Professional Documents
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9th Social Science EM PDF
9th Social Science EM PDF
STANDARD NINE
SOCIAL SCIENCE
Content Creation
The wise
possess all
II
November &
9 The Age of Revolutions 113
December
January &
11 Colonialism in Asia and Africa 142 February
III
III
Civics
IV
1 U
nderstanding Development: Perspectives,
Measurement and Sustainability 284 June
Learning Objectives
The scope of the lesson is presented
QR Code
Leads the students to animated audio,
video aids for getting experiential learning
Infographs
Visual representations intended to make the complex
simple and make the students grasp difficult concepts
easily
Summary
Describes the main points briefly in bullets for
recapitulation
Glossary
Key words and technical terms
explained at the end of each subject for clarity
ICT Corner
Using technology for learning activites, which enables
the students to access degital sources relevant to their
lessons.
VI
Do You Know?
Provides additional information related to the
subject in boxes to stir up the curiosity of students
Exercise
For self-study and self evaluation
Reference
List of books and net sources for further reading
VII
VIII
years ago. They probably replaced the earlier during this period. These people were
populations. In Europe, humans known as hunter-gatherers. With the global warming
Cro-Magnons lived in this period. occurring after the Ice Age, they became
highly mobile and occupied various
Horns and ivory were used for making
eco-zones (coastal, hilly, riverine and dry
tools and art works. Bone needles, fishhooks,
region).
harpoons and spears were also employed
creatively. The humans of this time wore People of Mesolithic period widely
clothes and cooked food. The dead were employed microlithic technology.
placed in the burials with folded hands placed They made tiny artefacts that were less
over their chest. Pendants and richly carved than 5 cm in size. They produced points,
tools were also seen in use. Evidences from scrapers and arrowheads. They also used
paintings, clay model sculptures and geometric tools such as lunates, triangles
carvings are available. Images of Goddess and trapezes. These tools were hafted onto
Venus were made of stones and bones in wooden or bone handles and used.
Europe and in some parts of Asia. Microliths are stone artefacts of small size.
Ice Age – the period before 8,000 BC (BCE)
when many parts of the world remained covered
by ice sheets and snow.
Mesolithic Culture in Tamil Nadu Triangles are tools in the shape of triangles.
In many parts of the world, and in some Lunates are tools in the shape of a crescent.
parts of India, the Upper Paleolithic Culture
succeeded the Middle Paleolithic Culture. Neolithic Culture in Tamil Nadu
There is no evidence for the Upper Paleolithic The culture that domesticated animals
Culture in Tamil Nadu. But the people who and cultivated crops is called Neolithic. It is
used microliths or small-stone artefacts lived known as the New Stone Age. The Neolithic
in many parts of TamilNadu. Since this cultural people used polished stone axes called celts.
period occurs between Paleolithic and Neolithic Cattle rearing was their main occupation.
Culture, it is known as Mesolithic Culture or They lived in small villages with houses made
Middle Stone Age. of thatched roof and walls plastered with
clay. Evidence of Neolithic village is found at of India. Evidence for pottery making and
Payyampalli in Vellore district and a few sites cultivation of horse gram and green gram has
in the Dharmapuri region. been found in this village.
Iron Age/Megalithic period
Neolithic people perhaps
devised the first pottery. They The cultural period that succeeded the
made pottery, using a slow Neolithic is called the Iron Age. As the name
wheel called turn-table or made suggests, people used iron technology. It
pottery out of hand. Before preceded the Sangam Age. The Iron Age was
firing, the pottery was polished with pebbles. a formative period and the foundation for
This process is known as burnishing. the Sangam Age was laid in this time. During
the Iron Age, many parts of Tamil Nadu were
Payyampalli is a village in Vellore district occupied by people. An exchange relationship
of Tamil Nadu. The earliest evidence for the developed among the people.
domestication of animals and cultivation The people of this age had knowledge
of plants is found at this site, which was of metallurgy and pottery making. They used
excavated by the Archaeological Survey iron and bronze objects and gold ornaments.
9 1. Evolution of Humans and Society - Prehistoric Period
The menhirs may have been erected for the gatherers. Craft specialists, potters and
heroes in the Iron Age. The tradition of hero blacksmiths were the professionals during
stones might have begun in the Iron Age or even this period. The society had several groups of
before. peoples (tribes). The size of the burials and the
Agriculture and Pastoralism variations found in the burial goods suggests
the existence of numerous social groups and
The people in the Iron Age practiced
their diverse practices. Some of them seem
agriculture, domesticated cattle and sheep,
to have had organised chiefdoms. Cattle
and some of the groups were hunting and
lifting leading to wars and encroachment
gathering. Millets and rice were cultivated.
and expansion of territories had also started
Irrigation management developed in this
taking place in this period.
period, since many of the megalithic sites
are found nearby rivers and tanks. In the Pottery
deltaic regions, irrigation as a technology
had developed. Evidence of rice is seen in Pottery is an important evidence found
the megalithic sites like Adhichanallur in in the archaeological sites. The Iron Age and
Thoothukudi district and Porunthal near Sangam age people used the black and red
Palani. colours to make black ware and red ware
pottery. Potteries were used for cooking,
Iron Age Society and Polity storage and dining purposes. The black and
The Iron Age society had farming red ware pottery has a black inside and a red
communities, pastoralists and hunter- outside, with lustrous surfaces.
Iron Technology and Metal Tools made pottery and with the surplus
The megalithic burials have abundant production, they developed various
iron objects placed in the burials as grave crafts.
goods. Weapons such as swords and daggers,
The earliest evidence of humans
axes, chisels, lamps and tripod stands are also
is available in Tamil Nadu around
found. Some of these objects were hafted to
2-1.5 million years ago.
wooden or bone or horn handles and used.
The iron tools were used for agriculture, The Middle Paleolithic Culture is
hunting, gathering and in battles. Bronze found in some parts of Tamil Nadu.
bowls, vessels with stylish finials decorated The Mesolithic people lived in all the
with animals and birds, bronze mirrors and areas of Tamil Nadu.
bells have also been found. Neolithic culture is limited to
northwestern part of Tamil Nadu.
Recap The Iron Age saw further expansion of
people in various cultural zones. The
The history of humans is intimately foundation of subsequent Sangam Age
linked with the history of the earth. The was laid during this age.
earth originated around 4.54 billion
Iron tools were used in agriculture.
years ago.
The ancestors of human called
hominins appeared about 5–7 million
years ago. EXERCISE
Although people gave divine explanations
for the origin of humans, science believes I. C
hoose the
in the theory of human evolution from correct answer
the great apes.
1. _____________ is genetically closest to
Humans began to domesticate animals humans
and cultivate crops. The agricultural
(a) Gorilla (b) Chimpanzee
revolution led to many changes.
Humans lived in permanent houses, (c) Orang-utan (d) Great Apes
c) Flake canot be used for tool making. Organize an exhibition on the pre-historic
sites of Tamil Nadu
d) Acheulian is the main block of stone
from which small chips are flaked by Assignment with teacher’s
using a hammer stone. guidance
A power-point presentation on the origin
IV. Match the following of human life
3. List out the features of Megalithic Burial 3. Ralph, Burns and others. World
types. Civilizations (Vol. 1).
http://www.sharmaheritage.com
VI. Answer the following in
https://www.nature.com
detail
http://www.ancient-origins.net
1. The developments in the fields of
agriculture, pottery and metal tools http://humanorigins.si.edu
are considered a landmark in the life of https://www.britannica.com
Megalithic period-Substantiate.
2. The history of humans is closely related
to the history of the earth. Elucidate.
Website URL:
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.google.android.apps.cultural
2. Ancient Civilisations 16
INDUS
EGYPT
EGYPT
MESOPOTAMIA
INDUS
Arabian
Sea Bay of Bengal CHINA
INDIAN OCEAN
Not to Scale
which originates in Lake Victoria in the south form. Under the pharaoh, there was a hierarchy
and flows into the Mediterranean Sea in the of officials including viziers, the governors
north. Deserts are seen on both sides of the Nile of provinces, local mayors and tax collectors.
River. The Egyptian civilisation depended solely The entire social system was supported by the
upon the flow of Nile River, and hence Egypt work and production of artisans including
was called the Gift of Nile by the Greek historian stone cutters, masons, potters, carpenters,
Herodotus. The Nile also served as a means of coppersmiths and goldsmiths, peasants and
transport. The Nile valley is very rich and fertile workers. Land belonged to the king and was
as the river deposits fresh alluvium every year. assigned to the officials. Slavery was not
This alluvium nurtured agriculture and helped common, but captives were used as slaves.
to produce surplus of food grains, leading to the Viziers were the high officials who
development of Egyptian civilisation. The dry administered territories under the direction
regions on both the sides of the Niles, however of the Pharaohs.
remained deserts.
The Egyptians believed in life after death.
The Hyksos were the rulers of the 15th dynasty Therefore, they preserved the dead body. The
of Egypt and they were probably from West Asia. art of preserving the dead body is known as
mummification. Pyramids and tombs were built
Persians are the people from the region of to preserve the body of pharaohs.
Persia, the ancient Iran.
The famous Egyptian pharaoh
Greek refers to the language and people of Tutankhamen’s (who ruled from 1332 to 1322
modern-day State of Greece in Europe.
Mummies of Egypt
Writing System
The Egyptians are well known for their
writing system. Their form of writing is
known as hieroglyphic. Hieroglyphic was used
The Great Pyramid of Giza in the inscriptions on seals and other objects.
The heretic, an another form of writing, was
used for common purposes. This form of
writing used a pictogram-based system. It
was developed around 3000 BC (BCE) and
many texts and books were written using this
script. Now this inscription is on display in
the British Museum, London.
View of the Sphinx with the
Great Pyramid, Egypt
Religion
The Egyptians practiced polytheism.
Amon, Re, Seth, Thoth, Horus and Anubis
are some of the Gods of Egyptians. They
worshipped many Gods, but the Sun God, Re,
was the predominant one. Later on, the Sun
God was called Amon.
19 2. Ancient Civilisations
Not to Scale
2. Ancient Civilisations 20
Mari
Food and Agriculture
Eu
ph
rat
Rapiqum?
es
Nippur
for agriculture and cultivated wheat, barley,
a m
Isin
1792 BCE
Larsa Lagash
onions, turnips, grapes, apples and dates. They
1750 BCE
Uruk
Ur
domesticated cattle, sheep and goats. Fish was
Eridu
Not to scale part of their diet.
Mesopotamia and its cities
Trade and Exchange
Trade was an important economic activity
Society, State and Administration of the Mesopotamian society. Traders assisted
The Sumerian civilisation had many city in the exchange of goods procured from the
states. A typical Sumerian city was surrounded potters and artisans. They traded with Syria
The Chinese
2.4
Civilisation
China has two major rivers. One is known
as Huang He (Yellow River) and the other is
called Yangtze River. The Yellow River is known
as the Sorrow of China, since it changed its
course and caused frequent floods.
Evidence for the prehistoric Peking
Development of cuneiform script man (700,000 BP and 200,000 BP)
and Yuanmou Man exists in China. Neolithic
Science communities lived in China between 4,500
The Mesopotamians excelled in and 3,750 BC (BCE). The Henan province in
mathematics, astronomy and medicine. They the Yellow and Yangtze river valley contain
developed the concepts of multiplication, evidence for Neolithic villages. China had many
division and cubic equation. The numerical city states and gradually these states became
system based on 60 was conceived by them. part of an empire.
They were the ones to formulate the 60-minute Polity and Emperors
hour, the 24-hour day and the 360° circle. The
Sumerian calendar had seven days in a week. Shi Huangdi (Qin Shi
Their numerical system had place values. They Huang, which means the first
created the water clock and the lunar calendar emperor) founded the Qin
based on the movement of the moon. They (Chin) dynasty. The emperor
developed methods for measuring areas and had the title ‘son of heaven’.
solids. They also developed advanced weight He is considered to be the first
and measurement systems. emperor of China. The period
Nort
Huan
h Ch
g-He
(Yell
ow R
)
40 N
ina P
Anyang
lain
Yellow
H
IM Zhengzhou sea
AL East
AY
AS China sea
Not to Scale
between 221 and 206 BC (BCE) is known as (75–88 AD (CE)). Chinese silk was much
the imperial era in China. He conquered other sought after by the Romans during the time of
principalities in 221 BC (BCE) and remained the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius in 166
the emperor till 212 BC (BCE). He defeated the AD (CE). Some of the Chinese silk might have
feudal lords and established a strong empire. He reached Rome through the ports of Tamilagam.
is credited with unifying China. Shi Huangdi
destroyed the walled fortifications of different
The Terracotta Army
States and constructed the Great Wall of
China to protect the empire from the invading The Terracotta Army refers to the large
nomadic people. He also built roads to integrate collection of terracotta warrior images
the empire. found in China. They depict the armies of
the king Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor
The Han Empire (206–220 AD (CE)) of China. They were buried with the king
During this period, a written history of in 210–209 BC (BCE). They are found at
this empire was made available in China. The the northern foot of the Lishan Mountain,
greatest of the Han emperors, Wu Ti (Han Wu thirty five kilometres northeast of Xi'an,
the Great, 141 to 87 BC (BCE)), expanded Shaanxi Province, as part of the mausoleum
the empire and built many public amenities, of the king.
including irrigation tanks. He sent Zhang
Qian as emissary to the West in 138 BC (BCE)
and thereby paved the way for the opening of
the Silk Road in 130 BC (BCE) to encourage
trade activities.
Because of the Silk Road and the
resultant trade connections, China benefitted
Terracotta Warriors, China
immensely during the rule of Emperor Zhang
2. Ancient Civilisations 24
25 2. Ancient Civilisations
about the nature of the state or political cattle, sheep and goats. They had knowledge of
organisation of the Harappans. But they various animals including elephants but did not
must have had a political organisation at the use horses. The Harappan cattle are called Zebu,
level of an early form of state. A male image and it is a large breed, often represented in their
from Mohenjo-Daro has been identified as seals.
‘priest king’, but we do not know about the Pottery
accuracy of this interpretation.
The Harappans used painted pottery.
The Indus civilisation is Their potteries have a deep red slip and black
also known as the Harappan paintings. The pottery has shapes like dish-on-
civilisation, since Harappa was stands, storage jars, perforated jars, goblets,
the first site to be discovered. S-shaped jars,
This civilisation is known as plates, dishes,
Harappan civilisation rather than Indus bowls and pots.
Valley civilisation, since it extended beyond The painted motifs,
the Indus river valley. generally noticed
on the pottery,
Agriculture and Animal
depict pipal tree
Domestication Harappan painted pottery
leaves, fish-scale
The Harappans practiced agriculture. They designs, intersecting circles, zigzag lines,
cultivated wheat, barley and various types of horizontal bands, and geometrical motifs, and
millets. They adopted a double cropping system. floral and faunal patterns.
Pastoralism was also known to them. They reared
2. Ancient Civilisations 26
2. Ancient Civilisations 28
1. red fish
– (carp) – seven stars
dot/drop + fish pottu mi n 7 + fish elu mi n
d. 2. red star d. (Ursa Major)
(Rohini)
29 2. Ancient Civilisations
ICT CORNER
Explore ancient architecture
Let us fly on air
Steps
• Type the URL given below or scan the QR code. Then press the enter key.
• Click the ‘Full Screen’ to view the architecture.
• Explore the options given at the left lower side. Click ‘Open Google Map’.
Drag the mouse and rotate the ‘Red Shaded Area’ in it to
watch the area in 360° view or use the arrow keys for the
same view.
• Keep the cursor on question marks to get details about that
place.
Website URL:
http://www.airpano.com/files/Ancient-World/2-2
2. Ancient Civilisations 32
Pathinen Kilkanakku (18 minor works) Note: You will notice that among the old
The Pathinen Kilkanakku comprises inscriptions, people (both local and tourists)
eighteen texts elaborating on ethics and morals. have marked their names thereby destroying
The pre-eminent work among these is the some of the ancient inscriptions. Such acts of
Thirukkural composed by Thiruvalluvar. In 1330 destruction of heritage property or property
couplets Thirukkural considers questions of belonging to others are called vandalism.
morality, statecraft and love.
The Five Epics
The epics or Kappiyams are long narrative poem
of very high quality. They are,
(1) Silappathikaaram (2) Manimekalai The Tamil-Brahmi inscription at
(3) Seevaka Chinthamani Arachalur
(4) Valaiyapathi (5) Kundalakesi
Epigraphy
Epigraphy is the study of inscriptions.
Inscriptions are documents scripted on stone,
copper plates, and other media such as coins,
rings, etc. The development of script marks the
beginning of the historical period.
Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions
Estampage copy of the above inscription
Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions have been found
in more than 30 sites in Tamil Nadu mostly on
cave surfaces and rock shelters. These caves
were the abodes of monks, mostly Jaina monks.
The natural caves were converted into residence
by cutting a drip-line to keep rain water away
from the cave. Inscriptions often occur below
such drip-lines. The sites have smooth stone
beds carved on rock surface for monks who A rock bed at K. Puliankulam
led a simple life and lived in these shelters.
Merchants and kings converted these natural
formations as habitation for monks, who had
3. Early Tamil Society and Culture 34
garlands made from the flowers of the palm tree. was Kaveripoompattinam or Pumpuhar,
The inscriptions of Pugalur near Karur mention where the river Kaveri drains into the Bay
the Chera kings of three generations. Coins of of Bengal. Pattinappaalai is a long poem
Chera kings have been found in Karur. about Kaveripoompattinam composed by
The Silappathikaram speaks about Cheran the poet Kadiyalur Uruthirankannanar.
Senguttuvan, who built a temple for Kannagi, Silappathikaram describes the trading activities at
the protagonist of the epic. Legend has it that Kaveripoompattinam. Karikalan is notable among
Ilango who composed the Silappathikaram, was the Chola kings and is credited with bringing
the brother of Cheran Senguttuvan. The bow forestlands under the plough and developing
and arrow was the symbol of the Cheras. irrigation facilities by effectively utilising the water
from the river Kaveri.
The Cholas
The foundation for the extensive harnessing
The Cholas ruled
of water for irrigation purposes, which reached
over the Kaveri delta and
its zenith in later Chola times (10th to 13th
northern parts of Tamil
centuries) was laid in his time. Karikalan fought
Nadu. Their capital was
battles with the Pandyas, the Cheras and other
Uraiyur and their port town
39 3. Early Tamil Society and Culture
3.5 Economy
Different types of pottery from Porunthal
The economy was mixed as elaborated in excavations.
the Thinai concept. People practiced agriculture,
pastoralism, trade and money exchange,
hunting-gathering, and fishing depending upon
the eco-zones in which they lived.
Agricultural Production
Agriculture was one of the main sources Russet coated painted pottery with wavy line
of subsistence. Crops like paddy, sugarcane, decoration
millets were cultivated. Both wet and dry land
farming were practiced. In the riverine and Iron Smelting Industry
tank-irrigated areas, paddy was cultivated. Iron manufacturing was an important
Millets were cultivated in dry lands. Varieties of artisanal activity. Iron smelting was undertaken
rice such as sennel (red rice), vennel (white rice), in traditional furnaces and such furnaces, with
and aivananel (a type of rice) are mentioned terracotta pipes and raw ore have been found
in the literature. Rice grains were found in in many archaeological sites. For instance
burial urns at excavations in Adichanallur and evidence of iron smelting has been found in
Porunthal. People in the forest adopted punam Kodumanal and Guttur. Sangam literature
or shifting cultivation. speaks of blacksmiths, and their tools and
Pastoralism – nomadic people earning activities. Iron implements were required for
livelihood by rearing cattle, sheep, and goat. agriculture and warfare (swords, daggers, and
spears).
ndustries and Crafts of the
I
Sangam Age
Craft production and craft specialization
were important aspects of urbanization. In the
Sangam Age there were professional groups that
produced various commodities. The system of
production of commodities is called industry.
Pottery
Pottery was practised in many settlements.
People used pottery produced by Kalamceyko Iron Swords from Puducherry
(potters) in their daily activities and so they
were made in large numbers. Black ware, Stone Ornaments
russet-coated painted ware, black and red ware Sangam Age people adorned themselves
potteries were the different types of pottery with a variety of ornaments. While the poor wore
used. ornaments made of clay, terracotta, iron, and
Not to Scale
Pattanam, Kerala
Pattanam is located near North Paravur
in Vadakkekara village of Ernakulam
district of Kerala. It was an ancient port
town that had overseas connections
with the western and eastern worlds.
Turquoise glazed pottery, West Asia
Carnelian beads,
Kodumanal
Human skeleton from
Kodumanal
Jar with writing in Brahmi
Crystal ear
ornament, Keezhadi
Tamil-Brahmi Script
used in the Sangam Age for writing the Tamil Language
Recap
Primary production and exchange and social relationships in the landscapes and mercantile
activities across the seas led to urbanization and development of culture paving way for
the development of literature during this period.
The texts were compiled through the Tamil Academies (Sangam) at a later date.
The Thinai concept is a distinct classification of land and people as elaborated in
Tholkappiyam.
The Sangam age witnessed the transition from tribal society to kingdom-centred polities.
Sea borne trade with the Indian Ocean regions developed.
Large towns with buildings made of bricks appeared in Tamil country.
The society was diverse in nature.
ca. 300 BC (BCE) to 300 AD (CE). Early Historic Period / Sangam Age / Sangam Literature
EXERCISE
Let's Find
Steps
1. Type the given URL in browser or scan the QR code.
2. Click ‘Bhuvan 2D’.
3. Type Arikamedu in search box. Click ‘Search’ button or press the ‘Enter key’.
4. Select the ‘Satellite’ option given at the right side to watch the area in satellite
view. Click ‘+’ or ‘-‘ signs given at the left side to’ zoom in ‘or ‘zoom out’.
Step 1 Step 2
Step 3 Step 4
Website URL:
http://bhuvan.nrsc.gov.in/bhuvan_links.php#
Website URL:
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.prajwal.history.
science.isro.bhuvan.earth.map.satellite
U.A.E
ARABIAN SEA
ANDAMAN &
BAY OF BENGAL NICOBAR ISLANDS
(INDIA)
MALAYSIA
INDIAN OCEAN
Not to scale
(i) The Hinayana (Lesser Vehicle) was the The period that produced Buddhism
original creed preached by Buddha. The and Jainism also witnessed the birth of a sect
followers of this form regarded Buddha known as Ajivika. Its founder was Gosala
as their guru and did not worship him (Maskariputra Gosala), a friend of Mahavira.
as God. They denied idol worship and For some time, they were together. Later, Gosala
continued with the people’s language, Pali. moved away and founded the Ajiviaka sect. As
an atheistic sect, Ajivikas rejected the karma
When Buddha’s closest theory, which postulated that the condition of
disciple Ananda asked men is determined by their past actions. Gosala
Buddha whether women can argued that acts of charity and piety can, in no
become monks. Buddha said, way, influence this finality.
Yes, if women can follow the
Ajivikas had a small presence in southern
path of renunciation, they can become
India. Under the Cholas, a special tax was levied
monks and completely enlightened just
on them. Three Tamil texts, the Manimekalai
as men.
of Buddhists, the Nilakesi of Jains and the
(ii) In Mahayana (Greater Vehicle), Buddha Sivajnanasiddhiyar of Saivites, contain the
was worshipped as God and Bodhisattuva outlines of Ajivika doctrine.
as his previous avatar. The followers
Gana-sanghas
made images and statues of Buddha and
Bodhisattuva and offered prayers, and There were two distinct forms of
recited hymns (mantras) in their praise. government at the time of Mahavira and
Later, they wrote their religious books Buddha: monarchical kingdom and clan
in Sanskrit. This form of Buddhism was oligarchies or Gana-sanghas. The Gana-sanghas
patronised by Kanishka. provided a polity alternative to the kingdoms.
Vedic rituals and the rules of varna were not
Decline of Buddhism followed. The Gana-sanghas consisted of either
Buddhism declined in India due to the following a single clan, such as the Shakyas, Koliyas and
reasons: Mallas, or a confederacy of clans, such as the
Vrijjis and the Vrishnis (a confederacy located at
1. Buddhism was popular in the beginning
Vaisali). The Gana-sanghas had only two strata:
because it was preached in people’s
the Kshatriya rajakula, ruling families, and the
language (Pali). The later texts were
dasa-karmakara, the slaves and labourers.
written in Sanskrit, which was difficult
for the common people to understand. 4.8 Rise of Kingdoms
2. The split in Buddhism into Hinayana and The 6th century BC (BCE) witnessed the
Mahayana was another vital reason. Image establishment of kingdoms, oligarchies and
worship in Mahayana made no difference chiefdoms as well as the emergence of towns.
between Hinduism and Buddhism. From the largest of the chiefdoms emerged
3. Buddhism lost its royal patronage kingdoms. Many tribes of Rig Vedic period such
during the reign of Guptas. as Bharatas, Pasus, Tritsus and Turvasas passed
4. Further, the invasions of Huns and into oblivion and new tribes such as the Kurus
Turks almost wiped out Buddhism. and Panchalas rose into prominence. Sixteen
mahajanapadas are listed in the Buddhist texts.
Learning Objectives
To gain knowledge of the classical civilisation of Greece
To know Athenian democracy and the age of Pericles
To understand how a small town (Rome) emerged as a republic and
later became an empire
To learn the contribution of Rome to world civilization
To aquire knowledge of classical China and its achievements
To trace the origin of Christianity and its spread in Eastern Roman Empire
Introduction
Classical World comprises ancient Greece
When America, Australia and Africa remained and Rome. Classical Age refers to the
outside the mainstream of world history, inter-locking civilisation of ancient Greece
civilisation blossomed in scattered areas of and ancient Rome, known as Graeco-
the land mass of Europe and Asia, known Roman World.
as Eurasia. Some of them soon reached the
classical stage. When the classical era was at its 5.1 Greece: The Hellenic
height, a chain of empires from Rome to Persia World
to Peshawar, began to emerge. The expansion of
major civilisation eliminated the geographical Until 8th century BC (BCE) Greece was not
gap and paved the way for inter-regional trade different from the rest of the world. People
contacts and cultural exchange. This led to were illiterate, craft specialization was
the transmission of ideas, technology and primitive, and life was difficult. With the
art. The diffusion of the great religions of the exception of Sparta, agriculture was limited
world, beginning with Buddhism and later by the mountainous terrain. However, the
continuing with Christianity and Islam, can be Greeks succeeded in founding colonies along
understood in this context. the coast that helped them earn revenue
Athenian Democracy
In Athens, the pressure from below resulted
in the replacement of both oligarchy and
tyranny by “democracy.” The law-making
Acropolis
power in Athens was vested in an assembly
open to all freemen. Judges and lower officials
The ruling class in Greece controlled were chosen by lots. This arrangement was
the land. Slaves cultivated the land. resented by the upper classes who considered
Greek writers and philosophers saw democracy to be the rule of the mob.
the ownership of slaves as essential to
a civilized life. Aristotle compared the The Persian danger had united the
master and slave relationship to that Greeks. When this danger was removed,
of husband and wife, and father and they started quarrelling again. The history of
children. many Greek city-states was one of continual
struggles by the rich landowners against
“democracy”. The only exception was Athens,
where “democracy’ survived for about 200
Greeks’ Victory over Persians
years.
