largely connected with tem-
300 deg. C., and sparking plugs would be relatively cool, whilst perature of induction pipe. With development of the tliermo-
maximum compression pressures would be of the order of 60 lb. static hot spot manifold and using insulating washers, which
per sq. in. or 4 atmospheres. He wondered whether that was were too thin, between the inlet manifold and the exhaust, the
connected with cool flame combustion, and whether the authors temperature of the manifold was too high and that simultaneously
could give any suggestions as to what did occur to cause self- introduced quite pronounced knocking and running on. The
ignition under such conditions. two came together. T o cut down idle speed to the minimum was
He had recently been engaged in an investigation into that essential when one had an engine inclined to run on. His
problem and the following facts had emerged :- recollection was that when using 80 octane fuel no running on
was experienced. He was sure the authors would begin to feel
(1) Running on was very much affected by atmospheric that running on was of more importance to the industry than
humidity, it was quite difficult to produce it on a really damp pre-ignition.
day and in that respect it showed a similarity to detonation. There existed one well-known type of engine which in-
(2) It was much less sensitive to induction pipe hot spotting corporated a solenoid to cut off the slow-running mixture when
than to combustion chamber temperature. the ignition was switched off, thus preventing m g - o n . The
(3) A very slow idle was beneficial, which would seem to slow running mixture was important and a distorted carburettor
conflict to some extent with para. 2 of the section on running could lead to running-on.
on, p. 138.
(4) On a particular engine, although running on could be
produced with cylinder head water temperatures as low as Mr. W. M. HEW, M.I.Mech.E., discussed the question of
140 deg. F. (60 deg. C.) with the thermostat in position, it running-on in relation to cylinder head shape. He said that in
could not be produced up to 200 deg. F. (94 deg. C.) with the his experience he found that the lozenge head was more prone
thermostat removed. That suggested that sluggish water flow, to that trouble than any other type of head, and believed that it
due to the thermostat restriction, produced stagnant areas and was due to the lack of turbulence which existed in the lozenge
high local temperatures in the combustion chamber. head.
( 5 ) Back pressure also appeared to aggravate it-presumably Experiments had shown that by making various modifications
due to high temperature residual gasses. to the shape of the head and the directional flow of the inlet
(6) Increasing the by-pass channel area had a beneficial ports, a certain improvement could be obtained, but of all the
effect confirming the above. modifications tried none could guarantee a 100 per cent cure
(7) Addition of tetraethyl lead to “Pool” petrol up to when production tolerances were taken into account. Experi-
2 cu. cm. per gal. had no significant effect on running on. ments in that direction were carried out with various mixture
The technique used to produce running on was to run the and water temperatures, and, although those points again had
engine for 1 minute at 1,500 r.p.m. light, then allow it to idle, an influence, none of them singly could effect a complete cure.
followed by an immediate switch off. I n the worst conditions With the hemispherical type of head, however, it was possible
running on continued for up to 15 seconds, accompanied by to run at least half a compression ratio higher than with a lozenge-
violent detonations. He welcomed the authors’ views on those shaped head without encountering the slightest tendency for
points. running-on to occur. It was suggested that that was probably
Referring to true pre-ignition, experience with a large number due to the greater turbuience and shorter flame travel.
of racing engines, both before the 1939-45 war and since, using
alcohol blends in general very similar to blends 4,6, and 8 tested iMr. C. H. FISHER, M.I.Mech.E., confirmed that with aircraft
by the authors, had convinced him that the sparking plug was engines it was part of the pilot’s drill to put the control into
the usual initiator of pre-ignition. “idle cut-off’ position before switching off the engine.

