SPE 169273

Applying Mohr-Coulomb Cycle to Step-Rate Test: An Innovative Rock

Mechanics Equation in Extreme Unconsolidated Formations
Suzart Walter, Cayo Marco, Jaramillo Jose, Alarcon Xavier, Halliburton, SPE; Barragan Ernesto, SPE, Calvachi
Cesar, Andes Petroleum; Torres Camilo, Atahualpa Mantilla, Petroamazonas E&P

Copyright 2014, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE Latin American and Caribbean Petroleum Engineering Conference held in Maracaibo, Venezuela, 21–23 May 2014.

This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper have not been
reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material does not necessarily reflect any position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its
officers, or members. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper without the written consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is prohibited. Permission to
reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of SPE copyright.

Abstract
There are sand formations that do not have a minimum contact pore space cemented. Typically, these sands have very low
toughness, high permeability, and high porosity. Such factors allow fines and solids migration. The consequence of this
scenario is the increase of workover interventions and equipment damage/erosion caused by sand flow, thus resulting in
increasing cost, lost time, and insufficient production. Drilling these formations is challenging. Taking core samples to
perform rock mechanic tests in a laboratory is also a difficult task. Additionally, there are cases where wells do not have
sonic dipole surveys to help with evaluations. Usually, the samples are not uniform, have cracks, are broken, or completely
dispersed, making their application in rock mechanic characterizations impossible.
The presented methodology applies the Mohr-Coulomb cycling test for the first time to actually process step-rate,
fracturing, and falloff tests. Field tests using this technique have shown good correlations and obtained reliable curves for
hydraulic fracturing simulators. A package of rock mechanics equations described in the oil industry are evaluated and tested
in field scale.
Many times, engineering teams must have a source of equations which can easily calculate required parameters to be used
for sieve analysis, gravel pack, and fracture pack projects. Basically, the methodology is reliable because of the equations of
theoretical soil mechanics (Terzagui 1943), Mohr-Coulomb, and field practices of determinations of minimum in-situ stresses
and overburdens. After field test confirmations, the objective of this matter is to present correlations of Terzagui (1943) and
Mohr-Coulomb equations to be used during gravel, fracture pack, and hydraulic fracturing operations. The methodology has
an important presence during the study to help minimize risk during these jobs and obtain good approach simulations
because, as previously discussed, this type of sandstone makes obtaining formation samples challenging. Equations can
provide a good number of useful calculations and help reduce operational risk when performing these types of well
completions or treatments.

Introduction
Predicting rock mechanic fracture geometries represents the principal issue in these characterizations. This paper presents a
simple process for obtaining these parameters if there are extreme unconsolidated formations because it is impossible to
obtain rock mechanic properties using laboratory analyses. Technicians can use sonic dipole tools to predict these values, but
there are cases where this tool cannot be used under specific well mechanical conditions.
Therefore, when there is a lack of rock data and an absence of rock samples, the last option to predict fracture geometry is
through the dynamic Mohr-Coulomb cycle and rock mechanic calculations, which can yield reasonable results.
The methodology presented in this paper has the significant advantage of obtaining rock data without temperature and
pressure changes.This methodology also provides the advantage of very low costs and represents the first process to estimate
rock values under extreme unconsolidated formations if there are insufficient data. This paper presents alternative
methodologies to predict rock mechanic stress failures and fracture angle calculations.

Rock Mechanics Equations to Predict Dynamic Mohr-Coulomb Cycle

To use the sequence to predict the dynamic Mohr-Coulomb cycle, following a few steps to calculate parameters to best build
the cycles is necessary. Because of this, Eaton (1969; 1972) analyzed a theory that determines equations for the calculation of
density. Later, de Fernando (1984) studied a theory related to the Recôncavo basin in Bahia, Brazil; this theory simplified the
2 SPE 169273

calculation of overburden in Eq. 1 to determine the average formation density of rock parameters. A natural logarithm
equation was used to calculate average formation density by Suzart et al. (2008) to predict the overburden.
An extreme unconsolidated formation has a total absence of cement in the pore space to create a good compressive force,
therefore taking a sample from the rock to the laboratory becomes a difficult task. This particular phase requires novel
procedures to evaluate rock mechanic modulus in downhole conditions. Theories, such as Mohr-Coulomb, must be applied to
the step-rate test. Typically, the sonic survey can exhibit a good match for evaluation; so, in the case of a well with a poor
cement bond, logging it could present limitations (Suzart et al. 2013).