King Darius (BC (BCE) 550–486), who was
heading a great empire in Persia, decided
The word ‘democracy’, literally means
to conquer the Greek City-States. The first
“rule of the people”. In reality it excluded
Persian attack on Greece failed. This was
slaves, women, and non-residents known
due to the fact that Persian army suffered
as metics (traders and craftsmen).
from disease and lack of food during its
march. Therefore, in planning the second
attack, the Persians avoided the land route Pericles (461–429 BC (BCE)
and came by sea. The Greeks or Hellenes, Athens had a great leader, Pericles, who held
fought patriotically and defeated the Persian power for thirty years. During his rule, Athens
army at Marathon in 490 BC (BCE). Xerxes, and Sparta were continuously at war with each
Paris
Atlantic
Ocean Lugdunum Aquileia
El Djem Antioch
Damascus
Mediterranean Sea
Tyre
AF Leptis magna Cyrene
RIC
A Alexandria
Jerusalem
Petra
EGYPT
Map not to scale
Roman Empire
Seneca was another well known author of an the exceptions of Trajan (98–117), Antoninus
encyclopaedia of science. Horace in his Odes Pius (138–161) and Marcus Aurelius (161–
developed a philosophy that combined Epicurean 180), all others were tyrants. Marcus Aurelius
justification of pleasure with Stoic bravery in the stands apart from all others. As a philosopher,
face of trouble. Livy was more a prose stylist than he authored many books. He was the first
a historian. The best known historian was Tacitus. Roman Emperor to send an embassy to China
Virgil’s Aeneid glorified Roman imperialism. and establish contact with an Asian power.
The Roman law attained its highest stage of
External Invasions and the
development during the Principate.
Decline of Roman Empire
The empire, facing threats from “barbarian
incursions,” depended on expensive mercenary
armies. In AD (CE) 330 the centre of the empire
moved from Italy to the Greek speaking city
of Byzantium. But it was difficult to rule the
western parts from such a distance. In 410 A.D.
(C.E.) the Goth Alaric led his forces to sack
Rome. The Frank Clovis took control of Gaul.
The Ostrogoth Theodoric proclaimed himself
the emperor of Rome. The final onslaught came
from Vandals. In 476 A.D. (C.E.), disgusted by
the rule of Emperor Romulus Augustus, the
Colosseum
Roman army led by Odovacer revolted and
After the death of Augustus in 14 AD (CE) Rome deposed him. This marked the end of Western
had few enlightened and capable rulers. With Roman Empire.
Black sea
ian
W E
Rome
p
Constantinople
Cas
Mediterranean sea
PERSIA
Alexandria
CHINA
EGYPT
Barbarikon
Calcutta
Re
ARABIA Sur
se
a
INDIA
sea
Muziris
Sou
Mogadehu Malacca
SOMALIA
I N D I A N O C E A N
Mombesa
JAVA
Sea route
Map not to scale
Land route
Recap
The Greeks fought patriotically and repulsed the invasion of Persians.
Athens rejected monarchy and oligarchy, and opted for “democracy.”
During the reign of Pericles, Athens was in a higher plane of civilization.
After the death of Alexander, Science, Mathematics and Philosophy reached its peak in the
Greek-Egyptian city of Alexandria, heralding a new Hellenistic era.
By the late 6th century BC (BCE), Rome became prosperous and developed into a republic.
Class wars between Patricians and Plebeians, and slave revolts led to emergence of Rome as
an Empire.
The period of Principate in general and Augustus in particular witnessed rich contribution
of Romans to science, engineering, architecture and sculpture.
Internal crisis and invasion of Franks, Goths and Vandals ended the Roman Empire.
Romans carried on their civilisation in the East with Constantinople as capital.
This is called Byzantine Civilization.
Christianity became a state religion of Byzantium and began to spread in Europe.
ICT CORNER
The Classical World
Let us learn Greek civilisation
through this game.
Step 1: Use the URL/QR code to open the activity page “Adventures in Ancient Greece".
Click the 'OK' button and type your name to start the activity.
Step 2: Type the needed notes on the 'note scroll’, shown in the right side. “Timeline,
Map, Athens”, options are given below.
Step 3: Click ‘Timeline’, a match board will appear. Drag the options from right side
window and ‘Submit’. Some important cities and the life style of Greek people
are given in "MAP".
Step 4: Click 'Quiz' and answer the questions.
Website URL:
http://mystery-productions.com/hyper/Hypermedia_2003/Miller/AM_
hypermedia/Artifact/go.htm
*Pictures are indicative only.
*If browser requires, allow Flash Player or Java Script to load the page.
Learning Objectives
To learn about the empires of China during the reign of Tang, Sung
and Yuan dynasties
To understand the evolution of Japanese society under the Fujiwara
Family and Kamakura Shogunate
To trace the background of the birth of Islam
To acquire knowledge of Arab and Ottoman Empires and their
contribution to the spread of Islamic culture
To analyse the characteristics of Feudalism in the Middle Ages
To understand the relationship between the State and the Church in the Middle Ages
Sung Dynasty
Sui dynasty collapsed in forty years (960–1279 A.D. (C.E.))
because of financial burden imposed by public
works like the Grand Canal and the expensive The rebellion of hard-pressed peasantry
wars waged to conquer northern part of under the leadership of Hung Ch’ao dealt a
Korea. The T’ang dynasty rose from the death knell to the tottering Tang empire. The
widespread rebellions that took place to empire split into five rival states, until it was
establish a strong centralised empire. Li Yuan reunited under a new dynasty, Sung. Trade and
who organised the rebellion made Yang You industry flourished during the reign of Sung
the emperor of China. As Yang you was killed dynasty. Iron and steel industries became highly
by one of his royal officials, the Chancellor, Li organized.
Yuan proclaimed himself emperor. Several
hundred kilometres of the Great Wall were The quantity of iron
rebuilt along the north-west frontiers. China produced in
Military campaigns extended the empire’s 1078 A.D. (C.E.)
influence into Korea in the east and as far as exceeded 114,000
the borders of Persia and Indo-China in the tons (England
west. produced only
68,000 tons even
Great Wall of in 1788). China
China: Between excelled in ceramics
8th and 7th and porcelain-making. This technique
centuries B.C. was not known to Europe for another
(BCE), the 700 years. Gun powder was in use by
warring states 1044. China possessed printed books
in China built half a millennium before Europe. (Chris
defensive walls to protect themselves from Harman, A People’s History of the World,
enemies from the north. During Chin (Qin) p. 111.)
Dynasty, the separate walls were connected
and consequently the wall stretched from Fall of Sung Dynasty
east to west for about 5000 kilometres. This
Sung period was also a period of great
wall, considered to be one of the wonders
prosperity to the landowning class, officials and
of the world, served to keep nomadic tribes
rich merchants. The peasants, by contrast, had to
out. The Wall was further extended and
suffer grinding poverty. Before any internal crisis
strengthened by the succeeding dynasties.
could develop, there were two external invasions
Now it is 6,700 kilometres in length.
from the north that ended the Sung dynasty. The
Vienna Aral
sea
HUNGARY
N Ca
sp
W E
Black sea
ian
S
BALKANS Istanbul
sea
TURKEY
ALGERIA
IRAN
Med
TUNISIA iter
ran SYRIA IRAQ
ean Baghdad
sea CRITI CYPRUS
Tripoli PALESTINE Pe
ris
an
Cairo Gu
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AR
AB
EGYPT
IA
Medina
Re
Mecca
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Se
a
Skandagupta's Gold Coin Skandagupta's Silver Coin Yashodharman Victory Pillar, Mandsaur
Recap EXERCISE
China which rivalled Rome during
the Christian era, after experiencing
political instability, accomplished unity I. C
hoose the
and was ruled by the Sung dynasty for correct answer
about three centuries. 1. was the original
Sung dynasty was overthrown by the religion of Japan
Mongols who established Yuan dynasty (a) Shinto
in China. (b) Confucianism
Japan, which remained in isolation, (c) Taoism
joined the mainstream in the sixth (d) Animism
century AD (CE) with Mikado
becoming its emperor. Japan followed 2. means great name - lord.
China in all walks of life. (a) Daimyo (b) Shogun
The emperors slowly lost their control (c) Fujiwara (d) Tokugawa
and the government was taken over by 3. The Arab General who conquered Spain
the military general, who founded the was
Kamakura Shogunate. (a) Tariq (b) Alaric
Kamakura Shogunate was replaced by (c) Saladin (d) M ohammad the
Ashikaga Shogunate. Conqueror
Islam, established by Prophet 4. Harun-al-Rashid was the able emperor
Mohammad, began to spread. of
Arabs who took to Islam early succeeded (a) Abbasid dynasty
in establishing Islamic kingdom first in (b) Umayyad dynasty
Spain and later in other parts of Europe.
(c) Sassanid dynasty
Umayyads ruled from Damascus, while (d) Mongol dynasty
the Abbasids from Baghdad.
5.
F eudalism centred around
The fight for the leadership of Arabia
after the death of Prophet Mohammad
(a) vassalage (b) slavery
led to division in Islam as Sunni and
Shia. (c) serfdom (d) land
The architecture developed by Arabs is II. Fill in the blanks
known as Saracenic. 1. were the original
The takeover of the holy city of inhabitants of Japan.
Jerusalem by Seljuq Turks resulted in 2. was the original
the Crusades. name of Japan.
The weakening of Seljuq Turks led to 3. was the original
the rise of Ottoman Turks. name of Medina.
The capture of Constantinople by 4. were the barbarians
Ottoman Turks ended the Middle Ages. posing a threat to the Chinese in the
north.
(iii) S eljuq Turks were a tribe of Tartars. 1. The Great Wall of China.
(iv) Mongols established their rule in 2. Impact of Crusades.
China in the name of Yuan dynasty.
3. How was Feudalism organized in the
(a) (i) is correct
Middle Ages?
(b) (ii) is correct
4. Write about the two instruments used
(c) (iii) is correct
by Medieval Pope to assert his authority.
(d) (iv) is correct
Learning Objectives
To acquire knowledge of
Successive dynasties and the resultant political outcomes from the times
of the Cholas to the Mughals
Influence of Islam and Islamic state on the socio-cultural life of the
people
Institutional and administrative changes during Chola, Pandya and
Vijayanagara periods in the south
Development of literature, art and architecture
Transformation in agriculture and manufacturing sector
Progress in maritime trade, commerce and urbanization
The ‘medieval’ period from the 7th century The expansion of the Chola empire from
A.D.(CE) till the beginning of Mughal rule in the time of Rajaraja I which eclipsed the
the 16th century. The Mughal era, from the 16th Pandyan and Pallava kingdoms, extending
to 18th century is referred to as the early modern north till Orissa.
peroid. From the twelfth century, the beginning of
The political scenario in all parts of India several centuries of Muslim rule in Delhi,
underwent momentous, definitive changes extending throughout north India and the
which transformed the social and economic spread of Islam to different parts of the
fabric and development of the country. country.
By the end of the 13th century the eclipse 7.1 Political Changes
of the great empire of the Cholas and (1000–1700)
the consequent rise of many Religious
kingdoms in south India. This ultimately 7.1 (a) North India: The Advent
culminated in the rise of the Vijayanagar of Islam
empire which exercised authority over all Muslim rule was established in Delhi at the
of south India and came to be considered end of the 12th century by Muhammad Ghori,
the bastion of Religious rule in the south. Arab Muslim merchants had been trading in
The consolidation of Muslim rule under the the ports of the west coast, especially Kerala,
Mughals in the north, beginning in 1526 as early as the 9th century. Similarly, Muslim
A.D. (C.E.) with the defeat of the Ibrahim invaders from west Asia had set up Sultanates
Lodi by Babur. At its height, the Mughal in Gujarat and Sind since the 8th century.
empire stretched from Kabul to Gujarat to The impact of Muslim rule was felt during
Bengal, from Kashmir to south India. the reign of Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316 A.D.
The coming of the Europeans, beginning (C.E.)) who sent military campaigns to the
with the Portuguese who arrived on the south. The primary objective was to plunder
west coast of India in 1498. the wealth, rather than to expand his territory.
IMPORTANT PLACES OF
INDIA IN THE LATE
Kabul
KASHMIR 14th & 15th CENTURIES
N
lum ab
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Jhe
Ind
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Ch
Ravi W E
Lahore
t lej Ferozepore S
Su
Delhi
Ga
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Bikaner
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SIND
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Brah
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Aymer JAUNPUR
Jodhpur Jaunpur
bal
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MEWAR
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Banaras
Bet
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Ahmedabad MALWA
GUJARAT Narmadha
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Tapti Burhanpur han
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BAHAMANI
Godavari
Ahmadnagar
Warangal
Bidar
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Bijapurrishna
SEA K
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VIJAYANAGAR
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L a ks h a d w e e p i s l a
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Many brilliant Pandya kings like Jatavarman and eventually to Chandragiri near Tirupati.
Sundara Pandyan ruled at the end of the The empire (or what remained of it) finally
13thcentury. Further to the north was the withered away in the middle of the seventeenth
Hoysala kingdom, with its capital at Belur and century.
later Halebidu. This kingdom extended through 7.1 (d) The Mughals
much of the present day state of Karnataka. The (1526–1707 A.D. (C.E.))
Kakatiyas ruled from Warangal (Telangana)
while the Yadavas ruled in Devagiri until The Mughal empire was founded by
Devagiri fell to Alauddin Khalji’s forces at the Babur in 1526 A.D. (C.E.) after he defeated
end of the 13th century. These states did not exist Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat. The first six Mughal
in peaceful cooperation, and the region was emperors are referred to as the ‘Great Mughals’.
beset by many internal wars and conflicts. Aurangzeb was the last of the great Mughals.
Akbar consolidated the Mughal empire
The establishment of the kingdom
through conquests and through a policy
(subsequently empire) of Vijayanagar was
of conciliation with the Religious based
the most momentous development in the
kingdoms of Rajasthan. The Mughal empire
history of south India in the medieval period.
though began to disintegrate after Aurangzeb,
The kingdom was established by Harihara
continued to exist nominally till 1857 A.D.
and Bukka, two brothers. They were the first
(C.E.) when the British finally ended the
rulers of the Sangama dynasty. They founded
virtually non-existent empire.
a new capital city on the southern banks of
Tungabhadra which they named Vijayanagara A new power centre rose in Maharashtra in
(city of victory). Harihara was crowned in the seventeenth century, and the Marathas under
1336 A.D. (C.E.). The Sangama dynasty ruled the leadership of Shivaji seriously undermined
Vijayanagar for nearly one and a half centuries. the authority of the Mughals in western India. At
This was followed by the Saluva dynasty which its height, the empire stretched over most of the
was in power only for a brief period. The Tuluva Indian sub-continent. Only the south-western
dynasty then succeeded as rulers. Krishnadeva region of Kerala and southern Tamilnadu were
Raya, the greatest ruler of Vijayanagar, belonged not directly under Mughal rule.
to this family. 7.1 (e) The Arrival of the
Europeans
Kingdom: a country ruled by a king
During the fifteenth century the Europeans
or queen.
were pre-occupied with trying to find a direct
Empire: a group of countries sea route to India, bypassing the overland route
controlled by one ruler (an emperor).
through west Asia and the Mediterranean.
The spice trade from India was controlled by
As the empire expanded, kingdoms to Muslims up to Alexandria. By gaining direct
the south, such as the Hoysalas and the Tamil access to India the Europeans could exercise
region, were also assimilated into Vijayanagar. more direct control over the spice trade and
The rulers of Vijayanagar were almost obtain the spices at more favourable prices. In
continuously at war with the Bahmani sultanate 1498 A.D. (C.E.), Vasco da Gama landed on the
as well as with the Religous based kingdoms of Kerala coast having sailed around the Cape of
Kondavidu and Orissa. Finally, the combined Good Hope in South Africa. Barely five years
forces of the five Deccani Sultanates defeated later, the Portuguese built their first fort at
Vijayanagar in 1565 A.D. (C.E.) at the Battle of Cochin in 1503 A.D. (C.E.). Goa was captured
Talikota. The Vijayanagar emperors then shifted in 1510 A.D. (C.E.) and became the centre of the
their capital further south to Penugonda, Portuguese state in India. Because of their naval
superiority, the Portuguese were able to conquer known as brahmadeya. Marketing centres
many ports from east Africa up to Malacca, and and towns were known as nagaram. The ur,
could effectively control the maritime trade nadu, brahmadeya and nagaram each had its
over the entire region. own assembly. They were responsible for the
maintenance and management of the water
resources and land; the local temples; resolving
local issues and disputes; and for collecting the
taxes due to the government.
The Cholas notable feature was the great
increase in the construction of temples.
This had two dimensions: new temples were
Trade in Masulipattinam
constructed, and existing temples became
Other European nations soon followed multi-functional social and economic
the Portuguese, most notably the Dutch, institutions. The construction of great temples
English and French. The activities of the latter also was a reflection of the growing prosperity
were carried on through the respective East in the kingdom, since the activity involved
India Companies. While these were all private great expenditure. The temple was no longer
trading enterprises, they all had a strong a mere place of worship, but became an
political agenda. During the seventeenth important economic entity as an employer,
century, when Mughal authority was still consumer and land-owner.
powerful, the European companies were able
to trade in the Mughal empire, but could not The establishment of Islamic Rule in
have their own territorial base within the Delhi made a big impact on Indian society.
boundaries of the empire. In South India, Initially, Islam did not cause any social tension.
however, political authority was fragmented Arab merchants, for instance, when they came
and much less cohesive, and they had their and settled on Kerala coast, married local
own enclaves over which they exercised women and led a peaceful life. The situation
complete authority. The Dutch were in changed when Islam became a state power.
Pulicat (and later Nagapatnam), the English For a medieval ruler one way of asserting
in Madras, the French in Pondicherry and the imperial authority was to demolish the place
Danes in Tarangampadi (Tranquebar). of worship of the enemies. Otherwise Islam as
a monotheistic religion had its positive impact
in Indian society. It played a decisive role in
7.2 Impact on Polity the evolution of a composite culture.
most vividly in the Deccan sultanates of Bijapur Resources realized from the land were
and Golkonda whose rulers were extremely transferred to the empire by the nayakas not as
broad-minded and secular in outlook. tax revenue, but as tribute. Thus, the resources
A notable development was the profusion of the core regions, especially in the Tamil
of contemporary historical accounts of the region, were utilized for military purposes.
Muslim Sultanates by Arab and Persian This administrative set-up effectively destroyed
historians. Al beruni, Ibn Batuta, and Ferishta the decentralized, local institutions which
are among the best known of the Muslim managed local resources, temples and affairs
historians. These historians provide valuable which had come up during Chola rule. The
information about the rulers and events of the appointment of Telugu nayakas also resulted
medieval period. They also provide an alternate in the migration of Telugu-speaking people
historical point of view of Islamic rule in India from the north. These included soldiers,
as seen through the eyes of Muslim writers. agriculturists, craftsmen and Brahmins.
The establishment of the VIJAYANAGAR The MUGHAL EMPIRE transformed
EMPIRE changed the administrative and the economy and society of north
social institutional structure of south India, India. The empire was consolidated
especially in the Tamil country. Perhaps under Akbar through his policy of
because the new kingdom was threatened co-opting the Hindu Rajput rulers under the
from the beginning by the hostility of the umbrella of Mughal rule. At the height of
Bahmani sultanate in the north, Vijayanagar its power the Mughal empire was one of the
evolved as a militaristic state. This empire largest, richest and most powerful empires in
needed two kinds of resources to feed its the entire world.
military establishment – revenue and men. In part due to Aurangzeb’s reversal to
This was achieved through re-organizing the orthodox Islamic principles of governance
administration of the conquered territories, which alienated the Rajput rulers and the
especially in the Tamil region. Military officers, Hindu subjects, the over-extended empire
known as ‘nayakas’, were appointed as chiefs began to collapse under its own weight by the
of various localities in Tamilnadu and received beginning of the eighteenth century.
land grants from the emperor. There were also The ARRIVAL OF THE EUROPEANS in
lesser military leaders known as palayakkarar India ultimately culminated in the establishment
who essentially supplied the manpower for the of colonial rule in India under the British,
army. Many forts were also built which were and this is what is considered foremost when
under Brahman commanders. discussing the impact of the European presence.
Three major nayaka kingdoms, owing There was an explosion in the demand for
allegiance to the Vijayanagar emperor, came up Indian textiles in the European markets, often
between 1500 A.D. (C.E.) and 1550 A.D. (C.E.) referred to as the ‘Indian craze’. This led to a
in Madurai, Tanjavur and Gingee (Senji). These significant expansion of textile production in
nayakas had formal roles in court ceremonials India, which was accompanied by an expansion
at Vijayanagar. This became the new political of the production of commercial crops like
order in Tamilnadu during the sixteenth cotton and indigo and other dyes.
century. The nayaka chieftains as well as the 7.3 Society
three nayaka kings were all strong supporters
of Hindu temples. The three capitals became 7.3 (a) Caste
great cultural centres under the patronage of Caste is the most distinctive aspect of
the nayaka rulers who promoted literature and Indian society. We first need to understand
the performing arts. two dimensions of the term ‘caste’. First, the
four-fold division of society as specified in the who was instrumental in making the fishing
religious texts, referred to as varna. community to take to Christianity in the
Improving the status of their Jati was a Tuticorin region. Another notable Jesuit was
major pre-occupation for all caste groups. Roberto de Nobili, a scholar, who was based
This is particularly evident after the fourteenth in Madurai.
century when the traditional local assemblies In the north a new religion, Sikhism, was
which controlled the resources and social founded by Guru Nanak, who lived during 15th
interactions began to weaken. In traditional and 16th century. Sikhism grew in strength in
society many castes were denied various social spite of severe repression by Aurangzeb. Foreign
rights and privileges. Caste also created a religions also came to India when Jews and
mythical genealogy to establish its origins; this Zoroastrians (Parsis) migrated to India. The
was used to justify the claim for the right to a Parsis, who fled Persia to escape persecuation,
higher status in the hierarchy. These genealogies settled in Gujarat, while the Jews lived in
are found in many of the manuscripts collected Kerala. Parsi merchants were among the richest
by Colin Mackenzie. and most prominent in the port of Surat, and
subsequently, in Bombay under the British.
7.3 (b) Religion
7.4 Culture
Diverse institutions
with different ideologies Literature, Art and Architecture
came up within the bhakti The Chola period was an era of remarkable
movement during the cultural activity. These were the centuries
medieval period. Mathas when major literary works were written. The
or mutts were established Roberto de Nobili best known classical poet, Kamban, wrote
under different gurus Ramayana in Tamil which was formally
or religious leaders like Vidyaranya; Saivite presented (Arangetram) in the temple at
movements came up like the Tamil Saiva- Srirangam. Sekkilar’s Periyapuranam, similarly
siddhanta, and the Virasaivas in Karnataka; was presented at the temple in Chidambaram.
in Maharashtra the Varkarisampradaya Among the other great works of the period is
(tradition) of the devotees of Vithoba arose in Kalingattup-parani and Muvarula.
the 14th century.
The monumental architecture of the
Buddhism had faded out in India. Jainism Cholas is visible in the great temple of Tanjavur,
also lost ground in most parts of India due to Gangai-konda-cholapuram and Darasuram, to
emergence of bhakti movement under Sankara name only a few. Stone images were sculpted
and Ramanuja. However, it continued to thrive on the temple walls and pillars. Bronze images
in parts of Gujarat and Marwar, especially of great beauty and artistry were made by the
among the trading communities. With regard ‘lost wax’ process. The best known of them is
to Christianity, there were a small number the iconic representation of Siva as Nataraja,
of Christian groups in Kerala claiming their performing the cosmic dance.
origins to the time of St Thomas, the disciple
of Jesus. But Christianity took roots when A distinct Islamic cultural tradition
the Portuguese arrived in Kerala and set developed in India with the establishment of
themselves up in Goa. In Goa itself the local Muslim rule. The sultans built forts, tombs,
population was under great pressure to convert mosques and other monuments in Delhi
to Christianity, among the fishing communities as well as in south India which came under
on the Pandyan coast. The best known among their rule. The Mughal period particularly
the Jesuit missionaries was St Francis Xavier was a brilliant epoch in the cultural history of
7.5 Economy
7.5 (a) Agriculture
India was predominantly
an agricultural country,
and a very large proportion
of the population lived in
rural areas and depended
Fatehpur Sikri Fort on agriculture for their
livelihood. Both in the north
In south India, the Vijayanagar rulers
and the south, agriculture depended heavily
and their military chiefs actively supported
on irrigation. Canals and wells added to the
temple construction. Many new temples were
water sources in addition to rainfall and rivers.
built by them. Besides this, new structures
The biggest network of canals known in India
like pavilions and halls with many pillars were
was built in fourteenth century by Firuzshah
added extensively to existing temples, with
Tughluq in the Delhi area. Construction of
elaborately carved pillars. Art historians point
lakes, tanks and reservoirs with sluices to let out
to the distinctive style of the temple sculptures
the water as well as the use of check dams all
of the Vijayanagar period. The intricately
increased the availability of water for irrigation.
carved lofty towers or gopurams at the
Cultivators were also encouraged to dig wells.
entrance to temples were all added during the
Lift irrigation was used to draw the water. In
Vijayanagar period. The walls of the temples
the north, the Persian wheel was used for lifting
were embellished with paintings.
water from wells. In the Tamil region, the Cholas
had created a network of canals for irrigation
connecting the tributaries of Kaveri. Lakes and agricultural products like sugar, oil, textiles;
tanks also added to the water sources. metal work; precious gems and jewellery; ship
building; ornamental wood and leather work;
and many other minor products.
The organization of production basically
depended on the nature of the market for
which it was produced. A large part of the
production was intended for local use in the
village, or at most a rural region. These goods
were basic utilitarian goods like pots and pans,
implements like ploughs, basic woodwork
and coarse textiles. Generally the producer
marketed the product himself, and exchange
was probably conducted on barter.
Persian Wheel In economic terms, what was important
was specialized production by skilled craftsmen
An important feature of Indian agriculture
for an external market, especially in demand
was the large number of crops that were cultivated.
among the high income rural and urban upper
The peasant in India was more knowledgeable
classes. Such craft production was generally
about many crops as compared to peasants in most
located in cities, or in rural settlements close
of the world at the time. A variety of food grains
to the cities. Craftsmen generally worked on an
like wheat, rice, and millets were grown apart from
individual or family basis from their homes or
lentils and oilseeds. Many other commercial crops
workshops though larger manufacturing units
were also grown such as sugarcane, cotton and
(karkhanas) employing many craftsmen were
indigo. Other than the general food crops, south
set up under the Mughal state.