146 DISCUSSION ON P R E - I G N I T I O N I N THE SPARK-IGNITION ENGINE
With regard to the authors’ remarks on heavy flywheels, he did not appreciate before. Mr. Heynes mentioned that running
had observed years ago how well engines idled in the region of on appeared to be confined to four-cylinder engines, and he did
200 r.p.m., but that was no doubt connected also with the very not understand why running on was not experienced on larger
simple valve timings of that period. The authors had also or smaller engines.
commented on rich mixtures on idle, but he thought that the He noted in Table 6 the effect of various methanol and water
cars mentioned by other speakers were nearly all experimental percentages on the pre-ignition reading, and wondered whether
cars where the idle would be carefully adjusted, or at any rate, he was to assume from that that the use of methanol water
more so than with the average motor car. The authors were injection for take off conditions, at least for military aircraft, was
aware that idle mixtures were considerably richer than that liable to encourage dangerous conditions of pre-ignition, or
giving normal idle, but in the ordinary way the mixture ratio whether they would be of such short duration that there could
required for idle was of the order of 0-08to 0.09 fuel/air ratio. not be any serious mechanical damage during the take off or
He did not consider that engines of vehicles being run under climbing conditions, when the engine was working at its hardest.
close supervision by a motor-car firm would be maladjusted to He had also heard of exhaust valve failures on engines, and asked
the extent of bringing on the phenomenon of running on by itself. whether there would be any connexion between pre-ignition and
exhaust valve failures, or whether that was more likely to be due
Mr. E. W. COY, B.Sc. (Lond.), B.A. (Cantab.), M.I.Mech.E., to the high lead concentration which arose in aircraft fuels.
said that there was one point connected with running on that he He asked for further information on Dromus oil.
Discussion in Glasgow
Mr. E. B. STEAD,A.M.I.Mech.E., said that the paper gave a Mr. G. H. LEE,B.A., A.M.I.Mech.E., said that, in Table 1,
glimpse of the research that had been carried out on a feature of there appeared to be no relationship between pre-ignition and
an internal-combustion engine, which did not necessarily give octane rating. The authors’ octane rating was based on H.U.C.R.,
any trouble, but was studied in order that everything could be and he wondered whether the C.F.R. motor or Research method
learnt about it. might show a closer connexion with the tendency to pre-ignite.
He was reminded, when looking at the fuel tables, of the Report The authors stated that the same factors, which influenced
by the Fuel Research Committee, published in the Proceedings detonation, also influenced pre-ignition. He agreed that detona-
of the Institution of Automobile Engineers, and against each fuel tion, although it should be avoided for other reasons, did not
was the knock highest useful compression ratio. That term, at produce h a r m effects mechanically, but that pre-ignition,
one time, usually applied to a particular engine, but it had now which might result from severe detonation, usually resulted in
been superseded by octane rating. It was interesting to observe severe damage.
that it was still in use and co-related to the octane number.
He was impressed by the simplicity of the methods used, Mr. S.WIGHTMAN, M.I.Mech.E., asked whether, with petrols
especially the method of obtaining the variable and controllable of a known octane number, say, 71, one should expect those
hot spot, and he wondered whether, under varying conditions petrols to have the same anti-knock rating and pre-ignition
of hot spot, they had had any trouble with overheating exhaust rating, or whether they varied widely. The authors mentioned
valves. that the octane rating usually determined the other ratings. He
He was surprised to note, in regard to thermocouple spark- asked the authors for further information on low-tension surface
plugs, that maximum electrode temperature occurred at maxi- discharge ignition plugs.
mum power mixture strength. I n experiments with which he Mr. D. L. CAMPBELL, B.Sc., A.M.I.Mech.E., referred to the
himself had been familiar, where thermocouple plugs were used, problem of running 6n and said that a six-cylinder engine of the
the highest temperature usually occurred at the chemically commercial type of 120 h.p. was bad in that respect, but the four-
correct mixture. He wondered whether it was a feature of that
particular type of engine which the authors used in their test. cylinder model was quite good. He asked the authors to en-
He said that his worst personal experience of pre-ignition was lighten him on that point as he could not understand why the
the result of a change from 80 octane petrol to 71. Most engines four-cylinder engine should be better.
were forced to operate on that low octane fuel after the 1939-45 Mr. J. M. FORBES, M.I.Mech.E., asked, in the case when an
war. The usual procedure, on such occasions, if two gaskets were engine was running normally, whether a particular cylinder
not fitted, was to retard the ignition, but the efficiency of the would pre-ignite and hence spoil the performance of the engine.