= ℎ ....................................................................................................................................................... (1)
It is integral to have the exact results of the formation density (Hombrook 1989). Suzart et al. (2013) presented a study of
the Reconcavo basin in Brazil to form a typical natural logarithm for a like equation (Eq. 2).
= ̅ ....................................................................................................................................................................... (2)
The confined stress of integrated solutions using this theory and correlations to calculate the minimum horizontal stress
using a step-rate test were presented by Suzart et al. (2010). Lizak et al. (2006) used step-rate procedures for the fracture
design, but did not use these procedures to predict equations to determine the gradient of propagations. References to
calculate minimum horizontal stress were also not presented.
Using the theoretic mechanics of soil described by Terzagui (1943) and Hambrook (1989), the total overburden density
can be measured and calculated in Eq. 1.
It is observed that this value is under formation pressure, and the confined vertical pressure value must be calculated so
that the vertical confined stress is a difference of overburden and formation static pressure. When observing these equations,
it is expected that the natural characteristics of fluid will affect the final vertical confined stress. To best solve this
phenomenon, Biot (1941) first introduced a constant to represent this theory.
Presented by Biot et al. (1983), the confined vertical stress can be calculated using Eq. 2 by applying the bottomhole static
pressure and total overburden calculations (Terzagui 1943). The Biot constant can be calculated using log tools or core
samples; during this case, a log tool was used. The matrix compressibility and bulk compressibility generally obtained from
core samples are calculated in this paper using the rock mechanics expression equations represented in Eqs. 3 and 4.
Typically, this value can be more precise when sonic log tools are used.
σv'=σv-α σf ..................................................................................................................................................................... (3)
The Biot constant can usually be measured using rock mechanic laboratories. However, because of the absence of rock
samples and no consolidation characterictics, the relation presented in Eq. 3 will be validated to predict the matrix and bulk
compressibility. The value of the Biot constant is the key to calculating this number; additionally, a sonic log tool will
approach a good approximation to the real value.
α= (1-Cma) Cb ................................................................................................................................................................. (4)
Typically, the sonic log tool can calculate Poisson’s ratio and Young’s modulus. These values are a base sequence of the
compressibility bulk calculations described in Eq. 4. More information about the recommendations evaluation of a
unconsolidated formation under rock mechanic aspects can be found in Barragan et al. (2013), Suzart et al. (2013) and
Perkins and Kern (1961) (Table 1, Fig. 1). See Eq. 5.

TABLE 1—PERKINS AND KERN (1961) MEASURED IN LABORATORY OF ROCKS MECHANICS

Estimates of Young’s Moduli of Formation Rocks
6
Porous, unconsolidated to lightly consolidated friable sands 0.5 to 1.5 e 10
6
Medium hardness sandstone 2.0 to 4.0 e 10
6
Hard, dense sandstone 5.0 to 7.5 e 10
6
Limestone and dolomite 8.0 to 13 e 10
SPE 169273 3

Fig. 1—Rock mechanics evaluations under aspects of consolidations.