India had a regional specialization in pepper,
cinnamon, spices and coconut. 7.5 (c) Textiles
In general, two different crops were grown Nearly all the cloth that was produced was
in the different seasons, which protected the of cotton, though silk weaving had developed
productivity of the soil. Maize and tobacco were in Bengal where silk was produced, and in
two new crops which were introduced after the Gujarat. Each region of India produced a
arrival of the Europeans. Many new varieties range of highly specialized local varieties of
of fruit or horticultural crops like papaya, cotton cloth ranging from the coarse to the
pineapple, guava and cashew nut were also superfine, but all were intended for an external
introduced which came from the west, especially market. Dyed and printed/patterned cloth
America. Potatoes, chillies and tomatoes also involved the use of vegetable dyes. India had
became an integral part of Indian food. two natural advantages in cotton weaving. The
7.5 (b) Non Agricultural first was that cotton grew in almost all parts of
Production India, so that the basic raw material was easily
Up to the end of the seventeenth century, available. Second, the technology of producing
India was one of the largest manufacturing a permanent colour on cotton using vegetable
countries in the world though the economy dyes was known from very early times in
was primarily agricultural. Non-agricultural India. Cotton does not absorb dyes without a
production refers to both processed agricultural preparatory process using mordants, which was
products and craft production. Primarily the not known in the rest of the world. Indigo was
products can be grouped under: processed the most important dye crop that was grown
in India, but other dye crops (like the chay India was also a major exporter of textiles,
root for red colour) were also grown in India. pepper, precious and semi-precious gems –
Dye woods and resins like lac were imported. especially diamonds which were then found
In addition, a range of colours were produced only in India – and iron and steel which were
by using flowers and fruits, and products like greatly in demand in the entire Asian region.
turmeric in various combinations. Textiles accounted for nearly 90 per cent of the
total exports from India. The major imports
from China and the east were silk, Chinese
ceramics, gold, spices, aromatic woods and
camphor. Silk, drugs, dye woods and sugar were
the main imports from Persia, while gold, ivory
and slaves were brought in from east Africa.
7.6 Urbanization
Travellers coming to India in the
Textile Production medieval period noted that there were a
number of urban centres of various sizes,
7.5 (d) Commerce
from cities to small market towns throughout
The large manufacturing sector essentially
India, though the country was primarily
produced goods for exchange, and not for self-
rural. The urban population was probably
use. Therefore, India had an extensive network
quite small as a proportion of the total, but
of trade for marketing these goods. The village
it had an economic and cultural significance
was the basic geographical unit of production,
which was much greater than its actual size.
and was essentially a subsistence economy and
What were the factors which facilitated
barter was the medium of exchange.
urbanization? It has been observed that cities
Big cities were usually major commercial and towns fulfilled diverse and overlapping roles
centres, with bazaars and shops. They were in the economy. The large cities were centres
also intermediate points in inter-regional of manufacturing and marketing, banking and
trade since they were connected by a network financial services. They were usually located at
of roads to other centres in other parts of the the intersection of an extensive network of roads
country. In addition to such overland trade,
In South India, especially the Tamil region,
smaller ships and boats were used in coastal
urbanization went hand in hand with temples.
trade along both the western and eastern
Temples were large economic enterprises requiring
coasts of the country. Finally, the major ports
a variety of goods and services to function. They
(Surat, Masulipatnam, Calicut etc.) were the
needed and employed a large number of people
nodal points in international, maritime trade.
to man the religious services, the kitchens and for
Maritime trade across the Indian Ocean, other work. Devotees coming to worship at the
extending from China in the east to Africa in temple needed many services and goods, so that
the west, had flourished for many centuries. temple towns also became marketing centres.
Thus ports like Malacca, Calicut etc. were
‘entrepots’ or intermediate points in this Conclusion
regionally segmented trade. In the seventeenth The medieval period covering more than
century, Surat in Gujarat, Masulipatnam in seven hundred years of Indian history was a
the Golkonda kingdom, Chittagong in Bengal, time when momentous changes took place in
Pulicat (Pazhaverkadu) and Nagapatnam on the political landscape which also transformed
the Coromandel Coast, and Calicut in Kerala the social and economic fabric of the country.
were all major ports in Asiatic trade.
97 7. State and Society In Medieval India
Recap
Major political changes commencing from the establishment of Muslim Rule in Delhi, are
dealt with.
The enterprising period of Cholas and the significance of Vijayanagar Empire in the south
are analysed.
The economy and the society during the Sultanate and the Mughal rule are highlighted.
Progress in art, literature and music are discussed.
Conditions of agriculture, trade, commerce and urbanization are examined.
Learning Objectives
of its prosperous Mediterranean trade. The by the Ottoman Turks. This acted as a catalyst
Arabs brought spices from the east and then for the birth of Renaissance. It also led to the
transported them by land to the ports of the discovery of new land routes. Following the
Mediterranean region. Italian city-states such as Turkish occupation, a number of scholars,
Venice and Genoa profited immensely from this artists and artisans left Constantinople, which
trade. Following the expansion of trade, a strong was for many centuries the cultural capital of
network of banking and financial institutions the Western world, to the Italian city states.
too developed in Italy. In this context, new ideas
leading to the Renaissance, Reformation and 8.2 Renaissance
Exploration through sea voyages were born.
With the coming of the scholars and
8.1(b) Invention of the Printing artists from Constantinople there was a surge
Press of enthusiasm and interest in studying classical
literature and art of Greeks and Romans in the
The invention of the
Italian city states. This creative upsurge was
printing press accelerated the
reflected in their writings, art, architecture and
process of modernisation.
music. This cultural florescence is known as the
Earlier, manuscripts were
renaissance. The origin of the word renaissance
written by hand on animal
is from the Italian word renascita meaning
skin called Vellum. Only
rebirth. Greek scholar Manuel Chrysoloras
the privileged few could
who taught Greek classics in Italy, Guarino
access them. Johannes Gutenberg (1394-1468
and Giovanni Aurispa, to name just a few,
A.D. (C.E.)) invented the printing press in
visited Constantinople several times to collect
Germany in the middle of the fifteenth century.
Greek manuscripts. Later they printed what
The printing press enabled the production of
they collected. This provided stimulus to the
multiple copies of a manuscript and their spread
flowering of renaissance.
all over Western Europe. In less than fifty years
after the invention of the Gutenberg printing 8.2(a) Why Italy became the
press, about six million books had been printed. birth place of Renaissance?
The invention of printing press not only spread
Italian city-states such as Florence,
knowledge widely, but also promoted critical
Milan, Venice, and Rome profited immensely
thinking.
from the Mediterranean trade. This led to the
emergence of a rich and vibrant urban culture.
The rich families of these city states such as
Medicis of Florence patronized literature, art
and music. The highpoint of this period was
between 1475 A.D. (C.E.) and 1525 A.D. (C.E.).
Italian universities taught humanities viz.,
lingustic, grammar, rhetoric, history, science
and ethics, which prepared the students for
public life, commerce and administration.
The study of humanities was so popular in
the Italian Universities that students from all
Gutenberg's Printing Press over Europe flocked there. Classical Greek
and Latin literature introduced the idea of
8.1(c) Fall of Constantinople Humanism which got reflected in the paintings,
In 1453 A.D. (C.E.), Constantinople, the sculptures, architecture, music and writings of
capital of the Byzantine Empire, was captured that period.
8. The Beginning of the Modern Age 102
School of Athens reveals the ideological debate impelled the mariners to sail into the high
of his times, namely, the conflict between seas.
spiritualism and humanism. Similarly, inquisitiveness and empiricism
8.2(d) Science during of renaissance combined with knowledge of
Renaissance the classical science led to new inventions in
science – Copernican revolution in astronomy
The advances in science were inspired by
and William Harvey’s contribution to human
Ptolemy, Archimedes, Euclid and others of
anatomy.
the classical period. In the medieval period
the Aristotelian view that earth was the centre 8.3 Reformation
of the universe strengthened the Church’s view
of creation and its own centrality to mankind. The Roman Catholic Church was a
However, the influence of Plato and other powerful institution during the Middle
classics challenged it, laying the foundations of Ages. The Church enjoyed both spiritual and
modern science. William Harvey discovered temporal powers (apart from religious control
the circulation of blood. Copernicus proved it also exercised political control in certain
that earth revolved around the sun through areas such as the Papal States). The Pope was
a mathematical model. Galileo provided its head. His office was known as Papacy.
further astronomical proof with the aid of The Pope wielded spiritual authority over
the telescope he invented. However, he was the Christians of Europe cutting across the
forced by the Inquisition to withdraw his territorial boundaries. He lived a luxurious
findings on the threat of death penalty. The life like a prince. Many of his officials were
Church thus continued to prevent the growth corrupt and the offices of the Church were
of science as it undermined its importance. sold for a price. The Church made the people
Nevertheless, scientific discoveries and believe that they would suffer in purgatory
inventions continued apace leading to the because of their sins. The people were further
Scientific Revolution. told that if they repented their sins and did
penance, they would be absolved from sins
8.2(e) Effects of Renaissance and go to heaven. Otherwise they would suffer
The impact of renaissance was profound and in hell. The Church prescribed a number of
far-reaching. Its most important contribution penances for various sins. People were made
was the idea of humanism. It marked a definite to believe that participation in the Mass (a
shift towards individualism, secularism and ceremony in Christianity) would reduce the
nationalism. sins. The Church even began to grant pardon
The introduction and practice of writing in known as the sale of indulgences, (payment to
the vernacular, starting from Dante, enriched the catholic church)
the growth of vernacular languages which in
turn provided the intellectual basis for the rise Inquisition
of nation-states. Renaissance made a beginning Inquisition was an institution of the
in criticizing the corrupt and worldly practices Catholic Church to deal with heresies
of the Church. Erasmus and Thomas More beliefs in opposition to the Catholic faith.
indirectly encouraged the reformation Those found guilty and who recanted
movement. were awarded milder punishments and
imprisonment, and those who refused to
The curiosity kindled by the renaissance
recant were burnt at the stake. The most
played a decisive role in the discovery of new
infamous inquisition was the Spanish
land routes and remapping of the world. The Inquisition.
spirit of adventurism and quest for knowledge
Sea Routes
The Portuguese established trading posts that they had stumbled upon a new continent.
along the west coast of Africa dealing in Hence, he called it the New World. Later, a
lumber, ivory and slaves. The establishment of German cartographer, while preparing a map of
trading posts enabled them to buy slaves and the world, named the new world after Amerigo
transport them directly to Portugal. The slaves Vespucci and called it America.
were employed in the sugarcane plantations,
and sugar was exported to Europe. Slaves were 8.5(d) Portuguese–Spanish
purchased from the African slave market and Rivalry
transported to the colonies under inhuman The Portuguese claimed the territories
conditions in slave ships. They were chained and discovered by Columbus. The dispute was
cramped into narrow spaces with insufficient air referred to the Pope Alexander VI who drew
to breathe. Many died during the journey. For an imaginary line north to south west of Azores
those who survived, the suffering continued in and declared that the territories to the west of
the plantations. Slave trade increased with the that line belonged to Spain and that of the east
discovery and colonization of America.
to the Portuguese.
8.5(c) Spain and Discovery of In 1497 A.D. (C.E.) Vasco da Gama sailed
the New World from Portugal as the head of four ships to find a
In 1492 A.D. (C.E.), Columbus, with the sea route to India by going around Africa. After
support of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella reaching the Cape of Good Hope, he set sail to
of Spain, set sail in three ships. He crossed India with the help of an Arab navigator. On 20th
the Atlantic Ocean and reached the Bahamas May 1498 A.D. (C.E.) he reached Calicut on
Island, Cuba and Haiti. Columbus thought he the Malabar Coast. At Calicut Vasco da Gama
had reached the frontier areas of Asia. Hence,
was astounded to find pepper and other spices,
he called the natives he encountered as Indians.
a precious commodity in Portugal, available
Amerigo Vespucci, another sailor, made three
at low prices. He bought as much spices as
or four voyages and landed on the American
mainland. He realized that it was not Asia and possible. Back home he earned huge profits.
Later the Portuguese navy defeated the Zamorin Plants such as maize, potatoes, sweet
of Calicut and captured Goa and made it its potatoes, tomatoes, pineapple, beans and
headquarters for all its possessions in the East. cocoa, and animals such as turkey and guinea
Thus the foundation of the Portuguese Empire in pigs, were transported from America and
the East was laid. introduced in Europe. And from Europe went
sugarcane, wheat, rice, horses, cattle, sheep
and goats to America. Europe also exported
deadly diseases such as small pox, measles,
chicken pox, malaria, typhus, etc. Apart from
guns and horses, the most dangerous weapons
the natives had to encounter were these deadly
diseases against which they were defenceless.
It led to the near annihilation of the natives in
most parts of the Americas.
The introduction of sugarcane led to the
Vasco da Gama establishment of sugarcane plantations in the
Caribbean islands and South America. These
In 1519 A.D. (C.E.), Ferdinand Magellan
plantations initially employed natives. The
sailed westward and crossed the Straits, which
mass extinction of the native population led
later came to be known as Magellan Straits.
to the import of slaves from Africa. Gambia,
As the sea was calm he called it the Pacific
Senegal, Goree, El Mina and Congo became
Ocean. On reaching an island he named it as
important centres of slave trade in Africa. The
Philippines after the Spanish Prince Philip. He
Trans-Atlantic Trade was a triangular trade.
was killed in a war with the locals. However,
The European countries purchased slaves from
the ship in which he had travelled returned to
Africa who were transported to America. In
Spain. Thus the first circumnavigation of the
return they got sugar and other raw materials
world had taken place.
from America. The European countries profited
8.6 Impact of Geographical immensely from this trade.
Discoveries
The geographical discoveries transformed
the European understanding of the world. It led
to the redrawing of the world map. As a result of
the discovery of new lands and new sea routes,
the economic centre of Europe shifted from the
Italian city states to Spain and Portugal. Both
Spain and Portugal established colonies that led
to their economic prosperity.
V. A
nswer the following
questions briefly
1. E xplain how the invention of printing
press influenced Renaissance,
Reformation and Geographical
discoveries.
2. Write a short note on the impact of
Renaissance.
3. Outline the differences of Martin Luther
with the Catholic Church.
4. Write a brief note on Counter
Reformation.
5. What is Columbian Exchange?
VI. A
nswer the following
in detail
1. Discuss how Renaissance, Reformation
and Geographical discoveries heralded
the modern age?
2. Examine the outcome of the geographical
discoveries.
UNIT
The Age of Revolutions
9
Learning Objectives
To acquire knowledge of
k
Yor
New Massa England had large financial interests in these
chuses
cut colonies. The Seven Years War of 1756-63
nec
Rho
Pennsylvania Con
d
and
between Britain and France had centred on
eI
sl
M New Jersey
Delaw
ar
an
the control of colonies, especially in North
y
d e
L
Virginia
ar
Hailed as the Boston Tea Party, Thereafter, the members drafted a resolution to
this was done publicly before form the Continental Congress. Soon members
a large sympathetic crowd. It joined from other colonies. On 5 September
was a challenge which led to 1774 the First Continental Congress met in
war between the rebellious Philadelphia. The Congress agreed to vote by
colonies and England. the representatives of colonies and endorsed
the resolution declaring the Intolerable Act
American War of Independence null and void. It called for economic sanctions
against the British. The Congress adopted a
In 1774, a little Declaration of American Rights.
before war began
Second Continental Congress,
between the colonies
May - 10, 1775
and England, George
Washington stated that The Second Continental Congress met
no thinking man in on 10 May 1775 at Philadelphia. John Adams,
North America desired Sam Adams, Richard Henry Lee and Thomas
independence. And yet Jefferson were some of prominent members of
he became the colonists’ the Congress. It organized the army gathered
commander-in-chief and George Washington around Boston as the Continental Army
later the first president and placed it under the command of George
of the American Republic. So the colonies did Washington. Still hoping for a truce, the
not begin fighting for the sake of independence. Congress dispatched ‘the Olive Branch Petition’
Their grievances were taxation and restrictions to the king and adopted the Declaration of the
on trade. They challenged the right of the Causes and Necessity of Taking up Arms.
British Parliament to tax them against their will. As the war progressed, the Continental
“No taxation without representation” was their Congress assumed the functions of government.
famous battle cry. In July 1775, it appointed Commissioners to
negotiate with Native Americans. It also established
First Continental Congress, a Postal Department with Benjamin Franklin as
September 5, 1774 Postmaster-General. A Committee was formed to
explore the possibility of foreign aid.
Disturbed by the
developments in Boston Battle of Bunker Hill
harbour, the British
On 17 June 1775 the Battle of Bunker
government appointed
Hill, the first major battle was fought in
General Gage as governor
Massachusetts. The 2200 strong British troops
of Massachusetts with
were twice forced to retreat. On the third
a mandate to quell
attempt British troops emerged victorious
the resistance. It also
with a heavy casualty of nearly 1000 soldiers.
dispatched troops to
After the battle Washington assumed control
Boston and passed the Thomas Jefferson
of the American forces. Soon the British
Intolerable Acts which
forces retreated from Boston.
decreed that all those who broke the laws would
be taken to Britain for trial. In May 1774, in the Declaration of Independence
Virginia Assembly, Thomas Jefferson declared In January 1776, an anonymous pamphlet
that 1 June 1774 would be a day of fasting under the title Common Sense was published.
and prayer. In response to this declaration, It was authored by Thomas Paine who had
the colonial governor dissolved the assembly. recently migrated to America from England.
Results II
The immediate result of the war was America’s
independence. For the first time a colonial power
9.2 The French Revolution
was overthrown by the colonised, leading to the
Introduction
establishment of a republican government in the
United States. The colonists wanted to get rid of the The French Revolution exploded in 1789.
feudal inequalities of Europe and they succeeded. The French monarchy of the ancien regime
For many followers of the Enlightenment in (political and social system that prevailed in
Europe, the language of the Declaration of France before the Revolution of 1789) had
Independence seemed a living fulfillment of their enjoyed unchallenged power for 140 years.
ideals. The Declaration of Independence of 1776 Louis XIV and his great palace at Versailles had
stated that “all men are born equal.” symbolized royal absolutism and the greatness
of France. Yet, in the summer of 1789, that
By 1777 nearly all the colonies had a written
power suddenly begun to shake. Louis XVI had
constitution. These constitutions protected
summoned the Estates General in May 1789.
individual rights, freedom of press and freedom
This body consisted of the representatives of
of religion. The Continental Congress had drafted
three classes or “estates,” as they were called:
the Articles of Confederation. The Church and
the clergy (men and women ordained for
the State were separated. Thomas Jefferson
religious duties), the nobles and the commons
in his Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom
(comprising lawyers, rich merchants, bankers
introduced freedom of religion. It was later
and businessmen and wealthy landowners).
incorporated into the American Constitution.
But the representatives of the third estate,
Lafayette, who namely the commons had refused either to bow
fought the British on to the nobles or to obey the orders of the King.
Washington’s side through
to the conclusive battle
at Yorktown in 1781,
later during the French
Revolution served the
French National Guard
as its Commander. He
penned the Declaration Lafayette
of the Rights of Man and
the Citizen, with the help of Jefferson, which
the National Assembly of France adopted on
August 27, 1789. Tennis Court Oath
119 9. The Age of Revolutions
They proclaimed themselves a National Estates - the nobles and the clergy. Their
Assembly and gathering on a tennis court after advice was not only disregarded but they
the King had cleared them out of their hall, themselves were dismissed from service. To
swore on oath not to disperse until he gave meet the resource crunch the government
them a constitution. Thus began the revolution borrowed heavily resulting in a huge fiscal
of 1789 in France. deficit. Nearly half the revenue went towards
payment of interest for the loans. Under the
Causes of the Outbreak circumstances, the French monarch Louis XVI
was forced to convene the Estate-General, the
Political
combined body of three estates comprising
Louis XV succeeded nobles, clergy and commoners respectively.
his great-grandfather
Social
Louis XIV and reigned
for fifty nine years. He The condition of the already impoverished
learnt no lesson that the peasants worsened due to a series of bad
king is not above law but harvests. It resulted in the rise of the price of
bound by law from the bread. The peasants of the countryside and
English Revolution and the labourers and artisans of the towns were
the beheading of the King the worst affected. There were hunger riots
Charles I. In 1774 he was Louis XVI at the beginning of the reign of Louis XVI.
succeeded by his grandson Louis XVI. He was They were followed later by fresh peasant
entirely under the influence of his wife Marie risings. A vast number of people had become
Antoinette, who believed, more than the King, professional beggars. It was officially declared
in the Divine Right Theory of Kingship - the in 1777 that there were eleven lakhs of beggars
theory that the king was representative of in France. The peasants were hungry not only
god on earth and therefore for all his actions for food, but were also hungry for land. They
he was accountable only to god and not to hated the nobles and the clergy because they
anybody else. Both the King and the Queen enjoyed many privileges, notably exemption
were hated by the people. from taxation.
The clergy, despite being a minority,
Economic
numbering only about 130,000, occupied a
On the eve of the French revolution preeminent position in France. They collected
France was going through a period of tithe (one tenth of the annual produce or
economic crisis. The French treasury was earnings) from the common people. The
bankrupt because of its involvement in nobility, also a minority, numbering about
the Seven Years War that ended in defeat. 110,000, was a landowning class enjoying
French participation in the American War of feudal rights. They collected feudal dues from
Independence made the financial condition the peasants. Their land was tilled by the
worse. The luxurious lifestyle of the royalty peasants. The farm produce of the peasants
and nobles in Versailles court, in contrast to had to be processed in the mills of the feudal
the grinding poverty of the common people, lord. The traditional hereditary nobles known
made the people accept the new ideologies as nobles of the sword enjoyed hunting rights.
of French philosophers of the eighteenth They were against the rising middle class
century. The Finance Ministers of the King, (bourgeoisie) or a new class of nobility, the
Turgot, Necker, Calonne and Brienne one status that was conferred by the king for their
after the other suggested reduction of royal services. These nobles were known as nobles
expenditure and taxation of the first two of the robe.
The middle class and the peasants part in preparing the people of France for
together formed the Third Estate. The the great revolution. He famously said in his
bourgeoisie (the capitalist class) were the book Social Contract, “Man is born free, but is
privileged few but the bulk of the Third everywhere in chains.” He argued that the laws
Estate was constituted by the representatives are binding only when they are supported by
of peasants. The peasants paid taxes to the the general will of the people.
state such as taille (land tax), gabelle (salt tax), Montesquieu (1689-
etc., and provided free labour (corvee) for the 1755), who wrote The
construction of public roads. Burdened by the Persian Letters and
demands of the state, nobility and clergy, the The Spirit of the Laws,
peasants were in despair at the prospect of also defended liberty.
dying of starvation. He put forward the
Inspiration from French theory of separation of
Philosophers powers: The liberty of
the individual would be
There were many best protected only in a Montesquieu
notable thinkers and government where the
writers in France in the powers of its three organs, viz., legislature,
eighteenth century. The executive and judiciary were separate. It
most famous writer of would put in place the necessary checks
the time on rationalistic and balances to prevent any one organ from
and scientific subjects assuming more power to itself.
was Voltaire (1694-
1778). When imprisoned An Encyclopaedia also came out in
and banished, he had Voltaire Paris about this time and this was full of
to live at Ferney near articles by Diderot and Jean d’Alembert.
Geneva. Voltaire, Montesquieu (1689-1755) These philosophers and thinkers, opposed to
and Rousseau criticized the then existing religious intolerance and political and social
conditions in France. Voltaire, was a prolific privileges, succeeded in provoking large
writer and activist, and was vehement in his numbers of ordinary people to think and act.
criticism of the Church. His most famous
work was Candide. His famous quote was: American War of Independence
“those who can make you believe absurdities The American Revolution that broke out
can make you commit atrocities.” He is said in 1776 and ended with the establishment of
to have once exclaimed, “I disapprove of what the American Republic inspired the French
you say, but I will defend to the death your Revolution and provided them with a model.
right to say it.” The French participation in the American
Another great War of Independence supporting the
writer, a contemporary American cause against the British directly
of Voltaire, but younger affected the French Revolution in two ways:
than him, was Jean one, it cost the French treasury heavily
Jacques Rousseau (1712- and the other, the French like Lafayette
78). His political theory who participated in the American War of
set the minds of many Independence came back with democratic
afire with new ideas and ideals and played an active role in the French
new resolves. His ideas Revolution.
played an important Rousseau
However, the crisis intensified in Paris continued to be the Executive head, but his
due to the high price of bread. Riots broke out. powers were considerably limited. But the
The women of Paris marched to Versailles to common people who had stormed the Bastille
demand bread from the King. The crowd was were disillusioned with the developments and
in an aggressive mood. The crowd demanded found another outlet for their revolutionary
that bread be provided to them. The royal energy. This was the Paris Commune. This
family, including the King, was mobbed. They Commune was in direct touch with the
forced the King and the royal family to go masses. The Commune became the rival
with them to Paris. of the National Assembly composed of the
moderate middle class.
Flight to Varennes
Emigres and the
The King’s position was increasingly Revolutionary War
shaky. He was not able to reconcile to the
legislations passed by the National Assembly. In August 1792 ordered an attack on
He decided to escape from Paris. Dressing the King’s palace. Though the King ordered
himself as a valet, he escaped along with his shooting by his Swiss guards, he was finally
family to Varennes, a border town. However, deposed and imprisoned. The people of Paris
he was recognized there by a postman, arrested angered by the action of the Swiss guards in
by the National Guards and brought back to shooting and killing many of them hunted
Paris. From then onwards, he remained in down the supporters of monarchy under their
Paris virtually a prisoner. leader Marat. In three days, from September
2, about 1500 suspected dissidents were put in
Girondins and Jacobins prison. After a trial, they were killed and this
The moderate liberals wanted to keep incident is called “September Massacres.” In
the King as a limited monarch. They called September also occurred the first victory of
themselves the party of the Girondins. The the French troops over the invading Austrians
hardcore republicans were the Jacobins. In and Prussians at the battle of Valmy. This saved
foreign countries especially in England, there the Revolution. On September 21, 1792 the
were the émigrés, the French nobles who National Convention met.
had run away from the Revolution and were National Convention and
continually intriguing against it. All the kings the Reign of Terror,
and emperors of Europe, who were frightened June 1793-July 1794
by this mass upsurge were ranged against
revolutionary France. The first action of the National Convention
was to proclaim the formation of a republic. The
Constitution of 1791 trial of Louis XVI was taken up immediately and
In September 1791, the National he was condemned to death. He was guillotined.
Assembly framed the first From the very steps of the
constitution. It provided guillotine, Danton, a great
for a Constitutional leader of the Revolution,
m o n a r c hy. The addressed the assembled
Legislature consisted of crowds and threw an
a single chamber of 750 open challenge to other
members. The franchise European kings. The
was limited to those who new republic of France,
owned a certain amount through conscription,
of property. The King built up a strong army.
Marat Danton
The wars particularly against Austria, Prussia and his supporters who had
and later England engaged Republican France. organized the festival were
As a consequence it was not possible to deal sent to the guillotine. This
with local social problems. caused the first split in the
Jacobin party.
In order to depart totally from the
ancient regime, the Convention created a new Danton and others
Republican calendar for France. All references protested against Robespierre for sending too
to religion found in the old calendar’s name many people to the guillotine. But they were
were deleted, and a 10-day week followed. In also executed. Surrounded by enemies and
this secular calendar, the twelve months of the totally alienated from the people, Robespierre
year were named after natural elements, while and his clique chose to intensify the Terror.
each day was named after a seed, tree, flower,
fruit, animal, or tool, replacing the saints’-day
names and Christian festivals. (The republican
calendar was abandoned by Napoleon on 1
January 1806.) The existing system of measures
was replaced by a metric system based on the
kilogram and the metre.