engine dropped if that course was taken. Another common He assumed, that when the engine was actually running, the
occurrence, dealt with briefly by the authors, was the phenomena same defect occurred on the road.
of running on. That tendency was more pronounced in the
larger petrol engines, especially the size now supplanted by the Mr. J. A. KEMP,M.I.Mech.E., would liked to have heard
Diesel. more of the influence of turbulence and swirl on pre-ignition
He recalled one engine of that type which ran on, switched off, in general and wondered whether the authors had investigated
for 5 minutes, and sometimes, before stopping, reversed for an in any manner the effects of petrol injection on pre-ignition and
equally alarming period. The engine improved after running on whether turbulence improved or spoilt the ignition performance.
full power, but when it was started cold some time later, run
for a short period and then switched off, it failed to stop. That Other speakers asked whether the E.6 H.U.C;R. figures
engine was later found to have burnt inlet valves, and he quoted in Table 1 were in any way affected by cylinder capacity,
wondered whether that gave the authors any indication to what and whether it was a fact that with a smaller capacity one could
may have been the cause. increase the compression ratio.

147
Authors ’ Reply
Pre-ignition. Mr. D. DOWNS
and Mr. J. H. PIGN~GUY
wrote in oxidation process occurring after a relatively short induction
reply to Dr. Watson’s comments on the low pre-ignition rating of period. Knock arose from a lower temperature high pressure
methanol that such evidence as they were able to obtain showed process occurring in a body of gas which had been considerably
that the sparking-plug electrode and pre-igniter temperatures pre-reacted before ignition. The chemical nature of the auto-
with that fuel were appreciably higher than those obtained with igdions was very different in the two cases as was fully discussed
a normal fuel, in spite of the fact that the general engine tem- in the paper and in a later paper by Downs and Wheeler
peratures were reduced by the high latent heat of evaporation of (1951-52)*.
the methanol. Some figures obtained on a small air-cooled Mr. Carmichael was correct in assuming that the “Dagger”
engine running at 3,000 r.p.m. are shown in Fig. 24. Those engine was only moderately supercharged for the sake of the
observations were made in the absence of auto-ignition and durability of the unit. The load and speed were nevertheless
therefore point to some form of catalytic action at the electrode appreciably higher than in the E.6, and, in addition, the engine
since the maximum flame temperature of methanol was slightly was air-cooled, and employed a totally different form of pre-
lower than that of the particular hydrocarbon fuel used. igniter. The agreement between the results on the two test units
I10
was sufficiently good to justify confidence in the validity of the
general conclusions as to the relative merits of the fuels, at any
rate at the mixture strength employed (that was, that giving
maximum pre-ignition tendency).
2 ‘W In all the “Dagger” tests the intake air temperature was main-
9 tained constant at 80 deg. C. Any advantage arising from charge
d
cooling by the use of alcohol would therefore be directly
u1
0
obtained.
m5Q
-I In reply to Mr. Bailey, the pre-ignition ratings outside the
I
4 limits of the reference fuels employed were obtained by simple
y!
extrapolation. That was found to be reasonably reliable and each
f 80 result was checked several times. The H.U.C.R.’s of the
150 Grade fuels were in the region of 13 : 1. More recently tests
have been made in the E.6 engine on a number of gaseous fuels.
70 Both the pre-ignition and knock values have been obtained, and
the results are shown in Table 13.
8w
u
:
4 7M:
“I
d
3
Fuel Rating
4
I I
I
g6M:
Pre-igfition Knock
P ~
E6 E.6H.U.C.R.
1
W
: :. Ij
;5@ Methane . 17.6
d
2 Propane . 3:’ 12.1
401 Iso-butane
~~~~ ~
. . 115 1 104
Iso-butene . 121 10.2

Fig. 24. Figures Obtained on a Small Air-cooled Engine
Running at 3,000 r.p.m. Town’s gas .