Cb=3(1-2ʋ)/E .................................................................................................................................................................. (5)

Using data from falloff tests perfomed on field experiments, the minimum horizontal stress can also be measured. It is
mathematically possible to predict the maximum principal horizontal stress in 0 and 90° and it is simplified in Eqs. 6, 7, and
8.
σHmax=(σv'+σhmin')/2 ................................................................................................................................................. (6)
σHmax(ϕ→0)=3σ’hmin-σHmax - σ w+ σ pf ................................................................................................................. (7)
σ(Hmax(ϕ→90)=3σHmax-σ’hmin - σ w+ σ pf.............................................................................................................. (8)
Fracture toughness is a material property that reflects the rock resistance caused by a force applied during fracture
propagation. With respect to radial penny-shaped fracture mode propagation, this is the condition that must be followed to
satisfy the fracture (Economides et al. 1998).
Fracture toughness can be estimated using Eq. 9 for a circular fracture (Shlyapobersky et al. 1988), where R represents
the fracture radius in inches, and Δp represents the difference between instantaneous shut-in pressure (ISIP) and minimum
horizontal stress.

= 2 ∆ √ ............................................................................................................................................ (9)
√
When linear elastic fracture mechanics are used, fracture toughness can be related to tensile strength, T (assuming static
conditions), as follows (Economides and Nolte 1987). The equations presented by Campos (2007) provided a basis for
calculating Eqs. 10 through 13. A solid basis for these calculations was determined. Eqs. 10 through 13 are presented in
metric units and can be converted using Table 2. Franquet and Economides (1999) presented various studies to apply the
theory of rock modulus calculations for consolidated formations in unconsolidated formations. Such work is important as a
reference when establishing procedures for predicting sand control applications.
T=KlC/√πl ...................................................................................................................................................................... (10)
KlC=0.27+0.107T ......................................................................................................................................................... (11)
KlC=0.336+0.026E ........................................................................................................................................................ (12)
KlC=0.708+0.006C0 ...................................................................................................................................................... (13)
If formations are extremely unconfined with a total absence of pore cement, the shear stress can be measured in the field
using the Mohr-Coulomb procedure applied to a step-rate and minifrac test. The procedure can be measured at the cohesion
and fracture orientations. See Eq. 14.
|τ|=Co+Φσ’v ................................................................................................................................................................... (14)
4 SPE 169273

Rock Mechanics Evaluation

After the first sequence of calculations to obtain confined vertical stress, compressibility bulk and matrix, Young’s modulus,
and Poisson’s ratio, the next step is to measure the minimum horizontal stress to complete the theory to plot the dynamic
Mohr-Coulomb cycle.
A falloff with the original downhole pressure was measured using a fast gauge memory tool. A square root of downhole
pressure was obtained to begin viewing the minimum horizontal closure pressure σzmin in 7,464 psi. The log-log graph (Fig.
2) was plotted to observe the curve tendency of delta-smoothed pressure with a slope of m = 0.5; during linear conditions and
the first derivative, a linear slope of m = -0.5 was plotted (Barree et al. 2007).
After closure, the slope of m = -0.5 was correlated during the first derivative, and the slope of m = -1.5 was correlated
during the pseudo-lienear regime flow to characterize the minimum horizontal stress along the time.
Following after closure, a slope tendency of m = -2 was observed during the pseudo-radial flow regime to correlate
absolute permeability in the first derivative curve and slope of m = -1 in the DTdDP/dDT curve.
It was observed that the pressure decline after shut-in was strongly influenced by the diminishing leakoff area. When the
measured radius was incorporated into the plaster version of the model, it was assumed that the closed part of the fracture
was impermeable. A fair agreement of the modelled fracture volume was determined with the measured volume (Van Dam et
al. 2000) (Fig. 3).

Fig. 2—Measurement of minimum horizontal stress in falloff test.

Fig. 3—Wellbore pressure as a function of the dimensionless loss function in the high leakoff limit for (a) plaster, (b) diatomite, and
(c) soft plaster.