Timeline
The privileged life of the nobility
and the clergy is contrasted with the Meeting of the
wretched conditions of peasantry, 5 May 1789
Estates General
artisans and other sections of
commoners who formed the Third Third Estate
Estate. becomes
17 June 1789
the National
The role of French Philosophers in
Assembly
creating consciousness and inspiring
the revolutionaries to revolt against the Tennis Court
unpopular monarchy is highlighted. 20 June 1789
Oath
The Tennis Court Oath of members
National
of the Third Estate followed by events
Assembly
like storming of the Bastille and the
9 July 1789 becomes the
historic march of women to Versailles
Constituent
are explained.
Assembly
The National Convention turning
against Robespierre and sending him Storming of the
14 July 1789
to guillotine is related. Bastille
Setting up of Directory followed by Declaration of
Consulate and grabbing of power 27 August 1789 the Rights of
by Napoleon Bonaparte who later Man and Citizen
declared himself the French monarch
are summed up. Paris mob
5 & 6 October 1789 marching to
Though the rise of Napoleon Versailles
marked the end of the revolution,
the revolutionary ideals of ‘Liberty, Flight of the King
20 & 21 June 1790
Equality and Fraternity’ continued to to Varennes
inspire many later political movements
and laid the foundation for the Meeting of
emergence of liberal democracy in 10 August 1792 the National
Europe and elsewhere. Convention
September
2 & 3 September 1792
Massacres
Execution of
21 January 1793
Louis XVI
Execution of
27 July 1794
Robespierre
a. Declaration of Independence
II. Fill in the blanks
b. Declaration of Pilnitz
1. The Postmaster General of the Postal
c. Declaration of Rights of Man and
Department of the government of
Citizen
second Continental Congress was .
d. Human Rights Charter
2. The battle of Bunker Hill was fought on
4. The defeat of British at
.
paved the way for the friendship
between France and America. 3. The Act insisted on
repaying the debt in gold or silver.
a. Trenton b. Saratoga
c. Pennsylvania d. New York 4. The leader of National Assembly of
France was .
5. was the symbol of
“Royal Despotism” in France. 5. was guillotined for organizing
a Festival of Liberty and Reason.
a. Versailles Palace
6. Louis XVI was arrested at
b. Prison of Bastille
with his family when
c. Paris Commune
he tried to escape from France.
d. Estates General
6. The forces of Austria and Prussia were III. C
hoose the correct
defeated by the French Revolutionary statement
forces at . 1. i) The Portuguese were the pioneers of
a. Verna b. Versailles naval expeditions.
c. Pilnitz d. Valmy ii) New Plymouth was named after the
7. Candide was written by Quaker Penn.
. iii)
Q uakers have the reputation of
a. Voltaire b. Rousseau encouraging wars.
c. Montesquieu d. Danton iv) The English changed the name of
New Amsterdam to New York.
ICT CORNER
THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS
Procedure
Step 1: Use the URL or scan the QR code to open the activity page.
Step - 2 Click the game icon to enter the game page
Step-3 Click the Place of States game
Step-4 Drag and put the States in their proper location on the map
URL:
https://bensguide.gpo.gov/ (or) scan the QR Code
UNIT
Industrial Revolution
10
Learning Objectives
To acquaint oneself with
The essential features of Industrial Revolution in 18th century England
Favourable Conditions prevailing in England for the Industrial Revolution
Inventions that facilitated revolution in textile production
Steel industry quickening the processes of industrialisation in England
Rise of working class movement and its consequences in England
Second Industrial Revolution in France, Germany and America
Great Rail Road Strike and Hay Market Massacre in the US
Impact of Industrial Revolution in India
Introduction
In the latter half of the 18th Century major society and politics. Society transformed
changes occurred in the method of production from an agrarian and handicraft economy
that changed the history of humankind. This to one dominated by factory and machine-
profound transformation is described as production. Starting in England first, it
the Industrial Revolution. Goods began to spread to other parts of the world. Although
produced not by hand but by machines. This it used earlier by French writers, but the term
increased the volume of goods produced Industrial Revolution was popularized by the
exponentially. The changes were not only English economic historians to denote Britain’s
economic but made a profound impact on economic development from 1760 to 1840.
Beginnings
The Industrial Revolution began in
England first because, it had certain external
factors. They were:
England had abundant resources and
possessed colonies, with “India being the
A scene in an English factory
brightest jewel in the British Crown”
Access to coal, iron and raw cotton from Development in Textiles
the colonies Before the Industrial Revolution, the
England possessed the required spinning and weaving of cloth were undertaken
infrastructure for textiles, developed by for domestic and local consumption. It was
immigrant artisans from the Netherlands done at home or in a small hired place. The
England had a developed banking system, production also took place on a cottage
a growing entrepreneurial class, and scale. The manually operated spinning wheel
potential investors required four to eight spinners to supply yarn
to one handloom weaver. In 1733 John Kay
Encouragement of the Royal Society of
invented the ‘Flying Shuttle’ which, when
England for scientific discoveries and
operated by hand, increased the speed of the
inventions
weaving of cloth. In 1764 James Hargreaves
Political stability of England to bestow its invented ‘the spinning jenny’. This machine
full attention to industrial growth spun eight threads at one and the same time.
Two years later Richard Arkwright invented
Urbanisation
With the advent of the Industrial
Revolution, England became the workshop
of the world. There was however, a general
decline in agriculture. This resulted in the flow
of population from villages to industrial towns.
The railways
Population growth, migration and urbanisation
were the major social changes taking place qualification for members of the parliament,
during this period. In pre-industrial society, annual parliamentary elections and equal
over 80% of people lived in rural areas. As representation.
the migration from the countryside began to
intensify, small towns became large cities. The 10.3 Spread of Industrial
city of London grew from a population of two Revolution
million in 1840 to five million in forty years. Industrial Revolution in France
Manchester’s cool climate was ideal
for textile production. Further it was situated France did not possess as much natural
close to the port of Liverpool and the coalfields resources as England. The political instability
of Lancashire. Manchester became the textile caused by the French Revolution and the
capital of the world, drawing huge numbers of prolonged Napoleonic Wars wrecked the
migrants to the city. In 1771, Manchester was country. Many of those French businessmen
a sleepy town of 22,000 people. Over the next who had sought refuge in Britain during the
fifty years, its population exploded and reached Revolution, on their return to France after
upto 180,000. Napoleonic Wars, used British technology. This
helped to accomplish industrial revolution in
Socio-economic Consequences their country. The adoption of British-made
While the peasants were pauperized and spindles led to a two-fold increase in French
the working class suffered, the middle class textile production during 1830-1860.
became wealthy by investing capital in trade The Francois de Wendel family brought
and industry. The governments of the day were British technology to Lorraine. The family
influenced by them. All legislations safeguarded introduced steam engine in coal mining and
their interests. Labourers were not permitted puddling kilns for iron smelting. By the 1860s the
to form trade unions. It was under these de Wendel family employed over 10,000 workers.
circumstances that Socialism as a new ideology By diversifying its business, it entered other
was born in Europe. Karl Marx advocated heavy industries such as railroad construction
scientific socialism for the protection of the and shipbuilding.
working class from the exploitative policies
The town of
of the capitalist class. By the latter half of the
Mulhouse in the
nineteenth century there were strong working
province of Alsace rose
class movements all over western Europe which
to prominence for its
demanded economic as well as political rights.
dyes that brought many
Labour Movement designers there. From this
The Reform Bill of 1832 granted voting foundation, Mulhouse
rights only to the propertied middle class. diversified into the
Frustrated by this, the working class in a large growing heavy industry
gathering prepared a charter of demands and of the region and became
obtained signatures from millions of fellow prominent as a maker Francois de Wendel
workers. The charter was presented to the House of machines. Saint-
of Commons (the English Lower house in the Chamond saw developments in iron production.
Parliament, England). Known as Chartism, this In 1820, the British technology of refining cast iron
working class movement was active between began to be used in this town.
1836 and 1848. The Chartists called for voting In 1832, the first French railroad, St. Etienne–
rights to every man over twenty-one years of Andrezieux line was opened. Numerous railroad
age, secret ballot (voting), abolition of property lines followed. By the end of the nineteenth
century France had become prominent for Railroads served Germany well in its
its automobiles. The two biggest automobile industrial development as also in its Unification.
companies of today’s France were started in The first railroad line opened on December
1891. Arman Peaugot produced his first batch 1835 and ran between Nuremberg and Furth.
of automobiles. In 1898, Louis Renault built the In 1842, the Prussian government created
quadricycle, from which he began to produce in the Railway Fund in order to finance railroad
large quantities under his company, the Societe construction project. In Prussia, Berlin became
Renault Freres (Company Renault Brothers) a centre of the railroad network. Railroads
connected the members of the Zollverein and
made trade and commerce more vibrant.
III. F
ind out the correct a)
A is correct and R is the correct
statement explanation of A
1. i) British mine–owners were faced with b)
A is wrong and R is the correct
the problem of water seeping into explanation of A
their mines c) Both A and R are wrong
ii) Employing human labour was cheap d) Both A and R are correct
for this work
iii) Newton invented a steam engine to IV. Match the following
pump water out of mines 1. Benz – U.S.A
iv) Water had to be removed to get coal 2. Safety Lamp – Louis Renault
in mines
3. Quadricycle – Humphrey Davy
a. (i) is correct
4. Great Railroad Strike – Lancashire
b. (ii) and (iii) are correct
5. Coalfield – Germany
c. (i) and (iv) are correct
d. iii) is correct
V. A
nswer the following
2. i) Trade Unions were formed by questions briefly
labourers to get their rights
1. What was the condition of labourers’
ii) G ermany ’s political setup was the
most significant challenge for the houses during Industrial Revolution?
industrial revolution 2. Account for urbanisation in England
iii) To protect capitalists Karl Marx 3. Attempt a note on Haymarket Massacre
advocated socialism 4. What do you know of Louis Renault?
iv) There were no natural resources in
5. Highlight any two important results of
Germany
Industrial Revolution.
a. (i) is correct
b. (ii) and (iii) are correct VI. Answer in Detail
c. (i) and (iv) are correct
1. Enumerate the causes for the Second
d. iii) is correct Industrialization in the USA.
3. Assertion (A): Workers had rights to
2. What were the effects of Industrial
get holidays.
Revolution of England on India?
Reason (R): There were laws to protect
the workers.
a) A is correct R is wrong
b) Both A & R are wrong
c) Both A and R are correct
d) A is correct R is not correct explanation
of A
4. Assertion (A): Slater was called the
Father of the American Industrial
Revolution.
Reason (R): His spinning textile mill
was duplicated and his techniques
became popular.
ICT CORNER
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Procedure
Step – 1 Open the Browser and type the given URL (or) Scan the QR Code.
Step – 2 Click Search option and enter any Timeline (Ex. Industrial Revolution)
Step-3 Click on full screen mode
Step-4 Explore the Timeline events with pictorial descriptions.
URL:
https://www.timetoast.com/categories (or) scan the QR Code
Pictures are as indicators only
Learning Objectives
To acquaint oneself with
The territories forming South East Asia
Establishment of colonies by the Portuguese, the Spanish, the Dutch, the French,
the British and the Americans
Impact of colonisation on the Malaya Peninsula, Indonesia, Burma, Indo-China,
Philippines
Conquest of Africa, and the colonial regimes of the Dutch, the British, the Portuguese,
the Germans, and the Belgians
British colonisation of India and colonial control of Indian economy
Economic impact of British rule in India
Introduction
usually involved the transfer of population
Colonialism is a process of domination, to a new territory, where the arrivals lived
involving the subjugation of one people by as permanent settlers while maintaining
another. Like colonialism, imperialism also political allegiance to their country of origin.
involves political and economic control Imperialism, on the other hand, (from the
over a dependent territory. The Stanford Latin term imperium, meaning to command)
Encyclopaedia of Philosophy differentiates the draws attention to the way one country
two as follows: The term colony comes from exercises power over another, whether
the Latin word colonus, meaning farmer. This through settlement, sovereignty, or indirect
root indicates that the practice of colonialism mechanisms of control.
with the advice given by the Residents. under their control by 1887. Indo-China
In 1896 four of the states were formed into the consisted of Annam, Tongking, Cambodia
Federated Malay States. In 1900 there were and Cochin-China. Laos was added six years
the Straits Settlements, the four Federated later. Of them only Cochin-China was directly
Malay States and Johore. The population was under French control, i.e., as a French colony.
about a million, of whom, half were Malay The remaining four were protectorates. Under
and the remainder were Chinese. Most of this system, the local rulers remained, but they
the merchants, planters and workers in the governed under the instructions of French
ports and big plantations were Chinese. Residents. Hanoi was the capital of the French
Economically Malaya was prosperous. government. Rice, rubber and wheat were the
main exports. Laos remained undeveloped.
Indonesia
The Dutch had occupied Java and Sumatra
(Indonesia) as early as 1640. But they conquered
the other outer islands of East India only in the
second half of the nineteenth century, excepting
the British possession of North Borneo, Brunei
and Sarawak. Initially the Dutch were not
interested in politics but focused on exploiting
Indonesia ruthlessly. But from the beginning of
the twentieth century they adopted measures
for the social and economic advance of the
people they governed. Most Indonesians were French in Indo-China
fishermen and small peasants and worked on
The Philippines
European sugar, tobacco, tea, coffee plantations.
Heavy investments in these plantations and
other concerns, and the discovery of oil in 1900
made Indonesia a valuable colony for the Dutch.
Burma
The British conquered Burma after
fighting three wars. Burma remained part
of India from 1886 to 1937. Burma was
administered by a Lieutenant Governor with
the assistance of a nominated Legislative
Council. Burma teak was shipped overseas. Spanish in Philippines
In addition, Burma with its fertility of soil Spain ruled the Philippines for over 300
became a big exporter of rice and most of years, imposing its language, culture and
south India was dependent on Burmese rice. religion. Consequently the population became
During World War II when Burma fell to predominantly Roman Catholic. Nationalism
the Japanese, south India experienced acute developed among the Filipinos during the latter
scarcity of rice leading to a famine. part of the nineteenth century. There were two
serious revolts in 1872 and 1896, which were
Indo-China
crushed by the Spanish colonial government.
The French conquered Indo-China after In 1898, however, Spain was defeated by the
strong resistance from the people. Starting in United States in a war over Cuba, and as a
1858, they brought the Indo-Chinese Union result Philippines became an American colony.
Boer War
The Berlin Conference of 1884–85, The Zulu tribe
also known as the Congo Conference or was known for its
West Africa Conference, met to decide st rong f i g ht i ng
all issues connected with the Congo River spirit, represented by
basin in Central Africa. The conference renowned warriors like
proposed by Portugal to discuss its claim to Shaka Zulu who played
control the Congo river basin was rejected. a prominent role in
The general act of the Conference of Berlin building the largest Zulu
declared the Congo River basin to be nation in south-eastern
neutral and guaranteed freedom for trade Africa. British troops
and shipping for all states in the basin. Shaka Zulu
invaded Zulu territory
and divided it into thirteen chiefdoms. The
South Africa Zulus never regained their independence and
In South Africa the British possessed had to fight against deeply entrenched racism
Natal, Cape Colony, while the Dutch (locally in South Africa for about a century.
in India. The European powers in India since But soon it managed to establish strong ties
16th century are given below: with Indian merchants who sold their textiles
and other goods from the interior. Before
Portuguese 1505-1961 it gained dominion in India the East India
Company carried on a very profitable business
Dutch East India Company 1605-1825 selling Indian-made cotton textiles and silks
(Netherlands) and printed cloth. According to the Indian
Danish East India Company 1620-1869 nationalist economist R.C. Dutt, "weaving
(Denmark) was the national industry of the people
French East India Company 1668-1954 and spinning was the pursuit of millions of
women". Indian textiles went to England and
British East India Company 1612-1757 other parts of Europe, to China and Japan
British Company Rule 1757-1857 and Burma and Arabia and Persia and parts
of Africa. It was during this period that the
British Imperial Rule 1858-1947 textile lobby in Lancashire and Birmingham
succeeded in making the Parliament enact a
In the rivalry among four major European law prohibiting the import of Indian textiles.
powers – Portuguese, Dutch, French and Those who were
English – the English, after three Carnatic found in possession
Wars, eliminated the French by the end of the of or dealing in Indian
eighteenth century. The British conquered all cotton goods were
the regional powers, in particular the most fined 200 pounds.
potential challengers, the Mysore Sultans In the 1750s and
and the Marathas, by defeating them in three the early 1760s, Robert
Anglo-Mysore and three Anglo-Maratha Clive gained control
Wars. The conquest of the Gurkhas (1816), of the wealthiest part Robert Clive
the Sindhis (1843) and the Sikhs (1849) of the old Mughal
enabled them to emerge as a territorial power Empire. The Company exacted concessions
in India. such as exemption of Company goods from
transit duties, which even Indian merchants
The Colonialisation of Indian had to pay. After the Battle of Plassey (1757),
Economy the Company got 1.2 million pounds out of
We can divide the process of the which Clive himself took 31,500 pounds
colonialisation of India into three phases besides a jagir which provided an annual
a. Phase I Mercantilist Capitalism income of 27,000 pounds. After the Battle of
Buxar (1764), the Murshidabad treasury was
b. Phase II Industrial Capitalism looted. The Company acquired the Diwani
c. Phase III Financial Capitalism right in 1765 and became the revenue farmer
of the Mughal Emperor.
a. Colonialisation of Indian Economy:
Mercantilist Phase (Outright Plunder; 18th b. Industrial Capitalist Phase: 1st half of the
Century). Nineteenth Century
At the beginning of the 18 th century the By the beginning of nineteenth century
East India Company was still a marginal force the Company had emerged as a territorial
in India. It relied on concessions from Indian power. During this period India was
rulers for its trading posts along the coast. converted into a market for British textiles
and a great source of raw materials. The Under the system, the peasant was the
Company government’s expansionist policies proprietor and paid tax on the land. The
led to wars against regional rulers. The cost government dealt with him directly, without
of these internal conquests was imposed on the intervention of a middleman or a tax-
India. farmer. He was entitled to remain in possession
of land acquired by him so long as he paid the
Financial Capitalist Phase: 2nd land revenue. In case of default, apart from
half of the Nineteenth Century eviction and attachment of livestock, even
During this phase managing agency household property or personal belongings
firms, export-import firms, and exchange could be attached. The Ryotwari System
banks began to prosper. In its bid to provide introduced the concept of private property in
an outlet to the investible surplus capital in land. The individual holders were registered
England, the Company government decided and permitted to sell, lease out, mortgage or
to make a massive investment in railroads, transfer their right over the land.
the postal system, irrigation, modern
banking and education. The capital exported Land Revenue and the
was predominantly for railway construction. Pauperisation of Peasantry
The railways helped to move British troops The land tax which was the main source
quickly across the country. It also enabled of revenue to the British was collected
the conquest of the Indian market to the forcibly. Even in times of famines no
maximum extent. Slavery was abolished in remission was given to the peasants. They
India (1843) and the system of indentured had to even mortgage or sell their property
labour was introduced. including their land to pay the landlord’s rent
and the land tax. As no credit facilities were
11.4 Economic Impact of provided by the state, they had to depend on
British Rule moneylenders to borrow money. A system of
money lending was followed by professional
Agrarian Conditions money-lenders who belonged to various
communities such as mahajans, sahukars,
Governor General Cornwallis, himself
and bohras. In the Tamil speaking areas there
a big landlord in England, wanted to create
were Nattukottai Chettiyars.
landlords in India on the English model.
There were already revenue farmers under The colonial state pursued a policy
the Mughals. Cornwallis came to a settlement of ‘commercialization of agriculture’.
with them, treating them as landlords. The Commercial crops like cotton, jute,
outcome was that for the first time in India groundnuts, oilseeds, sugarcane, tobacco, etc.,
there was a class of zamindars or landlords with
a right to own, bequeath and inherit land. The
cultivators, on the other hand, were reduced to
the position of mere tenants. The British dealt
with the landlords or zamindars directly, and
gave them total freedom to do what they liked
with their tenants. This settlement made with
the zamindars of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa is
called the Permanent Settlement (1793).
The Ryotwari System was a different
revenue system introduced in south India.
Arthur Cotton Pennycuick
GLOSSARY
Migrants Persons who moved from one place to another in search of livelihood or for
settlement
Molasses
Thick dark brown syrup obtained from raw sugar during the refining process
Oligarchy A small group of people having control of a state
Pauperized Keeping alive, continuing indefinitely
Penetration Entry with force
Penultimate Last but one
Perpetuating Keeping alive, continuing indefinitely
Piety Religious devotion
Proliferation Increase in great numbers or large amounts
Proponents Persons advocating a theory or a proposal
Rationale Reasons or a logical basis for a course of action
Reconcile To agree to
Relinquish
voluntarily
To give up a post or office
Remittance
A sum of money sent, especially by mail in payment for goods or services or as
a gift
Repealed Cancelled
Resentment Fury / Anger
Slaughter Killing animals for food
Smelting Heating and melting ore to extract metal
Subjugation
Bring a person or a country under control
Subsistence Means minimum requirements for maintaining human existence.
Suzerainty The control of one country over another country
Tribe A community of people who live in a region connected by kinship ties. They
are linked by social, economic, religious or blood relationships. They share a
common culture and dialect, under the control of a chief.
Tricked Cheated
Tutelage Guardianship
Vehement Forceful
GEOGRAPHY
156
UNIT Lithosphere – I
Endogenetic Processes
1
Learning Objectives
Crust
Crust is the outer layer of the Earth,
where we live. It is the skin of our Earth, which
Oceanic Crust
Continental Crust
as continental crust and oceanic crust. The Continental Crust is made up of SIAL and
major elements of crust SIAL are Silica (Si) Oceanic Crust is made up of SIMA
and Aluminium (Al) and SIMA (Si - Silica
and MA - Magnesium)
Crystallization
of magma
of tectonic plates is due to thermal energy
Magma
Sedimentary rock
from the mantle. Now we have a better
understanding about the plate movements
Melting
Metamorphic rock
Burial, high temperatures
and pressures
and its relation to Earthquake and volcanic
Magma from molten
crust and mantle
activities.
Types of Plate Boundaries
Activity Convergent Boundary - Here the plate moves
Narrate the processes involved in the toward each other and sometimes, a plate
given rock cycle diagram in your own sinks under another. The location where the
words. sinking of a plate occurs is called a subduction
zone (eg) Fold Mountain-Himalayas.
Trench
Strato Oceanic crust
Strato Trench
volcano Continental crust
volcano
Lithosphere Oceanic crust
large seismically generated sea waves caused iv. Crater - a bowl shaped depression found
by Earthquakes, submarine explosions and at the top of the volcano through which
landslides. These waves travel at a great speed the magma flows out.
(more than 500 km per hour) and the length of Based on the periodicity of eruptions,
the waves exceeds 600 km. These waves reach to volcanoes are classified into
a height of more than 15 m near the sea shore (i) Active volcano, (ii) Dormant volcano, (iii)
and are capable of causing destruction along the
Extinct volcano.
coastal area.
The 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake that The term ‘volcano’ is derived
caused tsunami is the sixth-deadliest natural from the Latin term VULCAN,
disaster which travelled at a speed of 600 which is the name of Roman
km per hour with an estimated death toll of “God of Fire”.
2,80,000. The Earthquake which occurred
near Indonesia at 00.58 hours took nearly 7
hours to reach Chennai.
On 26 December 2004 a
tsunami occurred in the
Indian Ocean. It was the result
of the Indio-Australian Plate
subducting below the Eurasian
Plate. It was caused by an Earthquake
measuring a magnitude of above 9 in the
Richter scale. The Earthquake caused the
seafloor to uplift, displacing the seawater a. Active Volcano
above.
Active volcanoes
are those which
Volcanoes constantly eject
A volcano is a vent or an opening on the volcanic lava, gases
surface of the Earth crust, through which hot and fragmented
solid, liquid and gaseous materials (Magma) materials. (eg.) Mount
erupt out to the surface from the Earth’s St. Helens in the United States.
interior. Magma rises up and ejects on the
b. Dormant Volcano (or) Sleeping
surface as Lava. Volcanoes are also formed
when plates move apart. Volcano
Volcanoes that
Volcanoes generally have the following
do not show any sign
major components. They are:
of volcanic activity for
i. Magma chamber - a large pool of liquid a long period of time
rock found beneath the surface of the are known as dormant
Earth volcanoes. Sometimes there may be a sudden
ii. Vents - an opening serving as an outlet explosion which may cause unimaginable loss
for air, smoke, fumes, magma etc to life and property (e.g.) Mt. Fuji , Japan
iii. Volcanic cone - a landform built by the
magma ejected from the vent in the c. Extinct or Dead Volcano
shape of a cone. When a volcano permanently
stops its volcanic activity, then it is
163 1. Lithosphere – I Endogenetic Processes
called as extinct or dead volcano boundaries. One such area is the Circum-Pacific
(e.g.) Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. Ring of Fire, where the Pacific Plate meets many
surrounding plates. The Ring of Fire is the most
Activity seismically and volcanically active zone in the
Take a bottle filled with soda. Shake world. The other distinctive major belts are Mid-
the bottle twice or thrice. Now twist the Oceanic Ridges ,Mid-Continental Belts and
cap open. What do you observe? Alpine - Himalayan belt.
EXERCISE
9. The point of origin of an Earthquake is called
the _________
I Choose the a. epicentre b. focus
correct answer c. seismic wave d. magnitude
1. is the rigid outer layer of the II. Match the following
Earth. 1. Endogenetic — Seismograph
a. core b. mantle process
c. Crust d. inner core 2. Mantle — Subduction Zone
2. layer is made up of 3. Convergent — Volcanic
liquid iron boundaries
a. Inner core b. Outer core 4. Earthquake — Pacific Ocean
c. Mantle d. Crust 5. Composite — SIMA
3. Magma is found in the volcano
IV. A
nswer in brief: VIII. Map Skill
1. Write a brief note on the various spheres On the given outline map of the world,
of the Earth. mark the following:
2. Mention the layers of the interior of the a. Pacific Ring of fire
Earth. b. Earthquake prone zones (any two)
3. Define Plate tectonics. c. Locate any two active volcanoes of the
4. What is Tsunami? world.
d. Himalayas and Alps ranges
5. What is a Volcano? Mention its major
components.
IX. Life Skills
6. What is an Earthquake and how it occurs?
Imagine that you feel tremors or shocks in
7. What are seismic waves and mention its
your locality. What will be your role in saving
types? lives from destruction? List out the Do’s and
8. Write about the Pacific Ring of fire. Don’ts.
UNIT Lithosphere – II
Exogenetic Processes
2
Learning Objectives
Introduction Physical weathering
It is the breakdown of rocks without
The Earth is a dynamic system that
changing their chemical composition, through
undergoes various changes due to internal
the action of physical forces. The constant freezing
and external processes. The continuous
and thawing of rocks during the night and day
interaction of these two processes controls the
leads to the expansion and contraction of rocks.
structure of the earth’s surface. The external
Cracks are formed and disintegration occurs
processes are the consequence of solar energy
eventually. Exfoliation, block
and gravitational forces, whereas the internal
disintegration, granular disintegration, are
processes are an outcome of the earth’s internal
the Major types of physical weathering.
heat.