~~
-56 11.4
An ionization gap could not be used as a pre-ignition detector Carbon monoxide . -86 18.1
in the “Dagger” unit because the pre-igniter was placed near to
the sparking-plug in order to make it run as hot as possible. In
Hydrogen . - 8.7
those circumstances there would be little difference in the time

of flame arrival at an ionization gap, whether the flame originated
at the spark plug or at the pre-igniter, and that would make it
impossible to detect the early stages of auto-ignition by those
means. An increase in the rate of change of pressure consequent
upon pre-ignition was found to be easily observable and proved
to be a very satisfactory alternative to the ionization method.
With regard to the meaning of the n o d running temperature
referred to in Fig. 12, that was, as Dr. Watson assumed, the
temperature of the pre-igniter with a constant, but arbitrary,
cooling-air flow sufficient to prevent pre-ignition in the absence
of boost.
While the authors agreed with Mr. Withers that pre-ignition
and knock were both due to auto-ignition of some part of the
fuel/& charge, the essential difference between them lay in the
conditions of temperature, pressure, and time under which they
occurred. Pre-ignition was a high temperature, low pressure

148 AUTHORS’ REPLY O N P R E - I G N I T I O N I N THE S P A R K - I G N I T I O N E N G I N E
combustion chamber, there appeared a prospect of cooling
Replying to Mr. Moore, no investigation into the general
volume of heating around the pre-igniter was made, neitherspecific areas by means of directional spray. That was done in
German military aircraft engines (Daimler-Benz and B.M.W.)
were the effects of turbulence examined. There was, however,
during the 193945 war, and was believed to have been effective
appreciable swirl in the E.6 engine arising from the use of a
in reducing pre-ignition.
shrouded inlet valve which was used in order to improve the
cyclic regularity of combustion during the experiments. NO
work was carried out with the gas sampling valve for the Running-on. There was considerable support for the idea
purpose of examining the gas reactions leading to pre-ignition. that running-on was spontaneous ignition of the charge. That it
In answering Mr. Grifliths, the authors’ reference to the was not directly associated with a hot spot in the combustion
nature of the flame front was intended to imply that once ignition chamber was shown in the experiment described by Dr. Tait,
had occurred, combustion proceeded in a normal way. That was when, with engine cold, he heated the induction inanifold hot-
evidenced by the fact that when the engine was auto-igniting the spot with a blow-lamp and produced running-on immediately on
electrical ignition could often be switched off without any change starting. The interesting contributions of Mr. Barrett and Mr.
in speed or load being observable. The rate of initiation of Maclachlan formed a valuable summary of what appeared to be
combustion could possibly be lower in these circumstances, but the main factors controlling the phenomenon. The very great
since a greater quantity of mixture would be involved owing to influence of mixture temperature indicated clearly the directionin
the larger area of the pre-igniter the final engine result would be which efforts to overcome the complaint should be turned. That
similar to that with electrical ignition. When the pre-igniter applied to measures both outside and inside the combustion
temperature was high the rate of propagation was extremely chamber. Desirable features appeared to be a minimum amount of
rapid and if not checked would bring on pre-ignition of damaging hot-spotting in the induction manifold, with as cool an air intake
severity. as possible, combined with good circulation of water around the
Mr. Porter’s experience would appear to indicate that the combustion chambers at low engine speeds, and a general
pre-ignition observed on his engine was due to local overheating reduction in coolant temperature. Thst latter was, apparently,
and was reduced by the cooling effect of the injected water. It often controlled at a high figure for the purpose of car body
seems unlikely that engine size per se could be responsible for heating. A suitable alternative there could be to utilize the
the trouble, but more probably it was due to operating and exhaust heat. That would reduce under-bonnet temperature,
design factors. For example, the centre of an uncooled piston and would also obviate the need for unnecessarily high coolant
crown, particularly if made of cast iron, could reach a very high temperatures.
temperature. Exhaust valves and spark plugs could also cause Mr. Barrett, Dr. Tait, and Mr. Withers had all commented
trouble if not sufficiently cool. Carbon deposits could also give on the adverse effect of overlap valve timing, and Mr. Maclachlan
rise to pre-ignition. had observed that excessive back-pressure in the exhaust system
Mr. Maclachlan’s experience of pre-ignition in high-duty could be a contributory cause of running-on.