Step-Rate Data for Finding Shear Stress Correlations and Dynamic Mohr-Coulomb Cycle (Khristianovic
1955)
An overbalanced gun perforation to create microfractures was performed. To improve this application, a stage of liquid in
front of the perforations to remove debris was used. Therefore, for damage removal and fracture initiation, gel fluid was not
used because the absolute permeability, K, was to be calculated at a later time. Sometimes, normal acid and crosslinked gel
pills can be used, too.
After filling 1/3 of the volume of the tubing with slickwater, the rest of the tubing was filled with nitrogen gas to
overpressure using inert gas displacement to provide high energy during gun shots.
The gun string assembly included a vacuum chamber for the aid of pulling perforating debris back into the wellbore by
creating an underbalance after the small formation fracture(s) formed. The brief high injection rate that instantly follows the
SPE 169273 5

perforating action (up to 140 bbl/min) can deform the fracture formation face(s), which will propagate only a few feet
(possibly 5 to 30 ft).
The rock deformation will also alter the fracture closure form, creating conductivity. In some cases, additional propellants
are used to add some additional energy (for fractions of a second) (Suzart et al. 2013).
An after-step-rate test was observed before Flag 5. Small cracks were observed and described in Flags 5 through 8 (Fig.
4). A completed fracture communication can be observed in Flag 9, where a continuous pressure drop can be observed. A
constantly maintained nitrogen pump rate (in green) while pressure falls can also observed. The observations for these curves
were performed after being referenced in Nolte and Smith (1981). This represents rock failure; therefore this phenomenon
can indicate two things:
• Small fracture propagations caused by fluid are penetrant fluids (not gel).
• Previous communications between the small cracks plotted in Flags 5 through 8.

Fig. 4—Correlations of fracture to obtain shear stress as function of time.

This paper is limited to the discussion of rock mechanics applied to the Mohr cycle for use in creating hydraulical
fractures in the vertical plane. Additionally if these fractures must be penetrated deeply, then they must have confined or
limited height growth.
There are two fundamentally different concepts for the propagation of a constant-height vertical fracture that cause a
variety of results. One concept is that the fracture width is constant across the height of the fracture. This requires the
assumption that the formation bed being fractured is independent of the beds above and below ( i.e., the beds can slip freely,
independent of one another, at their boundaries). This assumption leads to the conclusion that the fluid pressure required to
extend the fracture decreases with time (Nolte and Smith 1981).
Because Mohr-Coulomb cycles are used in laboratory experiments under static conditions, the calculation process to
correlate the static Mohr-Coulomb cycle under dynamic conditions is first described, where no temperature and pressure
changes will be observed compared to the modified conditions in geomechanics laboratory tests. It is known that, during a
fracture initiation, many small fractures and microcracks are created in formations; therefore, in this case, many relevant
values are observed on the surface. Downhole memory tools enhance the capacity to capture values in microseconds, and the
surface real-time data recorded was correlated to downhole data.
After correlating the surface pressure to downhole conditions, a second plot was created, populating the events to
determine when each small cracking phenomenon occurred as a function of time. It was assumed that each microcrack
required a shear value to fracture initiations. A small piece of the formation with 1 in.2 (square inch) of diameter was
considered for the calculations.
In the laboratory, technicians added loads in sample formations to calculate the formation envelope failure. Each load was
a single value to find the shear value. Using dynamic calculations, performing the inverse procedures was necessary.
Performating the inverse procedures included using the shear stress values and radius under dynamic conditions to measure
the minimum and maximum horizontal stress. The initial confined pressure and friction angle used to predict fracture
orientations was plotted during the dynamic Mohr-Coulomb cycle.
The same theory of static orientations during the Mohr-Coulomb cycle was as described in Fig. 5. The paper’s theory
describes the time and shear stress that occurred to predict the normal stress at downhole conditions.
The approach frequently made to the problem of underground stresses is to assume that the stress field is hydrostatic or
nearly hydrostatic, with the three principal stresses approximately equal to one another and to the pressure of the overburden.
6 SPE 169273

That this cannot generally be true is apparent because, throughout long periods of geologic time, the earth has exhibited a
high degree of mobility, wherein the rocks have been repeatedly deformed to the limit of failure by faulting and folding. For
this to occur, substantial differences between the principal stresses are necessary. The general stress condition underground is
therefore one in which the three mutually perpendicular principal stresses are unequal. If fluid pressure were applied locally
within rocks in this condition, and the pressure increased until rupture or parting of the rocks results, then the plane along
which fracture or parting is the first possible plane perpendicular to the least principal stress. It is postulated that this plane is
also the one along which parting is most likely to occur (Hubbert and Willis 1957).