Exogenetic Process
Exfoliation
Weathering and Gradation
The alternate heating and cooling on
Mass Movement
rounded rock surfaces leads to the peeling
Aggradation
of rocks, layer by layer like an onion. This is
Physical Chemical Biological Degradation
Weathering Weathering Weathering called exfoliation. sheeting and shattering
are the other forms of exfoliation.
2.1 Weathering
Weathering is the breaking, disintegration
and decomposition of materials of the earth’s
crust by their exposure to atmosphere.
There are three types of weathering
• Physical weathering,
• Chemical weathering and
• Biological weathering
Block Disintegration:
Repeated expansion and contraction
of rocks during day and night respectively
causes stress on the joints of the rocks which Oxidation
results in block disintegration Oxygen in the atmosphere reacts with
the iron found in rocks, thus leads to the
formation of iron oxide.This process similar
to the rusting of iron, pressure of air and
water is known as oxidation, which results in
the weakening of rocks.
Carbonation
Carbonation is the mixing of water with
the atmospheric carbon-dioxide, forming
carbonic acid. Carbonation is important in
the formation of caves, in limestone region.
Hots When the carbonic acid reacts with the
Is weathering a pre-requisite in the carbonate rocks, the rocks get disintegrated.
formation of soil? Solution
Facts The dissolution of rock substances
in water result in the loosening of the rock
The disintegrated rock materials, in due particles. This inturn breaks down the
course of time, are w eathered further, to rocks.
form soil. Soil is a mixture of disintegrated
rock material and decayed organic matter Hydration
called humus. Absorption of water into the mineral
structure, certain chemicals in the rock
Chemical Weathering enlarge in size in humid conditions. These
Disintegration and decomposition of minerals found in the rock swell and this
rocks due to chemical reactions is called results in the development of cracks and the
rock wears down. This type of weathering is place where the river originates is called catchment
called hydration. area and where it joins the sea is known as mouth.
Biological Weathering
Biological weathering occurs due to the
penetration and expansion of plant roots, Water fall
Meander Estuary
earthworms, burrowing animals (rabbits, Source of river
Tributary
Flood Plain
rats) and some human activities. Ox bow Lake
Delta
h
out
er M
Sea
Riv
Upper course Middle course Lower course
Courses of River:
Rivers generally originate from
mountains and end in a sea or lake. The whole
path that a river flows through is called its
course. The course of a river is divided into:
i. The upper course
iii. The Lower course force, it erodes the rock material beneath and
The river, moving downstream across a creates a depression called a plunge pool.
broad, level plain is loaded with debris, Shallow fast flowing water in a stream is
brought down from its upper and middle called a rapid or river jumps
courses. Large deposits of sediments are
found at the level bed and the river, splits The highest waterfalls in the world is
into a number of channels called Angel falls (979 m) in Venezuela.
distributaries. The main work of the river
here is deposition and it develops typical
landforms like delta and estuary.
Tributary – Small streams that join the
main river. Eg. River Bhavani
Distributary – River channels that get
separated from the main river. E.g.,
River Kollidam.
Canyon
Waterfall
Pot hole
When a river flows in a region where
Due to the river action, cylindrical
hard rocks lie over soft rocks horizontally,
holes are drilled vertically in the river
the soft rocks get eroded quickly and the
bed, with varying depth and diametre.
hard rocks projects outwards. Thus, the river
These are called pot holes.
falls vertically from a steep slope to form a
waterfall. When the water falls with great
Facts
The Greek letter ( )pronounced delta
Ox bow lake closely resembles the triangular delta of
the river Nile. Sunderban Delta formed
Meanders in due course of time become by the river Ganga-Brahmaputra is the
almost a complete circle with narrow necks. largest delta in the world.
This in turn gets abandoned and forms a lake.
This is called an Ox-bow lake. The world’s best known geyser is the Old
Faithful geyser in the Yellowstone National
The world's largest oxbow lake is Lake
Park in Wyoming, U.S.A
Chicot is Arkansas of USA. Lake Kanwar in
Bihar (India) is Asia’s largest fresh water ox Karst Topography
bow lake.
As an agent of gradation, underground
water creates distinct landforms in lime-
Depositional Landforms of River
stone regions called Karst Topography.
Alluvial Fan Ground water is an
A fan shaped deposition made by the active agent in limestone
river at the foothills is called an alluvial plain regions. Karst topography
is formed due to the
Flood Plain
dissolution of soluble
Fine sediments are deposited on river rocks such as limestone,
banks when a river floods. These sediments dolomite and gypsum.
make the region rich and fertile. This is called
Cirque, Aretes, Matterhorn, U-shaped valley, Fjords are glacial valleys that are partly
Hanging valley, Fiords etc., Most of these glacial submerged in the sea.
features are predominantly seen in countries like Depositional Landforms of glacier
Switzerland, Norway etc., After getting eroded, fragments of rocks
Cirque and boulders along with dirt form glacial
The glacier erodes the steep side walls of the debris. Glacial debris gets deposited in the
mountain and forms a bowl-shaped armchair like low lying areas and form depositional features
depression, it is termed as Cirque. like moraines, drumlins, eskers, kames and
Arete outwash plains.
Moraine
Aretes are narrow ridges formed when two
cirque walls joined together back to back, and 1. Materials deposited by Glaciers is
forms narrow knife like ridges. called Moraines.
Pyramidal Peak 2. Based on the location, they are classified
into Ground moraine, Terminal moraine
The pyramidal peaks formed when
and Lateral moraine.
three or more cirques meet together (eg)
Matterhorns.
U-Shaped Valley
When the glacier moves down along a
river valley, the valley further gets eroded
deep and wide to form a ‘U’ shaped valley.
Hanging Valley
These are valleys eroded by tributary
Drumlin(Basket of Egg
glacier and that hangs over the main valley.
Topography)
Horn
Arete Drumlins are deposits of glacial moraines
Cirques Hanging valley
that resemble giant inverted teaspoons or half
cut eggs.
Esker
Long narrow ridges composed of
boulders gravel and sand deposited by
Glacial
trough streams of melting water which run parallel
to a glacier are called eskers.
Outwash Plain
Glaciated topography
An outwash plain consists of glacial
Fjord sediments deposited by the melting ice at the
terminus of a glacier. It appears as an extensive
accumulation of sand, gravel and silt.
Wind
When air blows horizontally at or near
the earth’s surface is called wind. The erosional,
transportational and depositional action of Depositional Landforms of wind
wind is predominant in arid regions. This is Some of the depositional landforms are
called as Aeolian Process. sand dunes, barchans and loess.
Erosional Landforms of wind Sand Dune
Some of the erosional landforms of wind are In deserts, during sandstorms, wind
mushroom rocks, Inselbergs and yardangs. carries loads of sand. When the speed of
Mushroom Rock wind decreases, huge amount of sand gets
deposited. These mounds or hills of sand are
Rocks are made
called sand dunes. There are different types of
up of hard and
sand dunes.
soft layers. When
a rock’s bottom is Barchan
soft, the sand-laden Barch are isolated, crescent shaped
winds blow against sand dunes. They have gentle slopes on
it and wear it down. the windward side and steep slopes on the
By the constant leeward side.
wearing down action of the wind, the bottom
gets eroded away to form a mushroom like
structure. This is called a mushroom or
pedestal rock. Such rocks are found near
Jodhpur in Rajasthan.
Inselberg
Inselberg is
a German term
which means an
island mountain. Transverse Dunes
Certain hard rocks Transverse dunes are asymmetrical in shape.
like igneous rocks They are formed by alternate slow and fast winds
are more resistant that blow from the same direction.
to wind action. Such isolated residual hills
rising abruptly from their surroundings are
termed as inselbergs. Eg. Uluru or Ayers
Rock, Australia.
Yardang
In arid regions, certain rocks have hard Longitudinal Dunes(Seif dunes)
and soft layers arranged vertically. When Longitudinal dunes are long narrow
winds blow over these rocks, the soft layers ridges of sand, which extend in a direction
175 2. Lithosphere – II Exogenetic Processes
Loess
The term loess refers to the deposits of
fine silt and porous sand over a vast region.
Extensive loess deposits are found in Northern
and Western China, the Pampas of Argentina,
in Ukraine and in the Mississippi Valley of the
United States. 4. Sea Stack
Further erosion by waves ultimately leads
to the total collapse of the arch. The seaward
portion of the headland will remain as a pillar
of rock known as stack. Eg the Old man of
Hoy in Scotland.
5. Wave Cut Platforms
Flat surface found at the foot of sea cliffs are
The thickest known deposit
called as wave cut platforms. Wave cut platform
of loess is, 335 metre found in
is also referred as wave cut benches terrace.
the loess plateau in China.
Depositional Landforms of Waves
Beach
Wave
A steady up (crest) and down (trough) Sand and gravel are moved and deposited
movement of surface water are called waves. by waves along the shore to form beaches.
Sea waves are the most powerful agents of This is the most dominant and constructive
gradation and their erosional, transportational work of the sea. (Eg.) Juhu beach along
and depositional processes are confined to a very Mumbai coast, Puri beach in Odisha and
narrow belt along coastal areas. Marina beach in Chennai.
Erosional Land Forms of Waves Bar
Some of the erosional landforms of sea A bar is an
waves are sea cliff, sea cave, arch, stack, elongated deposit
beach, bar and spit and wave cut platform. of sand, shingle
or mud found in
1. Sea Cliffs the sea, almost
Sea cliffs are steep rock faces formed when parallel to the
sea waves dash against them. The rocks get shoreline.
eroded to form steep vertical walls.
(iii) ‘V’ Shaped valley is an erosional 8. Define: a) Moraine b) Drumlin c) Esker.
feature of the glacier. 9. Mention the various features formed by
a. i, ii & iii are correct wind erosion.
b. i & ii are correct 10. What is a wave cut platform?
d.
The statement and reason are VIII. Map Skill:
right. On the given outline map of the world,
IV. Answer in brief: mark the following.
2.
What do you mean by biological 2. A Karst region
weathering? 3. Any two hot and cold deserts
3. Mention the three courses of a river IX HOTS
with any two land forms associated to
1. I s wind the only gradational agent in
each course.
the desert?
4. What are ox-bow lakes?
5. How does a sea cave differ from a sea arch?
6. L ist out any four karst topographical
areas found in India.
7. What do you mean by a hanging valley?
ICT CORNER
Karst Topography
Through this activity you will
explore Karst formation.
Steps
• Use the URL to reach ‘Karst Topography’ page. Allow flash player to play, if it asks.
• Click ‘Next’ button in the bottom of the page to proceed to the next page and explore
the animation.
• Select ‘Dissolution’ option from the left and explore.
• Use the arrow keys to move forward and backward to the animation.
Website URL:
http://folk.uio.no/hanakrem/svalex/E-learning/Karst/
UNIT
Atmosphere
3
Learning Objectives
Introduction Fact
Earth is a unique planet where life is In 1772 CE Daniel Rutherford discovered
found. Can you imagine life on the earth Nitrogen in atmosphere. In 1774 Joseph
without air? No. The air is essential for the priestly discovered oxygen in atmosphere
survival of all forms of life. The blanket of
air that surrounds the Earth is called the
atmosphere. It is held close to the earth by Oxygen is most important for living
gravitational attraction. organisms. CO2 absorbs heat and keeps the
atmosphere warm by insulation and radiation.
Composition of the Nitrogen acts as a diluent and is chemically
3.1
Atmosphere inactive. Ozone helps in protecting the earth
Atmosphere is a mixture of gases, from harmful ultra violet radiation. The solid
water vapour and dust particles in different particles in the atmosphere acts as nuclei
proportions. Nitrogen (78%) and Oxygen on which water vapour condense to form
(21%) are permanent gases of the atmosphere. precipitation.
They constitute 99% of the total composition
and their percentages always remain the Structure of the
3.2
same without any change. The remaining one Atmosphere
percentage is occupied by Argon (0.93%), The atmosphere is thick near the earth
Carbon-di-oxide, (0.03%), Neon (0.0018%), surface and thins out until it eventually merges
Helium (0.0005%), Ozone (0.00006%) and with space. The five atmospheric layers are:
Hydrogen (0.00005%). Krypton, Xenon Troposphere, stratosphere, Mesosphere,
and Methane are also present in trace. Thermosphere and Exosphere.
Water vapour (0 - 0.4%) is also found in the
atmosphere, which plays an important role in Troposphere
predicting weather phenomenon. The other
solid particles present in the atmosphere The lowest layer of the atmosphere is the
includes dust particles, salt particles, pollen troposphere. The Greek word ‘tropos’ means
grains, smoke, soot, volcanic ashes etc.,. ‘turn’ or change. The layer extends up to 8 kms
3. Atmosphere 180
Thermosphere Hots
Thermosphere exists above the mesosphere. Why is Troposphere called as weather
It extends to about 600 km. The composition of making layer?
gases in the lower thermosphere is more or less
uniform, hence it is called “Homosphere”. The
There are many factors
upper portion of the thermosphere has uneven
that influence weather and
composition of gases and hence it is referred as
“Heterosphere”. Here the temperature increases climate.
with increasing height. Ionosphere is a layer of ● Distance from the equator
the thermosphere that contains Ions and free ● Altitude
electrons. Radio waves transmitted from earth ● Nearness to the sea
are reflected back to earth from this layer.
● Nature of the prevailing winds
● Mountain barrier
Fact ● Cloud cover
Magnetosphere lies beyond the exosphere. ● Ocean currents
It is the earth's magnetic belt, where proton ● Natural vegetation
and electrons, coming out from the sun are
trapped by the earth. The magnetic field Distance from the Equator
extends to around 64,000 km above the
Earth. The sun’s rays fall vertically on the
equator. The rays are inclined on the regions
181 3. Atmosphere
Weather Climate
Partly 1. Weather is the study of 1. Climate is the study of Warm
sunny atmospheric conditions the average weather Climate
for short duration over condition observed over
small areas. a long period of time for
a larger area.
3. Atmosphere 182
183 3. Atmosphere
hemisphere. The velocity of westerlies the surrounding high pressure area converge
become so vigorous and fast to be called towards the centre in a spiral form. Due to the
Roaring Forties at 400, Furious Fifties at 500 rotation of the earth, the cyclonic winds in the
and Screaming Sixties at 600 latitudes. northern hemisphere move in anti clock wise
Polar Easterlies: direction, where as they move in clockwise
direction in the southern hemisphere.
Polar easterlies are cold and dry polar
winds that blow from the polar high pressure Cyclones can be classified into
belt to the sub polar low pressure belt. Tropical cyclones
These are weak winds blowing from North Temperate cyclones
East direction in the Northern Hemisphere Extra tropical cyclones
and South East direction in the Southern Tropical cyclones:
Hemisphere.
Tropical cyclones are known as ‘cyclones’
Fact in Indian ocean, ‘typhoons’ in the western
pacific ocean, ‘hurricanes’ in the Atlantic and
The rotation of eastern Pacific ocean, ‘baguios’ in Phillipines
the Earth causes and ‘willy willy’ in Australia, Taifu in japan.
deflection of winds Tropical cyclones often cause heavy loss of life
from their original and property on the coasts and become weak
path, called the after reaching the landmasses.
“Coriolis effect”.
Winds are deflected
to the right in the G.G.Coriolis
northen hemisphere
and to the left in the southern hemisphere
which is known as “Ferrel's law”. This was
profounded by William Ferrel. He used
“Coriolis force” named after G.G Coriolis
(1792-1843) for proving Ferrel’s Law
Periodic winds
The periodic winds are the seasonal Fact
winds that change their direction periodically. Super Cyclone
These winds are caused by the differential
heating of land and ocean. A violent cyclone that hit Odisha, on Friday,
29 October 1999, was one of the most
Winds which reverse their direction with devastating and strongest storm to hit the
the change of seasons are called monsoons. Indian coast. Winds of up to 260 kph raged
Tropical Monsoon winds of Indian for over 36 hours. The winds caused a seven-
subcontinent is a best example. metre tidal wave that swept more than 20
km inland and brought massive destruction
Variable wind
and death to a number of coastal districts
Cyclones in the state of Odisha. It is estimated that
The term cyclone is a Greek word more than 10 million people in 12 coastal
meaning “coil of a snake". Cyclones are belt districts were affected by the cyclone.
centres of low pressure where, winds from More than 10,000 people lost their lives.
185 3. Atmosphere
Cuddalore and Nagapattinam are always These major types of clouds are further
affected by cyclones. Why? divided into different types on the basis of
shape and structure.
3. Atmosphere 186
187 3. Atmosphere
3. Atmosphere 188
Cyclonic precipitation occurs during large quantities of water vapour. The amount of
cyclones when air masses are made to converge water vapour in the atmosphere is called absolute
and move upward so that adiabatic cooling humidity.
occurs. Cyclonic rainfall occurs in tropical as When the relative humidity of
well as temperate regions. When warm and the air is 100%, the air is said to be
cold air masses converge, condensation and saturated. Saturated air will not
precipitation takes place on the boundary absorb any more water vapour.
between warm and cold air masses called as
Frontal rainfall. The temperature at which air gets saturated is
called dew point.
3.Orographic Humidity of the atmosphere is measured by the
rainfall Windward side Leeward side wet and dry bulb thermometer also called the
(or) Relief Hygrometer
rainfall
O ro g r ap h i c Absolute humidity is expressed in terms of grams
rainfall, also of water vapour present per cubic metre of air.
called relief Relative humidity is expressed in percentage.
rainfall, is caused
OROGRAPHIC RAINFALL
189 3. Atmosphere
9.
Dew in the form of ice crystals is
called ______
EXERCISE
a. frost b. fog
I. Choose The Best c. mist d. sleet.
Answers 0.________ is called the eye of the storm/
1
1.
_______is the most cyclone.
important gas for the survival of living a. Pressure b. wind
organisms.
c. cyclones d. snow.
a. Helium b. carbon-di-oxide
The vertical movement of
11.
air is
c. oxygen d. methane
called
2. T he lowest layer of the atmosphere
a. Wind b. storm
is c. Air current d. drift.
a. Troposphere b. Stratosphere
c. Exosphere d. Mesosphere II. Match the following
1. Meteorology — wind speed
3. reflects radio waves.
2. Climatology — direction of wind
a. Exosphere b. Ionosphere 3. Anemometer — cirrus
c. Mesosphere d. Stratosphere 4. Wind Vane — study of climate
5. Mare's Tail — study of weather
4. The process of change of state of water
6. Leeward side — Australia
from gaseous to liquid state is called 7. Willy willy — rain shadow region
a. Precipitation b. evaporation
c. transpiration d. condensation. III. Answer the following Briefly
1. Define atmosphere
5.
The is the chief energy source
2. Mention the factors that affect the climate?
of the Earth.
a. Sun b. Moon 3. Write short note on Lapse rate.
c. Stars d. Clouds. 4. What are the processes responsible for
heating the atmosphere?
6.
A ll types of clouds are found in
5. Mention the Planetary wind system of
the
the earth.
a. Troposphere b. Ionosphere
6. Write short note on:
c. Mesosphere d. Exosphere
a. Trade winds.
7.
clouds are called 'Sheep b. Roaring Forties
clouds' 7. How are clouds formed?
a. Alto-cumulus b. Alto-Stratus 8. What are the different types of rainfall?
c. Nimbo - stratus d. Cirro-stratus. 9. Write short notes on:
8.
The Monsoons are a. drizzle b. rain
c. sleet d. snow
a. Prevailing winds e. heat
b. Periodic winds
c. local winds
d. none of the above.
3. Atmosphere 190
IV. Give reason 4. How are cyclones formed? How are they
1. Cyclones cause huge loss of life and classified?
property. 5. Explain the different forms of
2. Cloudy days are warmer than cloudless precipitation
days. VII. Activity
3. Fog is dangerous for traffic. 1. Preparing chart of clouds at various
4. Convectional rainfall is also called 4'0 atmospheric layers.
clock rain. 2. Collecting Proverbs clouds and rain
5. Polar Easterlies are cold and dry. Why it is related Proverbs
so? 3. Poem on 'clouds', 'rain'
V. Distinguish between the 4. Report writing observe the clouds for a
following week. Write your report about the shape
and colours ofclouds.
1. Weather and climate
5. Working models a) Rain Gauge b)Wind
2. Land breeze and sea breeze vane
3. Windward side and Leeward side. 6. Preparing bar diagram
4. Tropical cyclone and Temperate cyclones. Collect the data of temperature of
VI. Paragraph Questions Kanyakumari, Delhi, Allahabad, and
Itanagar for a day.Also collect the data of
1. Write a paragraph about the structure of
rainfall received by Jaisalmer (Rajasthan),
the atmosphere.
Mawsynram (Meghalaya), Nagapattinam,
2. Explain the different types of Permanent Coimbatore for a day.
winds. 7. Become a budding Meterologist:
3. How are clouds classified? Explain them. Record the local weather condition of your
place for a week.
Steps
1. Use the URL to download the ‘Glaciers’ flash file.
2. Select the ‘Glacier type’ from bottom and change them using arrows to see
the different land forms affected by it.
3. Select ‘Anatomy of Glaciers’ from top of the page and animate the activity to
observe the glacier formation.
4. Select ‘Glacier Erosion’ and press ‘Move Glacier’ button to observe erosion
made by glaciers.
Website URL:
https://ees.as.uky.edu/sites/default/files/elearning/module13swf.swf
191 3. Atmosphere
UNIT
Hydrosphere
4
Learning Objectives
To understand the importance of water
To learn about the nature, uses and distribution of fresh and salt water
To understand the relief features of the ocean floor
To study about the movements of ocean water
To learn about marine resources and the need for conservation
4. Hydrosphere 192
Geo Connect
Hypsometric Curve
s)
ONGC: Oil and
ain
(pl
ter
iors
e lf
Natural Gas
in sh
tal tal Deep
8
6 u nta
ins
n tin
en
n tin
en trenches Corporation is
Mo Co Co
4
Ocean floor
India’s largest
2
oil and gas
Elevation (km)
−2
0 exploration
−4
−6
and production
−8 company. Its latest estimate is that about 20
−10
million tons of oil reserves are found west
0 20 40 60 80 100
of Mumbai High off shore.
% of Earth’s surface
4. Hydrosphere 194
(D) Deep Sea Plains or Abyssal Plains basaltic rock formed when two tectonic plates
The deep sea plains or abyssal moves apart. The mid-ocean ridge is probably
plains are underwater plains the most extensive single feature of the earth’s
found on the deep ocean floor. topography. Two of the most well known mid-
These plains extend from ocean ridges are the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the
continental rise to the mid East Pacific Ridge. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is
oceanic ridges. The gradient the largest unbroken oceanic ridge.
of the slope is very gentle and
it appears as a uniform flat and featureless plain. Fathoms A nautical
These plains are usually covered by the thick layer measurement of the depth of
of sediments composed of clay, silt and sand, water in the ocean.
brought by the rivers. These are often characterized Isobath An imaginary line
by features like abyssal hills, sea mounts, guyots, on a map joining the points of equal depths.
coral, atoll etc.
Isohaline An imaginary line on a map
joining the points of equal salinity in oceans.
Abyssal plains in the Atlantic
and Indian Oceans tend to
be extensive than the Pacific
Ocean because, majority
of the world’s largest rivers
empty their sediments into either Atlantic
or Indian Ocean. E.g. Amazon, Ganga and
Brahmaputra rivers.
195 4. Hydrosphere
t
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d
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urrent
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Gre
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AMERICA North A t l a Current
Ca urre
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Ku
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C
St
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Gulf
rnia
na
Nort a
h Equatorial C . C
t
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Cu North E
torial quato
North Equa AFRICA North Equatorial Current
Curren rial
t
Equatorial Counter Current
Equatorial Counter Current Equatoria
ue C
SOUTH uth l
So C. South Equatorial Current
z a m biq
t
n
nt
Hu rrent
rre
Mo
Cu
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Cu
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es
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Br a
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East Au
Warm current
Cold current
4. Hydrosphere 198
Recap
Hydrosphere, the third sphere of Earth, EXERCISE
is a collection of all forms of water on
the earth. I Choose the
Hydrological cycle is the continuous correct answer
movement of water on Earth.
1. The temperature of the ocean waters
Water is available on Earth as fresh and
generally_______ at greater depth.
salt water. Over 97% of the water on the
Earth’s surface is confined to oceans. a) increases b) decreases
The five major oceans of the world are c) remains constant d) none of the above
the Pacific, the Atlantic, the Indian, the
2.
O cean currents are produced due to
Southern and the Arctic ocean. _________
The major relief of the ocean floor are a)
due to rotation of earth
continental shelf, continental slope,
b)
due to variation in temperature
continental rise, abyssal plains, ocean
deeps and ocean ridges. c)
due to earth’s movement
Marine resources are nothing but the d)
all the above
biotic and abiotic resources found in the 3. Consider the following statements.
oceans. 1.
Most of the fishing grounds occur in
Oceans are the lifelines of Earth and areas where the continental shelf is
mankind. Hence, they need to be wide.
conserved. 2. Fishing is well developed in warm
tropical waters.
The Gangetic Dolphin was 3. Mixing of warm and cold currents
declared the National Aquatic facilitates plant nutrients for fish.
Animal in 2010. This has become
4. Inland fishing became significant in
an endangered species. Are the
Dolphins really at India.
risk? If so, list out the a) 1 and 2 are correct.
reasons. b) 1 and 3 are correct.
c) 2,3 and 4 are correct.
d) 1,2 and 3 are correct
199 4. Hydrosphere
4.
T he oceanic ridge comes into 2. Assertion(A): Flat topped seamounts
existence due to are known as Guyots.
a)
convergence of tectonic plates Reason(R): All guyot features are of
b)
divergence of tectonic plates volcanic origin.
c)
lateral movements of plates 3. Assertion(A): Submarine canyons
d)
stearing of plates. are deep gorges on the ocean floor.
5. Which of the following indicates the Reason(R): They are mainly restricted
correct sequence of the topography to continental shelf, slope and rise
beneath the surface of the sea? 4. Assertion (A): Atolls are more
a) Continental shelf-Continental slope- common in the Atlantic ocean.
Sea plain-Sea trench. Reason(R): The marine population at
b) Continental slope-Continental shelf- the depth is less.
Sea plain-Sea trench.
III. Match the following:
c) Sea plain-Continental slope-
Continental shelf-Sea trench. 1. Mariana - Decreases salinity in
d) Continental slope-Sea plain- trench the oceans
Continental shelf-Sea trench. 2. Great Barrier - Along the coast of
.
Which of the following is not Reef Japan
correctly matched? 3. Spring tides - Deepest point in the
Pacific
a) Gulf Stream
- Pacific Ocean
4. Heavy rains - Australia
b) Labrador
- North Atlantic
current Ocean 5. Kuroshio - Second order landform
c) Canary
- Mediterranean current
current sea 6. Continental - On full and new moon
d) Mozambique - Indian Ocean. slope days
current
4. Hydrosphere 200
ICT CORNER
Geography - Hydrosphere
Steps
Step 1: Open the Browser type the URL Link given below (or) Scan the QR Code.
Step 2: You see the Earth’s Spheres cards.