racing engines provides valuable confirmation of the necessity
for careful selection of sparking-plugs. The authors are glad to Mr. Coy’s reference to the fact that four-cylinder engines
have his agreement on their observations on the opposing effects seemed more prone to running-on than are six-cylinder engines,
of alcohol on sparking-plug and general engine temperatures. must be set against the observation of Mr. Campbell who had
His confirmation of the effect of engine speed on pre-ignition found the reverse to be the case, albeit in an engine presumably
was reassuring in that laboratory observations carried out at rather larger than those Mr. Coy had in mind. Mr. Stead’s
relatively low speeds fell in line with practical experience at remarks suggested that in the engine referred to, badly seating
high engine speeds. inlet valves could, by causing blowing back into the inlet
Mr. Coy asked whether the use of methanol/water blends manifold, result in a critical rise in temperature of the ingoing
used for extra power output at take-off on aircraft engines were mixture.
liable to increase the risk of pre-ignition. The practice was now Although it was shown that there was some relationship
a well established one and the authors were not aware of any between the octane number of the fuel and the running-on
trouble arising from its use. tendency, it would seem from all the evidence, that the latter
The authors have no experience of any connexion between was largely an engine problem. The influence of compression
pre-ignition and exhaust valve failures. It was, however, not ratio should not be overlooked, since current ratios were now
unlikely that an exhaust valve already “blowing”, and running at nearly 1 unit greater than in 1939, while present-day fuels were
an unusually high temperature, could give rise to pre-ignition. unavoidably rather lower in octane number than those obtainable
It was known that the high T.E.L. concentration in aircraft fuels at that date.
was responsible for a certain amount of exhaust valve trouble. Mr. Perrett’s experience that two-cycle engines are immune
Dr. Weaving’s comment on the validity of rating fuels by from running-on was of interest, particularly as in the case of
measuring the heat transfer may be answered by saying that all the three-port type an appreciable degree of heating of the
fuels were compared under the same engine conditions, so that mixture must occur as a result of its passage through the crank-
the velocity of gases past the pre-igniter would be the same in case. As Mr. Moore had pointed out, the compression ratios in
each case. those engines were usually low and that would reduce the
chance of a spontaneous ignition.
Replying to Mr. Wightman’s question, it is unlikely that the
current motor fuels of a nombal70 octane number would vary
very widely in either knocking tendency or pre-ignition rating. TABLE
14
In answering the point raised by Mr. Lee, it was significant
that a range of fuels tested by three distinct methods (two in the Cylinder diamerer,/ H.U,C.R.
E.6 and one in the “Dagger”) gave substantially the same inches 1
relative pre-ignition ratings (the one exception was toluene)
which showed no relationship whatever to their H.U.C.R. 2.75 i 7.9
ratings or octane numbers. It might be possible slightly to modify I
that conclusion in certain cases by an experiment such as he 3.5 i 7.5
suggests, but it was extremely doubtful in view of the weight of
evidence that any relationship could be established. 5.5 I 6.2
In regard to Mr. Forbes’ question, if pre-ignition was occurring 8.5 I 5.4
in one cylinder of a multi-cylinder engine the performance could I
be seriously affected. In the case of a single-cylinder engine such
as fitted to a motor-cycle, pre-ignition could cause a sudden
stoppage very similar to engine seizure, due to “negative work” Surface Discharge Plugs. The authors were grateful for
on the piston during the compression stroke. Dr. Watson’s clarification of their redarks on the surface
The h u e n c e of petrol injekion on pre-ignition had not been
studied by the authors. In the case of direct injection into the
-
discharge m- - e of d U g .