Fig. 5—Dowhhole memory tool with microsecond storage capacity.

The Mohr-Coulomb cycle is a technique used in engineering and geophysics to plot a tensor symmetric (2 × 2 or 3 × 3)
and the moments of inertia, strain, and stress.
It is also possible to calculate the absolute maximum shear stress and absolute maximum deformation. This method was
developed by the German civil engineer Christian Mohr in 1882 (2006).
Considering a rock in downhole conditions, the same theory can be applied during the absence of sonic dipole or
correlations with neutron porosity and density. This theory can be calculated to a completely unconsolidated and/or (if
required) consolidated formations. The methodology is only applied if there is insufficient data; however, the process can be
very useful for consolidated rock, too. It is useful where a total or partial absence of cemented pores exists, if it is impossible
to obtain a core sample.
The objective of this research is to perform a step-rate test according to the actual standard industry procedures, and the
rock must be fractured during this test. Currently, the test experiment pressure data was recorded using a downhole memory
tool and surface digital transducer. All the pressure measured on the surface was within 1 psi transducer tool accuracy. The
transducer was converted using software into downhole conditions, with less than 1% error margin compared to the
downhole memory tool; however, it is important to note that this equipment cannot replace a fast downhole memory gauge
tool.
Assuming a homogeneous, isotropic, linearly elastic rock mass of rock is being stressed, and considering 1 in.2, this
downhole area can be changed to pound force (lbf). Fig. 6 illustrates the Mohr-Coulomb circle.
The static Mohr-Coulomb circle was used to determine downhole conditions using increments of 1 in.2 and plotted in Fig.
6.
Failure stress corresponding to zero confining stress is the uniaxial compressive strength. The cohesive strength was
calculated. An internal friction angle can be calculated, too. This low angle indicates that the formation is not very strong,
and therefore, the wellbore stability of the horizontal well should be evaluated. Wellbore instabilities can take several forms.
Hole size reduction can occur when the plastic rock squeezes into the hole, while enlargement can occur from caving,
sloughing, or breakout. Unintentional hydraulic fracturing can occur if the wellbore pressure is too high, whereas hole
collapse can occur when the wellbore pressure is low (Kuhlman et al. 1992).
Khristianovic (1955) presents the process of vertical fracture formation during the hydraulic rupture of a reservoir
using a nonpenetrating liquid. Formulae are deduced for determining the change of pressure in time at the bottom of the
drilled hole with a constant injection rate of the rupture liquid. The change in length, thickness, and configuration of the
fracture can be understood in Khristianovic’s (1955) paper.
Fractures are formed in the plane perpendicular to that of the formation (vertical cracks) during the case of
hydraulic rupture of the formation by highly viscous, hard-penetrating or nonpenetrating liquid. Currently, these
SPE 169273 7

orientations are understood to be directly proportional to rock stress and can exhibit different angles and directions;
however, they must be perpendicular in all of the stress measured.

Fig. 6—Classical-resumed Mohr-Coulomb cycle theory.