Step 3: Click the cards and choose correct Spheres and Examples
Website URL :
https://matchthememory.com/Earthspheres
https://www.purposegames.com/game/the-hydrosphere-game
201 4. Hydrosphere
UNIT
Biosphere
5
Learning Objectives
Introduction
5.1 Ecosystem
Biosphere, the fourth sphere of the Earth,
is a life supporting layer that exists on the earth’s An ecosystem is a community, where
surface. This layer on earth encompasses the all living organisms live and interact with
Lithosphere, Hydrosphere and Atmosphere. one another and also with their non-living
It includes flora and fauna that thrive on or environment such as land, soil, air, water etc.
near the earth’s surface. The vertical range Ecosystems range in size from the smallest
of the biosphere is approximately 20 km, units (Eg: bark of a tree) that can sustain life
which is measured from the ocean floor to the to the global ecosystem or ecosphere. (Eg:
troposphere. However, most plants and animals Cropland, Pond ecosystem, Forest ecosystem,
live in a very narrow section for about 1 km above Desert ecosystem etc.). Biosphere harbours all
and below the Mean Sea Level (MSL). Biosphere ecosystems on the earth and sustains life forms
is made up of different ecosystems and biomes. including mankind.
All living things, large or small, are grouped into
species.The area in which an animal, plant or
micro organism lives is called its habitat. A wide
variety of plants and animals live in a particular
habitat known as biodiversity.
VERTICAL RANGE OF BIOSPHERE ON EARTH
8000 Tallest mountains
6000
4000
Area where most
2000
living things live
Activity
sea level
2000 Average ocean
own words.
Depth(in meters)
5. Biosphere 202
203 5. Biosphere
5. Biosphere 204
settlements are found scattered here. They sustain 20° and 30° North and South latitudes.
their livelihood through food gathering, fishing, The annual rainfall is less than 25 cm in
lumbering and shifting cultivation. Due to the these regions. Due to the lack of rainfall and
humid nature of this biome, the people get arid conditions, these regions do not possess
afflicted to tropical diseases like malaria, yellow any vegetation but have special vegetation type
fever etc. The chief trees found here are rubber, called Xerophytes. As the soil is sandy and
bamboo, ebony, etc. Bats, pheasants, jaguars, saline, deserts remain agriculturally
elephants, monkeys etc. are the important birds unproductive. Drought resistant thorny
and animals found here. scrubs and bushes, palms are found here.
B. T
ropical Savanna (Grasslands)
Biomes
Tropical grasslands are generally found Tribal people who live here practice
between tropical forests and deserts. food gathering and hunting. They move their
Tropical Savanna biomes are found between temporary settlements frequently in search of
10o to 20o Noth and South latitudes. These pastures. Transportation becomes very difficult
grasslands are generally flat and are found in here and is carried on by camels. Reptiles
the Sahel, south of Sahara in East Africa and like snakes, lizards, scorpions etc., are most
in Australia. This biome is generally hot and commonly found here.
dry and experiences moderate to low rainfall.
So, the grass which grow here are tall and
sharp. Hence the chief occupation of the people
found here is herding. The primitive people
living here are nomadic.
The common animals found here are
An oasis is a fertile fresh water source found in
the lion, leopard, tiger, deer, zebra, giraffe etc. deserts and semi-arid regions. Oases are fed by
Flora such as Rhodes grass, red oats grass, springs. Crops like date palms, figs, citrus fruits,
lemon grass etc. are found in this maize etc. are cultivated near these oases.
biome. D. Temperate Grassland Biomes
Of late, parts of the Savanna Temperate Grasslands are usually found
grasslands are being converted in the interior of the continents and are
into farmlands, which pose a characterized by large seasonal temperature
great threat to the wide range of variations, with warm summer and cold
fauna. For Eg. The population winter. The type of grassland in these regions
of the big cats like cheetah, lion etc. are strongly depends upon precipitation. Higher
dwindling drastically. precipitation leads to tall and soft grass and
lower precipitation leads to short and soft
C. Desert Biomes grass. These regions favour wheat cultivation.
Deserts are usually found on the Extensive mechanised agriculture is practised
western margins of the continents between due to lack of farm labour. Pastoral industry
205 5. Biosphere
5. Biosphere 206
207 5. Biosphere
5. Why is the usage of rainforest biomes for 6. __________ is an aquatic biome that is
large scale agriculture unsustainable? found where fresh water and salt water
mix.
a) because it is too wet.
IV. Answer the following in brief
b) ecause the temperature is too
b 1. What is Biosphere?
warm. 2. What is an ecosystem?
c)
because the soil is too thin. 3. What does the term ‘biodiversity’ mean?
4. What is meant by loss of biodiversity?
d) because the soil is poor.
5. Mention the various terrestrial biomes.
II. Assertion type questions. V. Give reasons for the
Directions following
1. Producers are also called autotrophs.
a) Both assertion (A) and reason(R)
are true; R explains A 2. Biosphere provides a stable ecosystem.
VI. Distinguish between the
b)
Both assertion(A) and reason(R) following
are true; R does not explain A 1. Producers and Decomposers.
c) A is true; R is false 2. Terrestrial biomes and Aquatic biomes.
3. Tropical vegetation and Desert
d) Both A and R are false vegetation
1. A: Heterotrophs do not produce their own 4. Savannas and Tundra
food. VII. Answer the following in a
paragraph
R: They depend on autotrophs for their
nourishment. 1. Explain the various components of
ecosystem.
2. A: Hotspots are the regions characterised
2. Write a paragraph on the functions of
by numerous endemic plants and
an ecosystem.
animal species living in a vulnerable
3. Explain about the aquatic biomes on
environment.
Earth.
R: To manage and focus on conservation
VIII. F ind out the dates for the
work more effectively, researchers
following
identified hotspots.
1. World Wild Life Day . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. International Day of Forest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
III. Fill In The Blanks
3. World Water Day. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. An area where animals, plants and micro
organisms live and interact with one 4. Earth Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
another is known as _________. 5. World Environment Day June 5th
2.
_ __________ are also called 6. World Oceans Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Heterotrophs. IX. Map Study
3. __________ is a system of interlocking Locate the following on the world outline map.
and independent food chains. 1. Priairies
4. _______ is an extensive large ecosystem. 2. Downs
5. The vegetative type commonly found in 3. Tundra Biomes
desert biomes is called __________. 4. Equatorial Biomes
5. Biosphere 208
X. Picture Study
REFERENCE BOOKS
Narrate the given food web of Arctic
Tundra in your own words. 1. Environmental Geography by Savindra
Singh Edition: 1995, Prayag Pustak
Bhawan, Allahabad, India
Arctic Tundra Food Web
2. Physical Geography by Dr. Savindra Singh
Hawk
Polar Bear
Wolf
Edition: 2015, Pravalika Publications,
Allahabad, India.
3. Essential Environmental Studies S.P.
Misra and S.N.Pandey Second Edition,
Arctic Hare Ane books Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, India.
Caribou
Lemming
4. Environmental Geography by Dr. Savindra
Singh Edition: 2015, Pravalika Publications,
Musk Ox
Allahabad, India.
Arctic
Wildflower
Grasses
Lichen
INTERNET RESOURCES
Sun
1. www.usgs.gov
2. h t t p : / / e n v i r o n m e n t .
nationalgeographic.com
3. www.nasa.gov
4. www.britannica.com
5. http://earth.usc.ed
ICT CORNER
Geography -Biosphere
Steps
Step 1: Open the Browser type the URL Link given below (or) Scan the QR Code.
Step 2: Register as a student or teacher with your email id.
Step 3: Select the option Video and see the Biosphere video.
Step 4: Select the option Quiz and choose the correct answer.
Website URL :
https://matchthememory.com/Earthspheres
209 5. Biosphere
UNIT
Man and Environment
6
Learning objectives
To know the components of environment
To understand the various features of human-environment
interaction
To know various settlement patterns
To know the different economic activities of man
To understand the environmental effects of human behaviour
Introduction
The Stockholm Conference,
Environment is a set of relationships
1972, declared man as both
between man and nature. Man has survived
a creator and moulder of
through the ages, dwelling within his
his environment. ‘The Earth
surrounding called the environment. The
Summit’, formally known as the United Nations
word ‘environment’ is derived from the
Conference on Environment and Development
French word ‘environ’ meaning encircled
(UNCED) was held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992.
or surrounded. Environment includes both
living (biotic) and non living (abiotic) Classification of Environment:
components.
Environment is generally classified as
Population increases when there are other facilities encourage dense population in
more births and immigration. It decreases an area.
when there are more deaths and emigration.
Population growth, can be calculated as The World Population Day is
observed on 11th July every year. It
The black death is estimated seeks to raise awareness of global
to have killed 30 - 60 percent of population issues. The United
Europe's total population during Nations Development Programme started
the 14th century. The dominant celebrating this event from the year 1989.
explanation for black death is attributed to
the outbreak of plague. 6.2.3 Density of Population
6.2.2 Distribution of Population Density of population refers to the
number of people living per square kilometre.
Population distribution refers to the way An area is said to be sparsely populated when
in which people are spread out across the it has a large area with less number of people.
earth’s surface. Similarly, smaller the area with a large
The world population is not uniformly number of people, is said to be densely
distributed, owing to the following factors. populated.
Total Population
a). Physical Factors Population Density =
Total land area
Physical factors include temperature, The world’s population density is
rainfall, soil, relief, water, natural vegetation, divided
into three main groups.
distribution of minerals and availability of
energy resources. Areas of high density (above 50 people per
• sq.km) - East Asia, South Asia, North West
b). Historical Factors
Regions with historical importance Europe & Eastern North America.
Areas of moderate density (10 to 50 people
(river valley civilizations), war and constant • per sq.km) - The sub tropical regions like
invasions fall under historical factors
responsible for population distribution. Angola, Congo, Nigeria and Zambia in
Africa.
c). Economic Factors
Areas of low density (less than 10 people
Educational institutions, employment • per sq.km) - Central Africa, Western
opportunities, manufacturing industries,
Australia, Northern Russia, Canada, etc…
luxurious amenities, trade and commerce and
Activity
The population data of the five most densely populated districts of Tamil
Nadu is given below. (Findout the population density and their rank)
Area (square Population (2011 Population
District Rank
km) census) Density
Chennai 178.2 46,46,732
Kanchipuram 7857 39,98,252
Vellore 6077 39,36,331
Thiruvallur 3424 37,28,104
Salem 5205 34,82,056
Large Town
T-shaped settlements develop at tri-
Small Town
junctions of the roads (T), while Y-shaped
settlements emerge as the places where two roads Village
How to help the value of sustainability grow Primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary
among students? and quinary are the different types of
• Lifestyle economic activities.
Your lifestyle is your choice and you can Problems such as climatic changes,
change it. For example, when you go to the poverty, war and uneven distribution
grocery store, make sure you always carry a of resources leads to an unbalanced
cloth bag. This way the shopkeeper does not ecosystem. Therefore, to sustain
have to give you many plastic bags. mankind, it is a must to learn about
• Fixing sustainable development.
If your watch or a toy or a camera is
broken or not working, try getting it fixed
before you buy yourself a new one. EXERCISE
• Recycle
Try and be conscious about the things I Choose the
around you. When you consume something, correct answer
see if you can re-use it later. 1. All external
• Needs vs Wants influences and factors that affect the
Before you buy something, ask yourself growth and development of living
the question- do I NEED this or do I WANT it? organisms is _____________.
Remember sustainability begins with you. So a) Environment b) Ecosystem
act locally and think globally.
c) Biotic factors d) Abiotic factors
Recap 2. The 'World Population Day' is
observed on _____________ every
The place, things and nature that year.
surround any living organism is called a) August 11th b) September 11th
environment.
c) July 11th d) January 11th
The interaction between man as an 3. The statistical study of human
individual with his family, occupation population is ___________.
and society is called human
a) Demography b) Morphology
environment.
c) Etymology d) Seismography
Population is a dynamic phenomenon
4. The extraction of valuable minerals
where the number, distribution and
composition are constantly changing.
and other geological minerals from
the mines, is ___________.
Population change refers to an increase
a) Fishing b) Lumbering
or a decrease in the population of an
area influenced by births, deaths and c) Mining d) Agriculture
migration. 5. The Secondary sector of the economy
produces ____________from raw
The density of population is measured
materials.
by dividing the total population by its
total area. a) Semi finished goods
b) Finished goods
On the basis of occupation, settlements
are classified as rural and urban. c) Economic goods
d) raw materials
III. C
onsider the given statements ii) Census
and choose the right option
ii i) Sustainable Development.
given below
V. Give reasons for the following:
1. Assertion(A): Ozone layer in the
stratosphere is considered as a protective 1. The economy of the quaternary
shield. sector is called knowledge economy.
R
eason(R): It prevents the UV radiation 2. Population growth has to be brought
from reaching the earth’s surface. under control.
a) A and R are correct and A explains R 3. Sustainable development growth has
been set to protect the planet.
b) A and R are correct, but A does not
explain R VI. Distinguish the following:
1. Primary activities and Secondary
c) A is incorrect but R is correct
activities
d) Both A and R are incorrect
VII. Answer in a paragraph:
2. Assertion(A): In tertiary activities,
1. Explain the factors affecting the
instead of producing goods by distribution of population.
themselves, they are in the process
of production. 2. Describe the patterns of rural
settlement with neat diagrams.
Reason(R): People in Tertiary activities
VIII. Map skill:
are purely eco friendly.
On the outline map of the world mark the
a) Both A and R are incorrect following.
b) A and R are correct but A does not 1. England - A country affected by 'black
explain R death'.
2. Denmark - First country where the
c) A is correct and R is incorrect modern census was conducted.
d) A and R are correct and A explains R 3. River Hwang Ho.
IX. HOTS:
INTERNET RESOURCES
Study your area and write down about its
settlement pattern. https://www.google.co.in/search?
ht t p s : / / w w w. c u r b e d .
REFERENCE BOOKS com/2017/8/9/16059384/vertical-
1. Savindra Singh, (1991), Environmental
forest-italy-climate-change
Geography, Prayag Pustak Bhawan, https://www.un.org/development/
Allahabad – 211002 desa/publications/world-population-
2. Majid Husain, (2015), Environment prospects-the-2017-revision.html
and Ecology Access Publishing India
Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.
3. Sharma. J.P. (2011), Environmental
Studies, an Imprint o Laxmi
Publications Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.
ICT CORNER
MAN AND ENVIRONMENT
URL:
https://worldpopulationhistory.org/ (or) scan the QR Code
UNIT
Mapping Skills
7
Learning objectives
To introduce maps
To read maps using its components
To learn the methods of surveying and other techniques of acquiring
map data like aerial photography and satellite remote sensing
To gain knowledge of the latest techniques of mapping, namely
GIS and GNSS
Introduction
7.1.1 Maps and Cartography
With maps on hand, one can see the world Maps are drawings of an area as seen from
in one sweep. A map is worth a thousand above. A map is defined as the miniature
words. Mapping skills are the basics to image of the 3 dimensional earth’s surface on a
understand a map and to interpret the area paper/cloth or any flat surface. Maps can show
depicted. Maps are introduced with its a whole or part of the world. Maps are drawn
components such as scale, signs and symbols. to a scale and direction. Maps have legends to
Surveying is the process of recording the explain the meaning of symbols and colours
measurement of a land area. Its outcomes used on it. The art of map - making is called
are the data sources of maps. This lesson Cartography.
deals with the latest techniques of mapping -
remote sensing, GPS, GIS, global navigation 7.1.2 Components of a map
system and web maps of the 21st century. A map should include the
following components namely,
7.1 Map as a Tool
the title, scale, direction, grid
A map is the basic tool of a geographer. system, projection, legend,
It illustrates the earth’s surface clearly and conventional signs and
effectively through a combination of drawings, symbols.
words and symbols. Thus, maps form an (A) Title
integral part of teaching geography. A map is
It indicates the purpose or theme of the
a location guide.
map. Example: India – Physical, World –
A cartographer is one who Political, Tamil Nadu – Transport.
measures, analyzes and (B) Scale
interprets geographical
Scale makes it possible to reduce the
information to create maps
size of the whole earth to show it on a piece
and charts for political, cultural and
of paper. A scale is a ratio between the actual
educational purposes.
Activity
Use grids to enlarge Australia.
These are shown by using signs and symbols in 5. Black: construction features - roads, tracks,
various colours so that the clarity of the map is railways, buildings, bridges, cemeteries,
maintained. communication towers, dam walls,
There are three types of map symbols excavations and mine dumps, telelphone
lines, power lines, windpumps, boundaries
1. Point Symbols - buildings, dipping tanks,
trigonometrical beacons 6. Red: construction features - national, arterial
and main roads, lighthouses and marine lights
2. Line Symbols - railways, roads, power
lines, telephone lines 7. Pink: international boundaries
The following year, the map on the flag was Dam with masonry
IB Inspecon Bunglow work
reoriented to be more neutral by having the RS Railway staon Dam with earth work
International Date Line (180 degrees east, Permenant Hut
Broad Gauge Railway
lying in the middle of the Pacific Ocean)
Level Crossing Temporary Hut
pointing upwards. The map ends at 60 degrees
South latitude, meaning Antarctica does not Metalled Road Tower Anquies
appear.
7.1.3. Survey
The following colour codes are used with Surveying is done to measure the angle,
map symbols direction, area, height and distance of an object or
1. Brown: land or earth features - contour lines, place on the surface of the earth using instruments.
eroded areas, prominent rock outcrops, sand Surveying techniques are used to obtain the
areas and dunes, secondary or gravel roads field data and to prepare maps. A knowledge of
2. Light Blue: water features - canals, surveying helps one in map-making, particularly
coastlines, dams, lakes, marshes, swamps in the preparation of physical maps.
and levees, ponds, rivers and water towers.
Geographers mainly use Chain,
3. Dark Blue: national waterways Prismatic compass, Plane table, Dumpy
4. Green: vegetation features - cultivated level, Abney level, Clinometre, Theodolite,
fields, golf courses, nature and game Total Station and GNSS to measure the
reserve boundaries, orchards and distance, angle, altitude and position of the
vineyards, recreation grounds, woodland area of survey.
Felix Nadar
was a French
photographer,
journalist,
novelist and balloonist. In
1858, he became the first
7.2 Remote Sensing as a person to take aerial
Source of Map Data photographs. He took his
Remote Sensing refers to the observation first photograph in 1853
and measurement of earthly objects without and pioneered the use of artificial lighting in
touching them. photography, working in the catacombs of
Paris. Around 1863, Nadar built a huge (6000
‘Remote’ means far away and ‘Sensing’
m³) balloon named Le Géant ('The Giant').
means observing or collecting information.
Remote sensing means acquiring information
Airborne photography
1 2 3 4 5 6
60% overlap
between photos Components
(forward overlap) of Remote Sensing
1 2 3 4 5 6
� Energy source
20-40% overlap
7 between flight lines � Transmission path
12 11 10 9 8
(lateral overlap) Target
� Sensor
High cost of satellite systems. Takes at least 10 Surveying can be planned and executed in
years to plan, construct, test and launch. a shorter time economically.
Satellites collect large amount of data of Takes more time to capture an area.
the entire area in a short span. Aircraft needs to fly back and forth.
It allows global coverage and does not
It covers a small area and needs permission
require permission.
from authorities.
Satellites circle the Earth; they can repeat
Revisits or repeatability involves extra
and revisit easily.
cost.
Weather does not affect the functioning
of satellites. Adversely affected by bad weather
All information is digital; it can be It is an analogue record, so no further
easily integrated with software for image improvement is possible after obtaining
improvement. photographs.
In the 21st century, GNSS has become a The main purpose of GPS is to help
part of our lives to promote the safety and in providing accurate transport data
convenience of transport. Global Navigation (distance, route and direction). It helps
Satellite System (GNSS) is a satellite system in military searches and rescue in wars. It
connected with a small electronic receiver can work as a reliable tourist guide.
or tracker to locate, monitor and track a GPS helps during accident and rescue
user's vehicle wherever in the world. It can efforts, speeding the delivery of emergency
also set up instant alerts when a driver of a services and disaster relief.
vehicle speeds or deviates from a particular
Weather forecasting, earthquake
area. GNSS applications are used in tracking
monitoring and environmental protection
or mapping vehicles, ships and aircraft. A
can be done effectively by using GPS.
group of satellites (Space Segment) working
with a network of ground stations (Control b. G
eographic Information System
Segment) provide location data. The receiver (GIS)
(User Segment) converts satellite signals into
Geographic Information System is a
location, speed and time data.
computer-based tool for managing a large
Examples of GNSS amount of data collected for a given geographic
Europe-Galileo region through remote sensing, GPS and
USA-NAVSTAR Global Positioning other sources. The Geographic Information
System (GPS) System is a combination of computer hardware,
Russia-Global'naya Navigatsionnaya software, geographic data and the personnel.
Sputnikovaya Sistema (GLONASS) G - Geographic - A particular area
China- BeiDou Navigation Satellite System I - Information - facts in order
India’s-IRNSS (NAVIC) system S - System - arrangement
a. Global Positioning System (GPS)
GIS was first recognised in the late 1950s by
Without the Global Positioning System Waldo Tobler and Roger Tomlinson (Canada).
(GPS) on our vehicles and mobile phones, we Prime examples of importing GIS for public welfare
would feel lost. GPS is the U.S. implementation are Google Maps, Yahoo Maps and Google Earth.
of the world's first and currently the most used
Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) The key ingredient is location. We must
created by the U. S. Department Of Defense have a coordinate, an address or a distance
(DOD). It became fully operational in 1995. from a known point that helps us to link the
NAVSTAR (Navigation Satellite Timing and information to a location on a map. Each
Ranging) is a network of 24 U.S. satellites in type of data of an area is stored as a separate
six different orbits in space flying 20,350 km 'layer' of the map. In GIS, layers may be used
above the surface of the Earth; each one circles some times and removed according to need.
the planet twice a day to provide continuous, Examples are hospitals, schools, water bodies,
worldwide coverage. GPS receivers now come parks and ATMs. The computers can create
in all shapes and sizes, Most are the size of a maps showing any combination of data.
cellular phone. Some are handheld, others are
installed in ships, planes, trucks and cars. 7.3 Bhuvan
Advantages of GPS Bhuvan (Sanskrit for Earth) is a free internet
GPS technology has tremendous applications based computer application launched by the
in everything from mobile phones, watches, Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO)
bulldozers, shipping containers and ATMs.
III. C
onsider the given statements V. Give Reasons
and choose the right option 1. Satellite imageries stimulate map
given below making.
1. Assertion (A): The points at which the 2. Map is the basic tool of a geographer.
vertical and horizontal lines of the grid 3. Grid references are essential to find the
intersect are called coordinates. exact location of places on a map.
Reason
(R): The lines that run
horizontally and vertically are called
VI. D
istinguish Between The
Northings and Eastings respectively.
Following
(a) B oth (A) and (R) are true ; (R)
explains (A) 1. Globe and Map
ICT CORNER
MAPPING SKILL
Procedure
Step 1: Use the URL or scan the QR code to open the activity page.
Step 2: Click ‘Polyline’ button. Draw a poly line between any two
favourable places.
Step 3: After finishing, the Poly line shows the measurement of distance
as miles and kilometres.
Step 4: Click ‘+’ and ‘-’button to zoom in and zoom out.
URL:
https://mapmaker.nationalgeographic.org/ (or) scan the QR Code
Introduction
Case Study - Tsunami
Humans have passed down stories
Shortly before 8 am on 26 December
through the ages that helped cultures to cope
2004, the region fell silence and the ground
when disaster inevitably struck. These stories
shook in dismay. The Moken, an isolated
were fodder for anthropologists and social
tribe on the Andaman Islands in the Indian
scientists, but in the past decade, geologists
Ocean, knew that the Laboon, the ‘wave
have begun to pay more attention to how
that eats people’, had stirred from his ocean
indigenous people understood and prepared
lair. The Moken also knew what was next: a
for disaster. These stories, which couched myth
towering wall of water washing over their
in metaphor, could ultimately help scientists
island, cleansing it of all that was evil and
prepare for cataclysms to come. In this lesson,
impure. To heed the Laboon’s warning signs,
you will learn about how to respond to certain
elders told their children, run to high ground.
disasters to become resilient.
‘If the water recedes after an earthquake, run
immediately to high ground’ A disaster is “a catastrophe that causes
great damage or loss of life and property”.
The tiny Andaman and Nicobar
Islands were directly in the path of the
tsunami generated by the magnitude 9.1 of 8.1 Disaster Response
earthquake off the coast of Sumatra. Final Disaster response entails restoring
total put the islands’ death toll at 1,879 alone physical facilities, rehabilitation of affected
with another 5,600 people missing. The population, restoration of lost livelihoods
islanders who had heard the stories about and reconstruction efforts to restore the
the Laboon or similar mythological figures infrastructure lost or damaged. The Response
survived the tsunami essentially unscathed. Phase focuses primarily on emergency relief:
Most of the casualties that occurred in the saving lives, providing first aid, restoring
southern Nicobar Islands were outsiders, damaged systems (communications and
leaving them with no indigenous tsunami transportation), meeting the basic life
warning system to guide them to higher requirements of those impacted by disaster
ground. (food, water and shelter) and providing mental
health and spiritual support and care.
8. Disaster Management: Responding to Disasters 230
Who are the first responders? inside the earth where an earthquake originates
is focus. The point on the earth’s surface above
No matter how large or small, local
the called a focus is called an epicentre. The
communities are expected to provide
damage caused by the earthquake is the highest
immediate disaster response. On a daily basis,
near the epicentre. The earthquake is measured
police officers, firefighters, and emergency
by an instrument called a Seismograph. It is
medical technicians are a community’s first
recorded in Richter scale. Let us now see how the
responders, whether during fire, flood or acts of
communities can better respond to earthquakes.
terrorism. Mental health professionals and the
community’s hospitals may also be activated in 1. Japan is in a very active seismic area and it
those early minutes and hours after disaster. has the densest seismic network
in the world.
Disaster management includes Prevention,
Mitigation, Preparedness, Response and 2. Which country actually
Recovery. Disaster management involves all has the most number of
levels of government. Non-governmental and earthquakes? Indonesia is in a very active
community based organizations play a vital role seismic zone also, but because it is larger than
in the process. Modern disaster management goes Japan, it has more earthquakes.
beyond post-disaster assistance. It now includes 3. Which countries have the most earthquakes
pre-disaster planning and preparedness activities, per unit area? This would probably be Tonga,
organizational planning, training, information Fiji or Indonesia, since they are all in extremely
management, public relations and many other active seismic areas along subduction zones.
fields. Crisis management is important, but is only
a part of the responsibility of a disaster manager. What to do during an earthquake?
Be aware that some earthquakes are
actually foreshocks and a larger earthquake
might occur later. Minimize your movements
to a few steps that reach a safe place nearby and
stay indoors until the shaking has stopped and
you are sure exiting is safe.
If indoors
1. DROP to the ground; take COVER by
getting under a sturdy table or other
piece of furniture and HOLD ON until
the shaking stops. If there is no table or
Disaster Management Cycle
desk near you, cover your face and head
The traditional approach to disaster with your arms and crouch in an inside
management has a number of phased corner of the building.
sequences of action or a continuum. These
2.
Protect yourself by staying under the
can be represented as a disaster management
lintel of an inner door, in the corner of a
cycle. We mainly focus on the way how the
room, under a table or even under a bed.
community should respond to disasters.