In reply to Mr-. Gadley and Mr. Wightman, so far as the

AUTHORS’ R E P L Y O N P R E - I G N I T I O N I N T H E S P A R K - I G N I T I O N E N G I N E 149
authors are aware the above type of igniter was proposed for give trouble due to normal fouling. For that reason a certain
high-altitude aircraft piston engines because the conventional amount of interest in surface discharge plugs had been created
high-tension systems gave nouble due to flash-over at the low where engines were installed in inaccessible positions and normal
atmospheric pressures obtaining at altitudes around 40,000 feet. spark plug maintenance could not be carried out.
One way of avoiding that was to pressurize the magneto, and Some general information on that form of low-tension ignition
another was to introduce a low-tension ignition system. The may be obtained in an article by W. Beye Smits (1951)*.
latter involved the use of a condenser discharge of low voltage,
across a flush-surfaced spark plug. The discharge path was of Effect of Engine Size on H.U.C.R. The compression ratio at
low resistance and the deposition of fuel and oil deposits on the which knock occurred would increase as the cylinder size was
surface was advantageous in maintaining satisfactory working reduced, other things being equal. Figures showing the infiuence
conditions for the low-tension discharge. of cylinder diameter on the H.U.C.R. of a given fuel are shown
An advantage of the latter feature was that the plugs would not in Table 14.
* SWTS, W.BEYE1951 De Ingenieur,vol. 63, No. 3.

1950 - Downs D - An Experimental Investigation Into Pre-Ignition in The SI Engine

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1950 - Downs D - An Experimental Investigation Into Pre-Ignition in The SI Engine

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125

An Experimental Investigation into Pre-ignition in the

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Fig. 1. Development of Pre-ignition (Napier “Dagger” Unit)

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MIXTURE STRENGTH -PERCENTAGE OF CHEMICALLY j POSITION OF PISTON AT T.O.Ci

b Fig. 4. Diagram Showing the Positions of Pre-igniter, Ionization

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10 deg. early f b 10 deg. early f d

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Hydropetrolwith6 C.C. T.E.L. per I.G. 1 75 1 11.80 100-130 grade avia-

35 per cent paraffins, 34 per cent naph-

Cumene (isopropyl benzene) . 0 12.55

Ethyl alcohol (absolute) . -28 - 80 octane, blend 2

Industrial methylated spirits (74 over

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Racing blend 4 . 60 per cent methanol, 10 per cent aviation

Racing blend 10 . 75 per cent methanol, 14 per cent benzole,

Again there is little relationship between the pre-ignition

The fuels fall into two well-defined groups, consisting of those

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F7 ratings obtained on a selection of fuels using the “Dagger”

Iso-octane (2-, 2-, Ctrimethyl pentane) .

The relative ratings are, in general, similar to those obtained

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100-130 grade aviation fuel

1 100-130 grade aviation fuel with 25 per cent 78

3 100-130 grade aviation fuel with 25 per cent 78 2

100-130 grade aviation fuel with 25 per cent 100

100-130 grade aviation fuel alone, as in practice the induction

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Fig. 8. Variation of Flame and Pre-igniter Temperatures

Pre-ignition temperature is a rather more complex variable

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by pre-ignition, decreases with increase in speed from 1,750 to

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to those used in the pre-ignition tests. With knock, the decreasing

Experiments with the thermocouple plug showed that the

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-kz--Lu 220 2-40

(“Dagger” Unit) I !--!

Fig. 16. Effect of Lead on Pre-ignition with Iso-octane

Benzene . . I -10 1 +0.25 I -77

Mixed octanes . -50 +0.75 -54

Cyclohexane .I -60 I +0.75 I -70

Standard No. 2 . -77 I +1.0 I -66

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pre-ignition process, occurring at relatively high temperatures

Benzene . .I I -18 I -21 I -25 1 -35

Fuel Additive t-Butyl Acetalde- Methyl Nitrogen Nitro-

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INITIAL JACKET TEMPERATURE-DEGL.

Fig. 19. Effect of Jacket Temperatures and Compression

pression ratio on the duration of running on. It would be seen

-< 120 Temperature

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Iso-butene . 121 10.2