Methodologies to plot Fig. 6 as a function of time represent the inverse process of the laboratory. The methodology
provided advantages attributed to low-associated costs, no pressure changes, no temperature changes, and it was developed
particularly for unconsolidated rock; however, this methodology can also be applied to consolidated formations.
After overcoming shear stress was observed in the fracture and microcracks, this shear stress was plotted as a function of
time (Fig. 7) to observe the magnitude of force at the time function. Using specific programs, the plot can show the radius of
each shear stress as a function of time.
Each circle was built. In this theory, a negative time is impossible to reach, so only the positive time and cycles were
plotted. Only one circle was plotted to show that negative time is not accepted. In this case, the negative circle is imaginative
and intended only for construction.
Using a tangent line, the resultant shear stress at failure was observed, and the tangent equations can be described in Eq.
15.
= 1 2( − ) sin 2∅ .................................................................................................................................... (15)
The tangent theory was applied to calculate the friction angle, µ in 15.36°. Using triangle theory, the fracture angle,"∅"
was measured using a value of 74.64°. The point of shear stress failure was observed using = 7602 psi, where this
represents the tangent point of contact with the circles. A minimum of two circles were required to build this tangent point.

Fig. 7—New dynamic Mohr-Coulomb cycle theory as function of time.

8 SPE 169273

During all the experiments, radius changes were measured after shut-in. For cement, the radius grew, which correlated
with a decreasing size of the nonpenetrated zone. For plaster, the recession was measured after shut-in, which can be
approximated by a radius declining linearly after shut-in with time (Fig. 8). Fig. 8 shows that the fracture surfaces make
mechanical initial contact at the tip, then subsequently toward the wellbore.
Using Eq. 14 and the resulting σ3min = 7464 psi obtained in Fig. 2, the maximum horizontal stress was calculated to σZmax
in 30,382 psi and plotted in Fig. 8.

Fig. 8—Building dynamic Mohr-Coulomb Cycle theory as function of time consideration.

Fig. 9 illustrates the dynamic Mohr-Coulomb cycle theory plotted using minimum and maximum horizontal stress.

Fig. 9—Dynamic Mohr-Coulomb cycle theory plotted using minimum and maximum horizontal stress.

Using Geoscience to Prove Correlations for Dynamic Mohr-Coulomb Cycle

A new geomechanics log plot was created in Fig. 10 to help operators determine geoscience correlations. The newest
equations added in the log plot monograph were calibrated using the orginal static formation pressure. Both horizontal and
vertical stress parameters are dependent on this value, so each plot must be correlated with the actual static pressure.
Therefore, it is very important to measure the real value of static pressure to best have a real correlation of elastic modulus,
minimum and maximum horizontal stress, and vertical confined stress. Fig. 10 illustrates the new tracks of the rock
mechanics plot to help evaluate a dynamic Mohr-Coloumb cycle theory plotted using minimum and maximum horizontal
stresses.
SPE 169273 9

Fig. 10—Dynamic Mohr-Coulomb cycle theory plotted using minimum and maximum horizontal stresses.

Results Calculated after Rock Mechanics using Dynamic Mohr-Coulomb Cycle

Table 2 shows all the calculation results. This number can be useful in predicting fracture orientation angles, envelop failure,
minimum and maximum horizontal stress, elastic modulus, compressibility, and confined vertical stress. The absence of these
simple calculations complicate the process of performing the Mohr-Coulomb cycle envelope under dynamic conditions.
This work represents approximations, so new measurements must be obtained to best correlate the process. The units
measured for each parameter must be carefully observed and compared to minimize possible errors during calculations and
field measurements. A software program was developed to expedite these calculations and improve the process.

TABLE 2—CONVERTING METRIC UNITS

σv Overburden (psi) 9299.60
1
σ v Confined vertical stress (psi) 5605.20
σhmin Minimum horizontal stress (psi) 4626.00
Cb Bulk compressibility (psi-1) 4.89E-07
— Matrix compressibility (psi-1) 9.77E-08
σnet Net pressure (psi) 649
Tg Toughness (psi) 293.50
Ts Tensile strength (psi) 2740.44
G pfrac Fracture extensión pressure (psi) 4682.97
B Biot coefficient 0.800
Ʋ Poisson’s ratio 0.263
E Young’s modulus (psi) 2.91E+06
σHmax Maximum horizontal stress at 0° (psi) 5364.40
σHmax Maximum horizontal stress at 90° (psi) 7322.80
σf Fracture pressure at XXX (psi) 9271
σs Fracture pressure at surface (psi) 7600
G Frac Fracture gradient (psi/ft) 1.017
σpf Botthomhole static pressure (psi) 4618
Eff Fluid efficiency (%) 6.25
σpsr Pseudo-radial pressure (psi) 4070
σfop Fissure open pressure (psi) 4789
10 SPE 169273