3. Stay away from glass windows, outside
8.1.1 Earthquake doors and walls and anything that could
An earthquake is a sudden vibration of the fall (such as lighting fixtures or furniture).
part of the earth caused by plate movements. 4. Stay inside until the shaking stops and go
It occurs along the plate boundaries. The place outside.
2. Proceed cautiously once the earthquake 1. You should continue using a weather
has stopped. Avoid roads, bridges or radio or staying tuned to a Coast Guard
ramps that might have been damaged by emergency frequency station or a local
the earthquake. radio or television station for updated
emergency information.
Activity
2. Check yourself for injuries and get first
Mock drill: Earthquake. aid if necessary, before helping injured or
It is important that we know what trapped persons.
to do if an earthquake occurs. In case we
3. If someone needs to be rescued, call
are inside the class when it occurs, instruct
professionals with the right equipment to
loudly “earth quake position – drop, cover,
and hold on”. Drop down on your knee. help.
Cover your head, neck and face. Go under 4. Help people who require special assistance,
a table to protect your head and neck. like Infants, elderly people, those without
transportation, large families who may
8.1.2 Tsunami need additional help in an emergency
A tsunami can kill or situation, people with disabilities, and the
injure people and damage people who care for them.
or destroy buildings and
5. Stay out of a building if water remains
infrastructure as waves come
around it. Tsunami water, like floodwater,
forth and recede. A tsunami
is a series of enormous ocean can undermine foundations, causing
waves caused by earthquakes, buildings to sink, floors to crack, or walls
underwater landslides, volcanic eruptions or to collapse.
asteroids. Tsunamis can travel 700-800 km per 6. Check for gas leaks. If you smell gas or
hour, with waves 10-30 meter high. It causes hear a blowing or hissing noise, open a
flooding and disrupts transportation, power, window and get everyone outside quickly.
communications, and water supply.
8.1.3 Riot
How to respond to Tsunami?
Though riot may seem dramatic, an
1. Y
ou should find out if your home,
angry mob can be just as dangerous and
school, workplace or other frequently
unpredictable as just about any natural
visited locations are in tsunami hazard
disaster. Thousands of people are killed
areas along the sea-shore.
in riots all over the world each year, and
8. Disaster Management: Responding to Disasters 232
GLOSSARY
Asthenosphere Upper layer of the earth’s mantle below the lithosphere.
Air current Movement of air when it rises upward or sinks down.
Cataclysms Large scale violent events in the natural world
Condensation Process of change of state of water from gaseous to liquid.
he gradual movement of the Earth’s continents on the surface
T
Continental drift
of the planet
Coriolis Force Deflection of winds from their original path due to Earth's
rotation.
Doldrums The equatorial low pressure belt, extending between 5°N and 5°S.
Eruption The ejection of molten rock, steam, etc. from a volcano or geyser.
Geology The science that deals with the physical structure and substances
of the earth, their history and the processes which act on them.
Hazard Potential threat to life
Hostility Unfriendliness
Inquisitive Curious about learning things
Internal
Radioactivity adiations emitted from radioactive metals inside the earth and
R
act as a driving force for the earth’s tectonics.
CIVICS
237
Introduction 1.1.3 Autocracy
We are going to learn from this lesson how A system of government by one person
various forms of government have developed with absolute power.
globally. Today, many countries of the world Example: North Korea, Saudi Arabia
follow different types of governments, but the
modern world prefers democracy. 1.1.4 Oligarchy
A small group of people having control
1.1 Forms of Government of a country or organisation.
The governance of nations differs Example:
Former Soviet Union, China,
significantly based on who has power. There Venezuela, North Korea.
are different forms of government: aristocracy,
monarchy, autocracy, oligarchy, theocracy, 1.1.5 Theocracy
democracy and republic. A system of government in which
religious doctrines form the basis of
1.1.1 Aristocracy
A form of government in which power is
in the hands of a small previleged ruling class
(nobels).
Example: United Kingdom, Spain
1.1.2 Monarchy
A system of government in which one
person reigns supreme, usually a king or
queen(constitutional monarchy).
Example: Bhutan, Oman, Qatar
Forms of Government
3. voting right is with equal value to very notable and unique feature of the village
those who have attained the age of 18 administration of the Cholas. The evolution
4. Fundamental rights and protection of towards a democracy is represented by the
individual freedom. following values: freedom, equality, fraternity,
accountability, transparency and trust.
1.2.4 Evolution of Democracy
Democracy began 2,500 years ago in 1.2.6 Types of Democracy
some of the city-states of ancient Greece. There are two types of democracies:
It is important to know that democratic 1. Direct democracy
institutions existed in India as early as the 2. Indirect (representative) democracy
Vedic period. Chanakya’s Arthashastra tells The types of democracy refers to the kind
us that in ancient India, an autonomous village of government or social structures which
community was the basic unit of the local allow people to participate equally.
government. during the later chola preiod
ancient Tamil Nadu, Kudavolai system was a Direct Democracy
When the people themselves directly
express their will on public affairs, the
type of government is called pure or direct
BCE democracy.
Example: Ancient Greek city-states,
Switzerland
ndirect Democracy /
I
Representative Democracy
When the people express their will
on public affairs, through their elected
representatives, the type of government is
called indirect or representative democracy.
Electorate Electorate
Executive
Members of the Rajya Sabha, the Upper has not faced a serious challenge or a rival
House of the Indian Parliament, are elected so far. In the last hundred years, there has
by an electoral college consisting of elected been an expansion of democracy all over the
members of the legislative assemblies of the world. The various aspects of democracy and
states and the Union Territories of India. The its challenges are:
President of India nominates 12 members for
1. Illiteracy
their contributions to art, literature, science
2. Poverty
and social services.
3. Gender discrimination
1.2.10 The First Elections in 4. Regionalism
5. Casteism, communalism and religious
Democratic India
fundamentalism
General elections to the first Lok Sabha 6. Corruption
since independence were held in India 7. Criminalisation of politics
between 25 October 1951 and 21 February 8. Political violence
1952. The Indian National Congress
1.2.12 Conditions for the Success
of Democracy in India
Empowerment of the poor and illiterates to
enjoy the goodness of democracy.
Willingness among the elected people
not to misuse their powerful position and
public wealth.
Eradication of social evils and dangers
from which democracy suffers.
Elections in India An impartial and efficient press to form
public opinion.
Presence of strong public opinion.
emerged victorious by winning 364 of the
Feeling of tolerance and communal
489 seats. Jawaharlal Nehru became the first
harmony among the people.
democratically elected Prime Minister of the
Awareness among the people of the
country.
fundamental rights that they are entitled
to enjoy.
British India –General Conscious check and vigilance on the
elections, 1920 working of the elected representatives.
General elections were Powerful and responsible opposition.
held in British India in 1920 to
Indian democracy can be successful and
elect members to the Imperial Legislative
vibrant only when its citizens imbibe and
Council and the Provincial Councils. They
reflect in their behavior the basic democratic
were the first elections in the country’s
values like equality, freedom, social justice,
history.
accountability and respect for all. Their
mindset, thinking and behavior are expected
1.2.11 Major challenges to to be in tune with the essential conditions
Indian Democracy of democracy. They have to appreciate the
opportunities for their desired roles like
Democracy is the dominant form of participation, making the system accountable,
government in the contemporary world. It
fulfilling obligations, and playing proactive 5. Abraham Lincoln was the President of
roles to actualize the goals of democracy. the ________.
(a) USA (b) UK
Recap (c) USSR (d) India
16. Prime Minister of India is appointed by 1. What are the challenges to Indian
democracy? explain.
(a) Lok Sabha (b) Rajya Sabha
2. Explain the conditions necessary
(c) Speaker (d) President
for the success of democracy in India.
17. The President of India can nominate
3. What is your opinion about democracy
(a) 12 members to Lok Sabha in India?
(b) 2 members of Rajya Sabha
VI. Project and Activity
(c) 12 members to Rajya Sabha
(d) 14 members of Rajya Sabha 1. Discuss in the class what is universal
adult franchise? Why is it important?
18. The First general elections after
2. “Democracy is the power of majority
independence in India were held in which respects minority.” Discuss.
(a) 1948-49 (b) 1951-52 3. Conduct a mock election in your class.
(c) 1957-58 (d) 1947-48 4. A group discussion on the merits and
demerits of democracy of India in the
II. Fill in the blanks
classroom.
1. The Constitution of India was finally
adopted on _________. VII. HOTS
2. The two types of democracy are _______. 1. Will you have the right to equality under
and ________. dictatorship? What would be the attitude
regarding public opinion in such a country?
3. An example for direct democracy is
2. How does democracy lead to a peaceful
_________.
and a harmonious life among the citizens?
4. India has a _______form of democracy. Explain.
ICT CORNER
Child Help Line
Demerits
(i) Direct elections are very exspensive.
(ii) Illiterate voters sometimes get misguided
by false propaganda. Campaigning based
on caste, religion and various other
Symbol used with NOTA option on sectarian considerations pose serious
electronic voting machines in India challenges.
the political parties in that they neither contest yet powerful group to influence the policy
elections nor try to capture political power. decisions. Pressure groups carry out a range of
functions including representation, political
participation, education, policy formulation
and policy implementation.
Political Participation
Pressure groups can be called the informal
face of politics. They exert influence precisely by
The pressure groups in India can be broadly
mobilising popular support through activities
classified into the following categories:
1. Business groups such as petitions, marches, demonstrations and
other forms of political protest. Such forms of
2. Trade unions
political participation have been particularly
3. Agrarian groups
attractive to young people.
4. Professional
associations Education
5. Student organisations Many pressure groups devote significant
6. Religious organisations resources by carrying out research,
maintaining websites, commenting on
7. Tribal organisations
government policy and using high-profile
8. Linguistic groups academics, scientists and even celebrities to
9. Ideology-based groups get their views across, with an emphasis to
10. Environmental protection groups cultivate expert authority.
UNIT
Human Rights
3
Learning Objectives
To know about the international efforts for protecting human rights
To understand the basic human rights ensured in the Indian Constitution
To understand about the functions of institutions and issues involved in
human rights
To know about the types of human rights
December 1948 (General Assembly resolution Political rights exercised in the formation
217A) as a common standard of achievement and administration of a government. They are
of all people and all nations. The first time it given to the citizens by law. These rights give
sets out the fundamental human rights to be power to the citizens to participate either di-
universally protected and the UDHR has been rectly or indirectly in the administration.
translated into many languages.
3.3 Fundamental Rights in
There are 30 articles in the Universal India
Declaration of Human Rights and it guarantees
freedom of expression as well as civil, political, Fundamental rights are required for the
social, economic and cultural rights. These all round development of a human being. They
rights apply to all people, irrespective of their make the life of people meaningful by giving
race, gender and nationality, as all people are them rights like speech and to live in an area of
born free and equal. their choice.
The fundamental rights are :
3.2.1: Social, Economic and • Right to Equality
Cultural Rights: • Right to Freedom
Social ,economic and cultural rights are • Right against Exploitation
integral part of the human rights law that was • Right to Freedom of Conscience and
developed due to the aftermath of World War Religion
II. • Cultural and Educational Rights for
Social rights are necessary for full minorities
participation in the society. Economic rights • Right to Constitutional Remedies
guarantee every person to have conditions
under which they are able to meet their needs. 3.3.1 Right to Equality:
They are a part of a range of legal principles It refers to equality before law and equal
through which economic equality and freedom protection of law. Prohibition or discrimination
are preserved in a State. on the grounds of religion, caste, races, gender
Cultural rights are human rights that aim or place of birth is offensive and one can seek
at assuring the enjoyment of culture and its justice from court.
components in conditions of equality, human
dignity and non-discrimination.
by giving grants. However, such institutions 2. To follow and cherish the noble ideals which
cannot deny admission to anyone based on inspired our National Struggle for freedom.
their caste, colour, creed or even religion. 3. To uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity
and integrity of India.
WRIT is a written order from the court or
4. To defend the country and render national
other legal authority ordering to do an act or
service when called upon to do so.
not to do it.
5. To promote harmony and spirit of common
brotherhood amongst all the people of India,
3.3.6 Right to Constitutional transcending religious, linguistic, regional or
Remedies sectional diversities, to renounce practices
derogatory to the dignity of women.
Fundamental Rights are guaranteed by the
6. To value and preserve the rich heritage of
Constitution. By this right, a person can adopt
our composite culture.
Constitutional means and approach a court 7. To protect and improve the natural environment
if he is denied the Fundamental Rights. The including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and
court then issues orders which are called ‘Writs’ have compassion on living creatures.
to the government to restore the rights to the 8. To develop the scientific temper, humanism
citizen. The Constitutional Remedies put to and the spirit of inquiry and reform.
right anything which may be wrong in terms of 9. To safeguard public property and to abjure
the Constitution. This right therefore protects from violence.
and safeguards all other rights. 10. To strive towards excellence in all spheres
of individual and collective activity, so that
PreethikaYashini won her right of the nation constantly rises to higher levels of
employment by approaching the endeavour and achievements.
court according to the Right to 11. To provide opportunities for education by
Constitutional remedies. the parent and guardian to their child or
ward upto the age of 14 years.
Maintenance and welfare of
parents and Senior Citizens Act,
2007 is a
legislation
passed in
2007 by the Government
3.4 Fundamental Duties of India. This Act is a legal
obligation for children
These are in the form of duties and and heirs to provide maintenance to senior
responsibilities of citizens. ‘The original citizens and parents.
Constitution which came into force with
effect from 26th January, 1950 did not contain 3.5
National Human
Fundamental Duties.
Rights Commission
These were incorporated in the Constitution
by the 42nd Amendment Act in 1976. The
Constitution states eleven Fundamental Duties as
given below:
1. Respect for the Constitution and its ideals
and institutions, the National Flag and the
National Anthem.
The National Human Rights Commission the SHRC add strength to its functioning in a
is an autonomous body constituted on 12th state. The office is the Human Rights is located
October 1993 under the protection of Human in Chennai.
rights Act,1993. It consists of a chairman and Functions of SHRC
few other members. 3 from judiciary and 4 from
other department NHRC is responsible for the • The SHRC shall enquire into violation
of human rights in respect of matters
protection and promotion of human rights in
specified in the state and concurrent lists.
India defined by the Act as rights relating to life,
• Its objectives and duties are the same as
liberty, equality and dignity of the individual
NHRC, but confined only to the state. It
guaranteed by the Constitution or embodied in
has a chairman and two members.
the international covenants the office is located
• It has the power of a civil court and can
in New Delhi . take cognizance of cases if received or in
Functions of NHRC suo motu.
• To inquire into the violation of human • It can also recommend compensation to
rights or negligence in the prevention of victims.
such violation by a public servant
• To intervene in court proceedings relating 3.6.1 Child Rights
to human rights
• To undertake and promote research in the Apart from the fundamental rights de-
field of human rights scribed by the Constitution, we have to ensure
• To engage in human rights education among certain other rights.
various sections of society A child is a person who has not completed
• To encourage the effects of NGOs and the age of 18 years i.e. a minor as per UNO. This
institutions working in the field of human principle is exhibited in Articles 25 of the Uni-
rights. versal Declaration of Human Rights. Based on
these principles, the declaration of the Rights of
3.6 State Human Rights the child was accepted and adopted in the UN
Commission(SHRC) General Assembly on 20th November, 1989.
• Right to life
• Right to family environment
• Right to Education
• Right to benefit from Social security
• Right against sexual exploitation
• Right against sale or trafficking
• Right against other forms of exploitation
Every state in India has a State Human like Child labour.
Rights Commission established in accordance Right to life
with the power conferred on the state under A child has the right to survive even before
section 21 of the Protection of Human Rights its birth. The right to survival also includes the
Act, 1993. The protection and promotion right to be born, the right to basic needs of food,
of human rights constitute the principal shelter and clothing and a dignified living.
concern of the Commission. Moreover, the Right to Family Environment
procedures adopted by the Commission A child has the right to live a normal child-
to conduct its proceedings, the suo motu hood in a family environment. Children who
(on its own motion in Latin) actions taken on have been left destitute, abandoned or orphaned
complaints regardless of the sources received also have the right to live. These children can be
and the transparency of the proceedings of given for adoption to caring families.
Right to benefit from Social security The Right of children To free and compulsory
Children should get financial support from Education (RTE) Act, 2009, means that
the country when their parents or guardians are every child has a right to formal Elementary
unable to provide them with a good standard of Education. This right of children provides free
living by themselves, due to any illness, disabil- and compulsory education till the completion
ity or old age. of elementary education in a neighbourhood
Right to Education school. The child need not pay any kind of
Right to Education Act is an Act of the Par- fee for completing elementary education.
liament of India enacted in 2009 for free and
compulsory education for children from 6 to 14 Right against sale or trafficking of children
years of age as under Article 21A of the Consti- Children should be treated as individuals
tution. with fundamental human rights. Children are
Malala - Nobel vulnerable. There are root causes such as pover-
Peace prize ty, gender discrimination, broken families etc.,
laureate says behind the sale or trafficking of children.
"I loved school.
But everything
c h a n g e d
when the
fundamentalist
took control of our town in Swat Valley.
They said girls could no longer go to school.
I spoke out publicly on behalf of girls and our
right to learn. And this made me a target.
In October 2012, on my way home from
school, a masked gunman boarded my school
bus and asked, “Who is Malala?” He shot me
on the left side of my head. I woke up 10 days
later in a hospital in Birmingham, England.
After months of surgeries and rehabilitation,
I joined my family in our new home in the
U.K. I determined to continue my fight until
every girl could go to school.
Every day I fight to ensure all girls receive 12 The Kavalan SOS App is
years of free, safe, quality education. With launched by the Government
more than 130 million girls out of school of Tamil Nadu for public use
today, there is more work to be done. I hope during emergencies. Anyone
you will join my fight for education and in a critical situation, not only women, can
equality. Together, we can create a world easily and directly access the State Police
where all girls can learn and lead. Control Room using this App.
If you were Malala, what would you have
done? Children are subjected to sale or traffick-
Is Malala's fight necessary? ing for various reasons – economic exploitation,
Are girl children treated and given education sexual exploitation, sexual abuse, drug traffick-
equally? ing and child labour.
Have you heard about child trafficking? Right against other forms of exploitation like
Conduct a debate on this topic in your class. Child labour
Children are often employed in several
Right against sexual exploitation industries. These children are deprived of their
The state should protect children from childhood, health and education. This will lead
sexual exploitation and abuse, when they are to a life of poverty and want. These children are
forced or persuaded to take part in sexual made to work in glass, match-box, lock-making
activities physically or mentally. factories, rag-picking, carpet – making industry,
POCSO Act - Protection beedi - rolling, mining, stone quarrying, brick
of Children from kilns and tea gardens etc.
Sexual Offences Act Work is mostly gender – specific, with girls
The Protection of performing more home – based work, while
Children from Sexual boys are employed as waged labour. Since these
Offences Act, 2012 children work in agricultural fields, restaurants,
regards the best interest motor repair workshops and home – based
of the child as being of paramount importance
industries, elimination of child labour remains
at every stage.
a challenge.
Salient features of POCSO Act
• The Act defines a child as any person below Kailash Satyarthi is a Nobel
eighteen years of age, to ensure the healthy, Peace Prize recipient and the
physical, emotional, intellectual and social founder of Bachpan Bachao
development of the child. Andolan, and many other
• When the abuse is committed by a person child rights organisations.
in a position of trust or authority vis-à-vis More than 86,000 children in India have
the child, like a family member, neighbours been liberated by him and his team members
or any other acquaintances. from child labour, slavery and trafficking. An
• The statement of the child is to be recorded 80,000 km long Global March against Child
exactly as the child narrates. Labour was led by Kailash in 1998 which
• A child not to be called repeatedly to testify. turned the world’s attention towards the issue
An ordinance providing the death of Child labour. He received Nobel prize for
penalty for rapists of girls below 12 years of peace in the year 2014.
age and other stringent penal provisions for
rape has been promulgated in April 2018. The
Criminal Law Amendment Ordinance, 2018,
amended the Indian Penal Code . Another
salient feature of this amendment is that the
fine imposed shall be just and reasonable to
meet the medical expenses and rehabilitation
of the victim.
The findings of an international survey re-
1098 veals that children with disabilities are 3.4% more
Childline is India's first 24 hours free sexually abused than normal children.
emergency phone service for children in Child Rights in the Indian Constitution
need of assistance. Special care is given for
Article 24 – No child below the age of 14
vulnerable children like those affected by
must be employed in hazardous employment.
child labour, child marriage and children
Article 45 – Free and compulsory education for
affected by any abuse.
all children until they attain the age of 14 years.
RTI Activists
Activity
List out various jobs in the format given below
and fill in the amount of wages for male and
female employees.
S. No Job / Wages Wages of
Occupation of male female
employee employee
1.
Aruna Roy Nikil Dev 2.
It is one of the most powerful laws of the 3.
country. This act is people friendly; even an 4.
illiterate person can ask any Public Information
5.
Officer to write it down for him. All government
agencies like Municipal Corporations,
Government departments, Government Contribution of Dr.B.R. Ambedkar
Schools, Road Authorities, etc., come under this Dr.B.R. Ambedkar's contribution to labourers.
Act. • Reduction
in Factory Working Hours
Through RTI one can get even copies (8 hours a day)
of government documents such as records,
• C o m p u l s o r y
reports, papers, etc., Personal information of
Recognition of
individuals and organisations related to the
country’s defence and intelligence, such as BSF, Trade Unions
CRPF, Intelligence Bureau are exempted from • E m p l o y m e n t
the RTI. Exchange in India
• Sign the Application form with your full • Employees State Insurance (ESI)
name and address along with the date and • Minimum Wages for labourers
send it through a registered post to the office • Coal and Mica Mines Provident Fund
of the concerned authority.
• If a reply is not received within 30 days, It is a great victory for
an appeal can be filed with the Appellate female workers who stand all the
Authority. time more or less 12-14 hours
3.6.4 Labour Rights per day while they are working
The Constitution ensures right to equality, in shops and commercial malls
equality of opportunity in public employment,
right to form associations and unions, right to
Female workers who are working in
livelihood, prohibits trafficking, forced labour shops and commercial malls are not allowed
and child labour. Article 39(d) ensures equal to sit or even lean on the wall. They were
wages to male and female workers for equal allowed only 5 minutes of break two times
work. a day to take rest.
“The rights of every man are diminished There was a strong voice against
when the rights of one man are threatened” said this inhuman practice among women
John F. Kennedy. Civilized nations of the world workers for a long time. Considering this,
insist on equality. Nations pay more attention the Government of Kerala has decided
on human rights to ensure equality. This helps to redress by amending the Shops and
in maintaining peace, harmony and develop-
Commercial Establishment Act in July 2018.
ment of the country.
3. Human Rights 262
Recap
Discrimination is the partial treatment of people.
UNO's definition of human rights.
History of human rights has its roots from the aftermath of second world war.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
Indian Constitution ensures six fundamental rights and eleven duties of a citizen.
Formation and functions of National and State Human Rights Commissions.
Extended rights such as child rights, SC and ST rights, women rights, Right to Information Act
(RTI) and labor laws.
EXERCISE
c) i, ii and iii are true
I Choose the d) ii, iii and iv are true
correct answer 6. Consider the following statements.
1. ‘Apartheid’ was followed by ______________ Assertions (A): Rights and duties are the
a) South Sudan b) South Africa two sides of the same coin.
c) Nigeria d) Egypt Reason (R): We have a right to freedom
of religions. We have to promote harmony
2. ________________ right exercises in and the spirit of the people of other
the formation and administration of a religions.
government.
a) Both A and R are correct and R explains A
a) Social b) Economic b) Both A and R are correct but R does not
c) Political d) Cultural explain A
3. A 10 year old boy is working in a shop. c) A is correct but R is false
Which right can you use to recover him? d) A is false but R is correct
a) Right to equality 7. According to the UNO a child is a person who
b) Right to freedom has not completed the age of ____________
c) Right against child labour exploitation years.
d) Right to freedom of Religion a) 12 b) 14 c) 16 d) 18
4. What is the time limit to get the information 8. Kailash Satyarthi and Malala have been
from RTI Act 2005? awarded Nobel Prize for _____________.
a) 20 days b) 25 days a) Literature b) Peace
c) 30 days d) 35 days c) Physics d) Economics
5. Which of the following statements are true?
II Fill in the blanks
i) The State Human Rights commission
was established in 1993. 1. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights
ii) It has the power of a civil court. Contains ______________ articles.
iii) It’s power extend beyond the state.
2. The fundamental Duties were incorporated
iv) It can also recommend compensation
in the Constitution by ______________
to victims.
Amendment Act.
a) i and ii are true
b) i and iii are true
263 3. Human Rights
UNIT
Forms of Government
4
Learning Objectives
Introduction
Government is the main agency of judicial powers based on the constitution
the state. It comprises of several members and the laws. There are three organs in
belonging to political and administrative government, namely – Legislature, Executive
wings. It serves as the instrument for and Judiciary. These organs carry out the
delegation and execution of the state policies activities of the state. Governments are
for the welfare of the people. It formulates, classified into unitary, federal, parliamentary
expresses and realises the will of the state. and presidential forms.
It exercises certain legislative, executive and
4.2 TYPES OF
CONSTITUTION
Written Constitution /
Un Written Constitution
Types Of
Constitution
Flexible / Rigid
• A unitary government will make prompt In a federal model, the national government
decisions and take speedy action. is known as the Federal government or the
• A unitary government is less expensive. Central government or the Union government
• Amendments to the constitution are easy. and the regional government is known as the
state government or the provincial government.
• There is unity, uniformity of law, policy and
administration. Merits of federal form of government
De-merits of unitary form of government • Reconciliation of local autonomy with
• It is not suitable for big countries. national unity
• The central government will have to tackle • Division of power between centre and states
so many complex problems that lead to leads to administrative efficiency
administrative delay • It gives rise to big states
• The central government will not concentrate • Distribution of powers check the despotism
on local problems, local interest and of central government
initiative.
• More suitable for bigger countries
• The concentration of powers may pave way
• It is good for economic and cultural
for the despotism of the central government.
progress
Unitary features of the indian constitution
De-merits of federal form of government
• Strong Centre
• Federal government is weaker when
• Central Government’s control over state
compared to the unitary government.
territory
• Federal government is more expensive
• Single Constitution
• Flexibility of the Constitution • Provincial tendencies are very common
• Unequal representation of states • Lack of uniformity in Administration
• Emergency Provisions • Threat to national unity
• Single Citizenship • Distribution of powers between centre and
• Single Integrated Judiciary states lead to conflicts
• All India Services • Double Citizenship
• Appointment of Governor by the central • Rigid constitution cannot be a mended
government easily for changing needs
• The state governments sometimes place
4.2.2 Federal form of hindrances in the foreign policy
government Federal features of the Indian constitution
The classification of governments into • Dual Government
unitary and federal is based on the nature of • Written Constitution
relations between the national and the regional
• Division of Powers
governments.
• Supremacy of the Constitution
A federal government is one in which
The Constitution is the supreme law of the
powers are divided between the national
land. The laws enacted by the Centre and the
government and the regional governments by
states must confirm to its provisions.
the Constitution itself and both operate in their
respective jurisdictions independently. U.S.A, • Rigid Constitution
Switzerland, Australia, Canada, Russia, Brazil, • Independent Judiciary
Argentina have federal form of governments. • Bicameralism
267 4. Forms of Government
President is directly elected by the People Prime Minister is from the majority party
UNIT
Local Self Government
5
Learning Objectives
To study and understand the development of local self government before
and after Indian independence
To learn about the rural and urban local governments
To learn about the nature and working of Panchayat Raj system in India
To understand the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment Acts, 1992
To know about the historical origin and development in local self governments
in Tamil Nadu
5.1 Meaning of Local Self of local affairs by such local bodies which have
been elected by the local people. These local
Government bodies provide services to the local community
Local Self-Governments are institutions as well as act as an instrument of democratic
that look after the administration of an area or self-government.
a small community such as a village, a town or
5.2 Historical Background
a city. Local Self-Government operates at the
lowest level of society. It works at the grassroot The idea of local self government is a very
level, close to the people, touching their everyday old concept in India. It was at its peak under the
life. Local Self-Government is the management later Cholas or the Imperial Cholas of Tanjore.
Voluntary Functions.
Salient Features of the Tamil
According to the Tamil Nadu Local
Nadu Panchayat Raj Act, 1994
Government Act passed in 1994, the following
The New Panchayati Raj System came functions to be performed as voluntary
into being in Tamil Nadu after the enactment functions by the local governments.
of a new law for local body institutions in
• Maintenance of street lights in the villages
the year 1994. The salient features of the new
Act are as follows: (a) A three-tier system • Maintenance of markets and fairs
(b) Gram Sabha (c) Establishment of Election • Implantation of trees
Commission (d) Constitution of Finance • Maintenance of play grounds
Commission (e) Reservation of seats for • Maintenance of parking vehicles, slaughter
SC/ST’s proportionate to their population. houses and cattle sheds
(f) One third reservation of seats for • Control over places of exhibition
women and (g) Constitution of District
Planning Committees. Revenue
Village Panchayat was the only local
5.4 Village Panchayat government which was empowered to levy
Local governments which are function taxes in the three-tier system of Village
in villages are called Village Panchayats. Panchayat.
The President and ward members are
Municipality
Types of other Urban Panchayats
The area where more than 1,00,000 • Notified Area Committee
people live is called a Municipality. • Town Area Committee
The Members and the Chairman of the • Cantonment Board
Municipalities are directly elected by the • Township
people and their term of office is five years. • Port Trust
A Municipal Commissioner is appointed by the • Special Purpose Agency
government to administer the Municipality.
Elections to the local government in Tamil
Corporation
Municipal corporations are established Nadu
in big cities where the city has many lakhs of The State Election Commission
population. The Municipal Commissioner is conducts the elections to the local
the Administrative Officer. The Mayor is the government like general elections. The
Chairman of the corporation. The term of office electoral roll is prepared ward wise. Seats
of the Mayor and other members is five years. are reserved for the SC & ST and also for the
women in proportion to the population by
In Tamil Nadu, there are 15 Corporations. rotation basis.
They are in Chennai, Kovai, Madurai,
Trichy, Tirunelveli, Salem, Erode, Vellore, Problems and Challenges facing the Local
Tuticorin, Tirupur, Tanjore, Dindigul, Self Governments
Nagarkoil, Hosur, Avadi. Local self governments are the crucial
basis for our democracy. The Constitutional
The Municipal Commissioner will be a status of local self governments adds more
person from the Indian Administrative Service significance to their functioning. There are,
(IAS). All the decisions of the Corporation however, a few critical concerns in the working
Council will be implemented by him. He will be of local self governments in India. Major
assisted by the office of the corporation. problems and challenges may be mentioned as
Name the British Viceroy after whom the below:
building of Chennai Corporation is name. • Lack of clear demarcation of powers and
functions of local bodies
• Allocation of funds and needs assessment
are not matched
• Role of caste, class and religion in decision-
making at the local self governments
• Poor accountability of elected members
and officials at the grassroot levels of
Corporation of Chennai democracy
5. Local Self Government 276
III. Match the following 2. List out the salient features of Tamil Nadu
1. Zilla Parishad - Villages Panchayat Raj Act 1994.
2. Gram Sabhas - Mayor 3. Mention the important functions of the
3. Ward Committees - Chairman Village Panchayat.
4. Which are the voluntary functions of the
4. Panchayat Union - District Collector
local governments?
5. Corporation - Municipalities
5. Name the Urban local governments.
IV. Correct the statement
(i) Panchayat Union is formed by grouping of
VI. Answer in detail
Districts. 1. Write in details about the salient features of
the 73rd & 74th Constitutional Amendment
(ii) District Panchayat is constituted in each
Act (1992).
village.
(iii) The Municipal Commissioner will be a 2. Describe the major problems & challenges
person from the Indian Administration faced by the local self governments.
Service (IAS). VII. Activity
(iv) In Village Panchayat, the President and Meet your Panchayat President /
ward members are elected by the people. Municipal Chairman and discuss with
V. Give short note him how the local self goverment is being
1. Name the taxes levied by the Village administered.
Panchayat.
ICT CORNER
LOCAL SELF GOVERNMENT
Procedure
Step – 1 Open the Browser and type the URL given below (or) Scan the QR Code.
Step – 2 Click on Map and Select “Blocks” in Dropdown menu
Step – 3 Click your district name to know about the number of blocks in the
database map (ex. Tiruchirappalli)
URL:
https://www.tnrd.gov.in/ index.html (or) scan the QR Code
*Pictures are indicatives only.
UNIT
Road safety
6
SLOW
Learning Objectives
Drive
Road accidents are the leading cause of Improper Driving
Negligence in
death by injury and the tenth-leading cause of Driving
Training
all deaths globally. An estimated 1.2 million Overlooking the Non-stop
people are killed in road crashes each year, other vehicles Long driving
and as many as 50 million people are injured.
279 6. Road safety
1. Drunk and drive (40%), speeding (24%), car boom in India (16%), inefficient
law enforcement (15%) and less use of helmets and seat belts (5%)
2. Distractions to Driver
Pedestrian Bicycles Two-wheelers Auto-Rickshaws Cars, Taxis, Vans & LMV’s Trucks Buses Other Motor Vehicles
Other (Animal drawn vehicles, cycle rickshaws, hand carts & other persons)
Source:Accidents India 2016 report
Exercise REFERENCES
1. Dinesh Mohan, 'Road Safety in Less-
I Answer the Motorized Environments: Future
following Concerns', International Journal of
Epidemiology 31, No. 3 (2002)
1. What are the benefits of wearing helmet
2. Christopher J.L. Murray and Alan D.
while driving?
Lopez, eds., The Global Burden of Disease:
2. List out the factors of road accidents. A Comprehensive Assessment of Mortality
3. Which colour in the signal means 'stop? and Disability from Diseases, Injuries
and Risk Factors in 1990 and Projected in
4. List out any three road safety rules: 2020 (Boston: Harvard School of Public
II Answer in detail Health, 1996).
1.
Explain the factors involved in road 3. Courtesy:- Ministry of Road Transport &
accidents. Highways, Government of India
GLOSSARY
Abandoned Left
Allocation An amount of a resource assigned to a particular recipient
Amendment Changes made to an existing law
Autonomy Self governing
Cantonment A military garrison or camp
Clusters A group of similar things or people
Conceptualisation The action of forming a concept
Compensation Amount awarded to someone for injury or loss
Community A group of people living in the same place of having particular characteristics in common.
ECONOMICS
284
1
Perspectives, Measurement and
Sustainability
Learning Objectives
Improvement
Growing process in
Progress a needed direcon
From the above chart, you will notice Per Capita Income
that other than income, people seek freedom However, for comparing the development
to grow on their own. Thus, development of various countries, total income is not
refers to the improvement in quality of life
satisfactory measure. Since countries have
such as higher income, better education,
different populations, comparing total
better health and nutrition, less poverty and
income will not be suggestive of what an
more equal opportunity.
average person is likely to earn, as people
The term ‘economic development’ refers in one country are better off than others in
to the overall growth of all sectors of the
a different country? The average income is
economy by adoption of new technologies.
Economic development improves the living calculated by dividing the country’s total
standards of the people as well as the status income by its total population. The average
of the country. income is also called per capita income.
Calculations on the per capita income of all
Indicators of Economic countries are calculated only in the US dollar
1.2
Development in order to compare International level.
The major indicators to measure the level Per Capita Income
of economic development are Net National
Product (NNP), Per Capita Income (PCI), According to the World
Bank report, new
Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) and Human
income measurements of
Development Index (HDI).
countries are classified as
Final money value of total below (2017–18)
goods and services produced S. Types of Per Capita Income
with in the geographic No. Countries (US Dollar)
boundaries of a country during 1 Low Income < 1005
a specified period of time,
2 Lower Middle 1006–3955
normaly a year is known as Gross Domestic
Income
Product (GDP).
3 Upper Middle 3956–12,235
Net National Product Income
The Net National Product (NNP) is 4 High Income > 12,235
considered as a true measure of national
output. It is also known as national income. A Source: www.worldbank.org
rise in per capita income means an increase in
Purchasing Power Parity
aggregate real output. Hence, this is a better
indicator than national income for measuring Purchasing power parity is defined as
development. the number of units of a country’s currency
required to buy the same amount of goods
For measuring a country’s development, and services in the domestic market as one
its income is considered to be one of the most dollar would buy in the US.
important factors. Countries with higher The technique of purchasing power
income are considered to be more developed parity allows us to estimate what exchange
than those with lesser income. So, income between two currencies is needed to express
the accurate purchasing power of the two
itself is considered to be one of the indicators currencies in the respective countries.
of economic development. Recently, India became the third largest
States
Literacy
1 Rate % 67.02 75.36 94 78.03 69.72 80.09 74.04
(2011)
Sex Ratio
(Females
2 per 1000 993 973 1084 919 912 996 943
Males)
(2011)
Enrolment
in Higher
3 30.8 26.1 30.8 20.7 24.5 44.3 24.5
Education%
(2015–16)
Source: Niti Aayog
Recap
� Development refers to the progress of a particular field or a particular person.
� Economic development means overall growth of all sectors of the economy.
� The major indicators of economic development are Per Capita Income, Net National Product,
Purchasing Power Parity and Human Development Index.
� Human resource is necessary for the progress of any country.
� Sustainable development means development should take place without damaging the
environment and preserve it for the future.
� The Wildlife Protection Act 1972 is aimed at protection to wild animals and birds.
� Thermal power plants emit large quantity of carbon dioxide, which is harmful to the
environment
EXERCISE
I. Choose the
correct answer a. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R)
explains (A)
1. Assertion(A):
Development increases the quality of life. b. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) does
not explain (A)
Reason(R): People will have higher
incomes, better education, better health c. (A) is correct and (R) is false
and nutrition, less poverty. d. (A) is false and (R) is true
14. Find the odd one 3. Why NNP is not considered as an
a. Solar energy b. Wind energy useful measure to compare a country’s
development with other countries?
c. Paper d. Natural gas
4. Why human resources is considered as
15. _____________ is the state with highest
the foremost resource of any country?
installed solar capacity in India.
5. Expand the following:1. PPP 2. HDI
a. Tamil Nadu b. West Bengal
6. Expand the following: 1. NNP 2. PCI
c. Kerala d. Andhra Pradesh
7. What is ‘Solar Power’?
16. _______ resources are those which will
V. Answer in detail
get exhausted after years of use.
1. Discuss the policies for sustainable
a. Natural b. Renewable development.
c. Non-Renewable d. New
2. Describe in detail about environmental
17. Thermal plant emits large quantity of policies in India.
_______, which pollutes the environment.
3. Differentiate between renewable and non-
a. Oxygen b. Nitrogen renewable resources.
c. Carbon d. Carbon dioxide 4. Mention any five environmental acts and
their action.
II. Fill in the blanks
1. Economic progress of any country is VI. Projects and Activities
known as ______________. List the various ways in which the
problems of garbage and emissions are
2. The head quarters of HRD Ministry is in
_____________. being dealt with around the world.
Introduction Employment
2.1
You know the basic needs of every Structure in India
human being are food, clothes and shelter. In The nature of employment in India
the present world, one more essential need has is multi-dimensional. Some get employment
to be added in this list. That is employment. To throughout the year; some others get
survive in the world, we all need employment employed for only a few months in a year.
to earn money. Those who are engaged in
economic activities, in whatever capacity– The economy is classified into three
high or low – are called employees. People sectors: primary or agriculture sector,
who employ these workers and pay rewards for secondary or industrial sector and tertiary or
their work are called the employers. service sector.
1981 2008
EXERCISE
24%
41% 33% I. C
hoose the correct
42%
answer
34%
26% 1. We take age group _______ years for
computation of the workforce.
a. 12–60 b. 15–60
Cultivators c. 21–65 d. 5–14
2. Which is the correct sequence of
Agricultural Labourers
various sectors in GDP of India in the
Non-Agricultural Labourers descending order?
a.
Primary sector, Secondary sector,
Tertiary sector
Activity
b.
Primary sector, Tertiary sector,
1. Why did people shift from agriculture Secondary sector
to non-agriculture jobs in Iruvelpattu? c.
Tertiary sector, Secondary sector,
What could have been the reasons? Primary sector
2. Do you think it is easy to move from d.
S econdary sector, Tertiary sector,
agriculture to non-agriculture jobs? Talk Primary sector
to your teachers and parents and discuss 3. Which one of the following sectors is
in the class. the largest employer in India.
3. Collect details of main occupations of a. Primary Sector
20 families in your locality. Prepare a b. Secondary Sector
table or chart as given above and discuss c. Tertiary Sector
in the class. d. Public sector
4. Which one of the following is not in
Recap
Primary Sector
� Labour force is the number of people in a. Agriculture b. Manufacturing
the country who work and also capable c. Mining d. Fishery
of working. 5. Which one of the following is not in the
Structure of employment denotes Secondary Sector?
number of workers engaged in different a. Construction b.Manufacturing
sectors of the economy. c. Small Scale Industry
The employment growth rate of India d. Forestry
increased at an average rate of 2% during 6. Tertiary Sector include/s
past four decades from 1972-73. a. Transport b. Insurance
Organised sector provides job security c. Banking d. All of these
and other benefits like insurance to its
7. Which sector is not included in the
employees.
occupational pattern?
Public sector means government a. Primary sector
undertakings. b. Secondary sector
Employment pattern changes due to c. Tertiary sector
lifestyle of the people. d. Private sector
2. Employment in India and Tamil Nadu 296
8. Match the List I with List II using the a. number of workers employed
codes given below: b. nature of economic activity
I II c. ownership of enterprises
a. Agriculture, 1. Unorganised d. employment conditions
Forestry, Fishery sector 14. Assertion (A) : The unorganised sector
and Mining of the economy characterised by the
b. Manufacturing, 2. Service Sector household manufacturing activity and
Electricity Gas and small-scale industry.
Water Supply Reason (R) : Jobs here are low paid and
c. Trade, Transport 3. S econdary sector often not regular
and Communication a. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R)
explains (A)
d. Unincorporated 4. Primary Sector
b. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R)
Enterprises and
does not explain (A)
Household industries
c. (A) is correct and (R) is false
(A) (B) (C) (D) d. (A) is false and (R) is true
a. 1 2 3 4 15. People who employ workers and pay
b. 4 3 2 1 rewards for their work is termed as
_______.
c. 2 3 1 4 a employee b. employer
d. 3 2 4 1 c. labour d. caretaker
16. __________ continues to be the largest
9. Which Delhi Sultan of medieval India
formed ‘Employment Bureau’ to solve employer in Tamil Nadu.
the unemployment problem. a. Agriculture b. Manufacturing
a. Muhamad Bin Tugluq c. Banking d. Small Scale Industry
b. Allauddin Khilji II. Fill in the blanks
c. Feroz Shah Tugluq
1. In ______ sector, the employment
d. Balban
terms are not fixed and regular.
10. _________ sector is registered and
follows government rules. 2. Economic activities are classified
a. Agriculture b. Organised into _______ and _______ sectors.
c. Unorganised d. Private 3. ________ has always featured as an
11. ________ sector provides job security important element of development
and higher wages policy in India.
a. Public sector
4. Employment pattern changes due to
b. Organised sector
________________.
c. Unorganised sector
d. Private sector 5. The nature of employment in India is
12. Find the odd one _________.
a. Banking b. Railways 6. ________ of the economy is the
c. Insurance d. Small Scale Industry number of people in the country, who
13. The sectors are classified into work and also capable of working.
Public and Private sectors on the basis of 7. Public sector means ______________.
Nature of Percentage of
Place of work
employment working people
In offices and factories registered with the
Organised 15
government
Own shops, office, clinics in marketplaces with
20
formal license
People working on the street, construction workers,
25
domestic workers
Working in small workshops usually not registered
with the government
ICT CORNER
Employment in India and Tamil Nadu
Explore TNSDC
to know opportunities
for various skills
Steps:
• Type the URL given (or) Scan the QR Code. Tamilnadu skill development
corporation webpage will open.
• Click on the ‘List of Training Courses’. Select occordingly in the corresponding
boxes. A list of training will appear.
• Click New Registration and select ‘TNSDC LOGIN’ and type your username
and password.
• Click ‘Downloads’ to get important G.O.'s about skill developments. Click the
‘Important Links’ to get other important links.
UNIT
Money and Credit
3
Learning Objectives
3.9 Credit
How is currency printed in India?
Farmers avail credit during monsoons
One rupee and two rupee notes were
for buying seeds, agricultural input and other
first printed in India in the year 1917.
expenses. Traders and small entrepreneurs need
The Reserve Bank of India is empowered
credit for their needs. Even large industries
to issue the Government of India notes
receive credit to take up their new projects.
since1935. 500 rupee note currency was
Credit is available from: introduced later. In 1940, one Rupee notes
• Formal financial institutions like were issued again. Till 1947, the currency
nationalised and private banks and co- notes with the image of King George VI
operative banks were in circulation. After Independence, the
• Informal financial institutions Government of India issued currency notes.
• Micro credit is received through Self Help In 1925, the British government
Groups (SHG) established a government press at Nasik in
As far as nationalised banks and co- Maharashtra. Currencies were printed three
operative banks are concerned the interest years later. In 1974, a press was started in
to credit is comparatively lesser and there is Dewas, Madhya Pradesh. (Security Printing
gurantee for the pledged, goods. and Minting Corporation of India Ltd.) In
Informal Financial Institutions the 1990s. two more presses were started
in Mysuru, Karnataka and Salboni in West
Informal financial institutions are easily
Bengal to print bank notes.
approachable to the customers with flexible
procedures. But there are issues like the safety of The Reserve Bank of India has the
items pledged high rates of interest and modes authority to decide the value of currency
of recovery. to be printed and how the amount should
reach its destination safely.
People who live in a particular place or
Though the RBI has the power to print up to
those who are involved in a certain work join
ten thousand rupee notes, at present a maximum
together as a group and start saving. These are
of upto rupees two thousand is printed.
called as Self Help Groups. The nationalised
banks provide help to these groups through
micro-credit. . Credit given though Self Help Recap
Groups for street vendors, fishermen, especially B arter system flourished where
women and the poor really make a difference in civilizations thrived.
their life. Gold, silver and copper were called
In Tamil Nadu, all the banks have 10,612 ancient money.
branches,across the state They carry on a total Pepper and spices took a major share of
transaction of around 15 lakh crore rupees exports.
during the financial year (2017-2018). Paper money was introduced because
metal supply was limited.
Mobile banking is widely used nowadays.
A government has the responsibility to
regulate the money supply and oversea
circulation.
All the major and important banks are
nationalised in India.
There is a close relationship between
money and price.
305 3. Money and Credit
UNIT
Agriculture in Tamil Nadu
4
Learning Objectives
� To know about the agricultural activity in Tamil Nadu
� To know the extent of land under cultivation in Tamil Nadu
� To understand the importance of water and irrigation in agriculture
� To know about various crops grown in Tamil Nadu
� To analyse the crop productivity in Tamil Nadu
Introduction
4.1 Sectors of people
Most of the people of Tamil Nadu
involved in agricultural
depended on agriculture at the time of
independence and even after 40 years of
activities
independence. That situation is being changed A major portion of the workers involved in
in the recent years. It has been noticed that agricultural activities are landless labourers. All
the number of farmers in Tamil Nadu has got the land holders do not have the same amount
reduced during the last 10 years according to of land. Many have very little land and very few
the 2011 census data. Similarly the number people hold large areas of land.
of agricultural workers also reduced during
the same period. According to the 2001 During 2015-16 , there were 79,38,000
census, 49.3% out of the total population of cultivators in Tamil Nadu. But five years earliers
workers were involved in agriculture. The there were 81,18,000 cultivators. There was a
percentage has reduced to 42.1 in the next 10 reduction of 1,80,000 cultivators in these five
years. In 2011 there were three crore 29 lakh years. Similarly, the area under cultivation also
workers in Tamil Nadu of which 96 lakh were reduced from 64.88 lakh hectares to 59.71 lakh
agricultural workers. hectares during the same period. That is, the
In 2011, nearly 55% of the women state of Tamil Nadu had lost nearly 1,03,400
were involved in agriculture whereas nearly hectares on an average during these five years.
one third (35.3%) of the male population was Most of the cultivators in Tamil Nadu are
involved in agriculture during the same year. micro farmers who cultivate in an area less than
of water taken from the underground and 4.4 Irrigation and Crop
the amount of water that goes into the types
underground during the rainy season are
equal. On the contrary, as the amount of water Crops in Tamil Nadu
taken increases, the ground water goes down All cultivated crops can be classified as
resulting in complete dryness or change into food crops and non-food crops. 57 percentage
unusable water. of the total land under food grain cultivation
The Union Ground Water Board is is irrigated. In 2014-15, 59 percentage of food
constantly monitoring the level and nature of crops and 50 percentage of non food crops were
ground water. irrigated in Tamil Nadu.
From this, we come to know that: The total area of land cultivated in Tamil
Nadu was 59 lakh and 94 thousand hectares
1. Tamil Nadu agriculture is dependent on
in 2014-2015. Out of this non-food crops
groundwater.
were 76%.
2. It is very urgent and necessary to regulate the
Paddy cultivation is carried out at a large
usage of underground water.
scale of 30 percent cultivated land area and
3. This is very important for sustainable farming. other food crops in 12 percent area. Millets
Micro irrigation
Virtual water Micro irrigation technology is a very
good remedial measure to tackle shortage in
The term 'virtual water' was introduced
by Tony Allen in 1990. irrigational water. This irrigation technology
helps to have a higher yield when compared
The water consumed in the production
to the traditional irrigation methods. As
process of an agricultural or industrial
product is called 'virtual water'. only required amount of water is supplied
at regular intervals, it increases the ability
It is the hidden flow of water when food
of water usage and productivity of the crop
or other commodities are traded from one
place to another. For instance, it takes 1340 resulting in reduction of labour expenses and
cubic metres of water (based on the world weed growth in the field. As the fertilizer is
average) to produce one metric ton of wheat. distributed through water, it increases the
That is, if one metric ton of wheat is exported usage of fertilizer and the yield. As Tamil Nadu
to another country, it means that 1340 cubic gets insufficient rainfall, the government has
metres of water used to cultivate this amount taken many measures to implement micro
of wheat is also being exported.
irrigation for proper distribution of water to
India is the largest global freshwater crops that require more water.
user. India has been the fifth largest exporter
of virtual water in the world
Exercise
productivity of paddy has increased more than 2. Out of the following, which is not a food
three times. crop
ICT CORNER
AGRICULTURE IN TAMIL NADU
Procedure
Step – 1 Open the Browser and type the given URL (or) Scan the QR Code.
Step – 2 “Vivasayam” page will appear on the screen.
Step – 3 Click Search Options to know any information agriculture news,
Government Loan etc.,
Step – 4 Click “Velanmai” to know about history of Tamil Nadu agriculture.
URL:
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=nithra.tamil.vivasayam.
agriculture.market&hl=en (or) scan the QR Code
*Pictures are indicatives only.
UNIT
Migration
5
Learning Objectives
and 35 percent in urban areas, in 2011. That made some interesting findings, as discussed
is, the mobility of population in rural areas is below:
greater than that in urban areas. • Of the total migrants in Tamil Nadu, 65
Further, one usually associates percent have migrated or moved abroad
mobility with males rather than females. while 35 percent have moved within the
However, an examination of data clearly country.
indicates that a larger proportion of females • Chennai district has recorded the
are reported to be migrants compared to maximum number of emigrants followed
males. In the country as a whole, 53 percent by Coimbatore, Ramanathapuram and
are female migrants while 23 percent are Tiruchirapalli districts.
male migrants, in 2011. In Tamil Nadu, the
picture is very similar, with more than half • Cuddalore, Karur, Thiruvannamalai,
the females (52%) reporting their status as Vellore, Namakkal, Salem, Dindigul,
migrants, by place of last residence, and 35 Krishnagiri, Nilgiris and Dharmapuri
percent are male migrants. districts record low number of emigrants.
Now, why is there such a large This study also provides infromation
percentage of migration among women? 70 about the sex and destination of migrants from
percent in India and 51 percent in Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu.
report marriage as the reason for migration • Of the total migrants who go to foreign
of females in 2011. That is, marriage and the countries, nearly 20% have chosen to go
movement associated with marriage appear to Singapore, while 18% to the United
to be a major factor responsible for women’s Arab Emirates, 16% to Saudi Arabia, 13
mobility in India and Tamil Nadu. Movement % to the United States of America; and
related to work and employment appears to be Malaysia, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Australia
the driving force for migration, among men. and England are also refered as important
Of all the male migrants in India, 28 percent destinations for migrants from Tamil Nadu
report ‘work’ as the major reason for their in the year 2015.
migration, in 2011. The corresponding
• Of the international migrants, 15 percent
percentage in Tamil Nadu is 26 percent.
are women, while 85 percent are men.
To sum up, in Tamil Nadu, two
On the question of educational
out of every five persons is reported to be
qualifications of migrants from Tamil Nadu,
a migrant in the year 2011. Incidence of
the study reveals that in 2015 about 7%
migrants is higher in rural areas and larger
were illiterates; 30% have completed class X;
among women. Tamil Nadu has a history of
10% have completed class XII; 15% had
migration and people have moved for various
undergone vocational training; 11% were
reasons such as trade, business, employment
graduates; 12% were professionally qualified
etc, to various countries. During the colonial
and 11% had Post Graduate degrees.
period, labourers had moved to other
colonies seeking work and wages. In the more The study clearly reveals
recent period workers from Tamil Nadu have various occupations undertaken by the
been moving to countries in the Gulf, United migrants: highly skilled professions on one
States of America and Australia. In 2015, an hand and low skilled occupations on the
independent research study was conducted other, along with a large number of semi-
to understand the level, nature and pattern skilled occupations.
of migration in Tamil Nadu . This study has
5. Migration 314
315 5. Migration
5. Migration 316
GLOSSARY
Catchment areas The area from which rainfall flows into a river, lake or reservoir.
Census To count the number of people living in a country
Colonial Period A period in a country’s history when it was administered by a colonial power
Commercial Buying and selling on a large scale
Conserve Protect
Cultivator Peasant
317 5. Migration
5. Migration 318
319
NOTES
320