The Necessity of Obtaining Precise Rock Mechanic Values to Match Curves and Calibrate Fracture
Geometries
Basically, the necessity to obtain precise rock mechanics and envelope failure can be used to optimize fracture geometry and
oriented, vertical, deviated, or horizontal drilling. Previously, many operators automatically considered that the value of
Poisson’s ratio values were between 0.21 to 0.23 for sandstone. Currently, it can be observed that this value can vary
according to degree of rock consolidations.

Conclusions
The process made it possible to build the envelope of the Dynamic Mohr-Coulomb cycle to extreme unconsolidated
formations to calculate stress, modulus, minimum and maximum horizontal stress, compressibility bulk, matrix
compressibility, overburden, and vertical confined stress without temperature and pressure changes during laboratory
experiments where it was observed that all samples could change temperature and pressure.
This process must be further refined to best fit more formations calculations in other formations outside of Ecuadorian
basins.
A new geoscience template program was developed to best calculate the principal parameters of rock required to fracture
geometry and well construction during drilling procedures and the dynamic Mohr-Coulomb cycle.

Nomenclature
̅ Average formation density
σv Overburden
σ’v Confined vertical stress
α Biot coefficient
C ma Matrix compressibility
Cb Bulk compressibility
ʋ Poisson’s ratio
μ Friction coefficient
E Young’s Modulus
σf Bottomhole static pressure
ϭ3; σ’h; σ’hmin Minimum horizontal stress
σw Surface pressure
σ θ→0 Maximum horizontal stress in 0°
σ θ→90 Maximum horizontal stress in 90°
KI Fracture toughness in penny-shaped model
T Tensile strength
KIc Fracture toughness
Co Cohesion
|τ| Shear stress
τ max Max shear stress
g Gravity acceleration
D Depth in ft
l Length
σNet;Δpnet Net pressure
R Fracture radius in inches
σ’ Case where horizontal stress maximum and minimum are close to equal
θ Fracture direction
µ Friction angle

SI Metric and English Conversion Factors

Bar × 1.0 E+05=Pa
Bbl × 1.589 E-01=m3
cP × 1.0 E-03=Pa.s
ft × 3.048 E-01=m
ft3 × 2.832 E-02=m3
lbm × 4.536 E-01=kg
psi × 4.536 E+00=kpa

References
Barragan, E.L., Suzart, J., Llerena, H., et al. 2013. Successful Chemical Sand Consolidation System Application to Repair Damaged Gravel
Pack for Extreme Non-Consolidated Formations. Paper OTC 24279 presented at OTC Brasil, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 29–31.
SPE 169273 11

Barree, R.D., Barree, V.L., and Craig, D. 2007. Holistic Fracture Diagnostics. Paper SPE 107877 presented at the Rocky Mountain Oil and
Gas Technology Symposium, Denver, Colorado, USA, 16–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/107877-MS.
Biot, M.A. 1941. General Theory of Three-Dimensional Consolidation. Journal of Applied Physics. 12 (2): 155–164.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1712886.
Biot, M.A., Medlin, W.L., and Masse, L. 1983. Fracture Penetration Through an Interface. SPE Journal. 23 (6): 857–869. SPE-10372-PA.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/10372-PA.
Christian, M.O. 2006. 1º CURSO DE INGENIERÍACOMPUTACIONAL, UNIVERSIDAD CATÓLICA DE VALPARAÍSO (CHILE),
15-18 DE MAYO DE.
Eaton, B.A. 1969. Fracture Gradient Prediction and Its Application in Oilfield Operations. Journal of Petroleum Technology. 21 (10):
1,353–1,360. SPE-2163-PA. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/2163-PA.
Eaton, B.A. 1972. The Effect of Overburden Stress on Geopressure Prediction from Well Logs. Journal of Petroleum Technology. 24 (8):
929–934. SPE-3719-PA. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/3719-PA.
Economides, M.J. and Nolte, K.G. 1987. Reservoir Stimulation. Houston, Texas: Schlumberger Educational Services.
Economides, M.J., Watters, L.T., and Dunn-Norman, S. 1998. Petroleum Well Construction. Wiley.
Franquet, J.A. and Economides, M.J. 1999. Effect of Stress and Stress Path on Young's Modulus and Poisson Ratio of Unconsolidated
Rocks: A New Idea for Hydraulic Fracturing. Paper SPE 54012 presented at the Latin American and Caribbean Petroleum
Engineering Conference, Caracas, Venezuela, 21–23 April. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/54012-MS.
Hubbert, M. and Willis, D.G. 1957. Mechanics of Hydraulic Fracturing. American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum
Engineers. 210: 153–168. SPE-686-G.
Kuhlman, R.D., Perez, J.I., and Claiborne Jr., E.B. 1992. Microfracture Stress Tests, Anelastic Strain Recovery, and Differential Strain
Analysis Assist in Bakken Shale Horizontal Drilling Program. Paper 24379 presented at the SPE Rocky Mountain Regional Meeting,
Casper, Wyoming, USA, 18–21 May. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/24379-MS.
Khristianovic, Z.A. 1955. Formation of Vertical Fractures by Means of Highly Viscous Liquid. Paper WPC 6132 presented at the Fourth
World Petroleum Congress, Rome, 6–15 June.
Lizak, K.F., Bartko, K.M., Self, J.F., et al. 2006. New Analysis of Step-Rate Injection Tests for Improved Fracture Stimulation Design.
Paper SPE 98098 presented at the International Symposium and Exhibition on Formation Damage Control, Lafayette, Louisiana,
USA, 15–17 February. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/98098-MS.
Nolte, K.G. and Smith, M.B. 1981. Interpretation of Fracturing Pressures. Journal of Petroleum Technology. 33 (9): 1767–1775. SPE-
8297-PA. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/8297-PA.
Perkins, T.K. and Kern, L.R. 1961. Widths of Hydraulic Fractures. Journal of Petroleum Technology. 13 (9): 937–949. SPE-89-PA.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/89-PA.
Shlyapobersky, J., Walhaug, W.W., Sheffield, R.E., et al. 1988. Field Determination of Fracturing Parameters, for Overpressure Calibrated
Design of Hydraulic Fracturing. Paper SPE 18195 presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Houston,
Texas, USA, 2–5 October. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/18195-MS.
Suzart, J., Moreto R., Luduvice, R., et al. 2008. Formulation of Fracture Gradient Extension Equations in the Sergipe Basin-Brazil. Paper
IBP2520_08 presented at Rio Oil and Gas Expo and Conference, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 15-18 September.
Suzart, J., Luduvice, R., and Moreto, R. 2010. Using Step-Rate Test to Prove Gradient of Propagation Equations. Paper SPE 123009
presented at the SPE Latin American and Caribbean Petroleum Engineering Conference, Lima, Peru, 1–3 December.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/123009-MS.
Suzart, J., Lozada, J., and Mogollon, A. et al . 2013. Applying Rock Mechanics Equations to Model Extreme Overbalance Perforation
Geometry. Paper SPE WVPS 246 presented at the SPE WVPS Second South American Oil and Gas Congress, Venezuela, 22–25
October.
Terzagui, K. 1943. Theoretical Soil Mechanics. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Van Dam, D.B. Papanastasiou, P., and de Pater, C.J. “Impact of Rock Plasticity on Hydraulic Fracture Propagation and Closure” Paper
SPE 63172 presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, Texas, USA, 1–4 October., 2000.