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Food and Agriculture The Future of Sustainability
Food and Agriculture The Future of Sustainability
Executive Summary
the explosion of empty calories in many erosion and degradation, much of it in developing
developing countries reflects the meteoric countries. Besides its production function,
rise of the clinically overweight in many agriculture needs to integrate other vital functions
industrial economies. of ecosystem management as central features of
• Despite their increasing importance, the current its development.
trends in livestock and biofuels are likely to
contribute to more food-related crises due to their Where will solutions come from? As many
inefficient use of food-related resources. governments have retreated from agricultural
• Pressures on food prices are likely to continue investment there is a shifting re-organization of roles
since they are exacerbated by volatile market and of governance from public to private. Clearly,
dynamics, inadequate global coordination and private enterprise is a powerful factor, and even more
the multiple effects of population growth, energy so with increased concentration all along the supply
markets, climate change, land degradation and chain. Firms themselves also face new governance
water scarcity. challenges with volatility in supplies and markets
• Concentration in supply puts us at increasing and increasingly transparent operating and reporting
risk. With more than 50,000 edible plants in the conditions. While many firms serve only their private
world still, over well half of our food comes from interests, an increasing number of forward-looking
only three. Concentration in the number of firms firms recognize the need to create shared value and
managing the global distribution of food supplies not just profit if they are to thrive in the long term. How
may also contribute to risks. can public governance work with companies to foster
• Governance is shifting. The main actors are not both public and private benefits? How can we now
heading in quite the same direction. Agriculture employ vastly improved methods for measuring and
discussions are increasingly oriented toward understanding the impacts we are creating and use
ecological approaches that recognize the limits these to evolve new learning pathways for producers,
imposed by natural resources and toward improved communities, firms, and policymakers? The public
social outcomes. However, many governments, sector must offer a more thoughtful and principled
international agencies, multilateral and bilateral guidance that takes into account longer-term public
institutions are only beginning to actively invest needs and the private sector will have to be a major
in such concepts in agriculture; whereas a few part of the solutions to the new challenges of our food
food companies and NGOs are taking the lead and agriculture systems since its future depends on
instead. Corporate power has grown to easily rival the sustainability of these systems as well.
the influence and effect of the state, changing
the dynamics of local and global food systems. In light of the state of agriculture, there is agreement
Consequently, we will not advance effectively in a number of important areas even across the
unless we address how public policy and private distinctive world views embodied in the four diverse
sector investment choices integrate toward a groups that undertook this process: Policy and Trade;
common and shared good. Business Specialists; Rural Livelihoods and Poverty;
• Agriculture is one of the biggest threats to a healthy and Environmental Sustainability. Being explicit about
environment. It uses most of our available fresh both the differences and the areas of consensus
water and some 20,000–50,000 km2 of potentially enables us to focus on realistic efforts right now.
Acknowledgements
and mediator, it convenes leaders in the public, private, Allen Blackman (Senior Fellow, Resources for the Future, USA)
and civic sectors to solve problems and advance John Buchanan (Director, Food Security, Conservation
good public policy through productive dialogue. The International, USA)
Keystone Center facilitates Field to Market, an alliance José Joaquín Campos Arce (Director-General, CATIE, Costa Rica)
of producers, agribusinesses, food companies, John Coonrod (Executive Vice President, The Hunger Project,
USA)
retailers, and conservation organizations that is
Amanda DeSantis (Leader, Sustainability Initiatives, DuPont USA)
working to facilitate quantification and identification of
Michael Doane with Brian Lowry and Tom Nickson (Sustainable
key environmental and socioeconomic sustainability
Agriculture Policy, Monsanto Company (USA)
outcomes and metrics, foster industry-wide dialogue,
Bill Even (Senior Manager, Biotech Affairs and Regulatory,
and generate processes for continued improvement in
Pioneer Hi-Bred International USA)
sustainable commodity agricultural production.
Emile Frison (Director-General, Bioversity International, Italy)
Dennis Garrity (Director-General, World Agroforestry Centre, Kenya)
Danielle Nierenberg, Karen Hansen-Kuhn, Sophia
Celia Harvey (Vice-President, Conservation International, USA)
Murphy, Shiney Varghese and Adam Drewnowski all
Carl Hausmann (Managing Director, Global Government and
contributed important data and research for the paper. Corporate Affairs , Bunge Limited, US)
Charlotte Hebebrand (Chief Executive,, International Food &
Dozens of experts representing many different Agricultural Trade Policy Council USA)
countries offered their views for the paper. Of course, Hans Herren (President, Millennium Institute, USA)
the views represented in synthesis do not necessarily Jikun Huang (Director, Center for Chinese Agricultural Policy –
reflect the contributors’ specific views or the specific Chinese Academy of Sciences China)
endorsement of the entities they represent. The Wes Jackson (The Land Institute, USA)
overall paper is an independent synthesis of many Robbin Johnson (President, Cargill Foundation and Senior
views wherein some consensus points have emerged. Advisor, Global Policy Studies, University of Minnesota, USA)
Despite the diversity of sectors represented here, Nancy Karanja (Professor, University of Nairobi, Urban Harvest,
Kenya)
we feel that there could be even more producer,
consumer, or rural community representatives in the Melinda Kimble (Sr. Vice President for Programs, United Nations
Foundation US)
mix. As we look to downscale these conversations in
Claire Kremen (Professor, University of California–Berkeley, USA)
the future from the global scale to the more regional/
Robert Lawrence (Professor of Environmental Health Sciences,
national/local scale, any conversation on sustainability
The Center for a Livable Future, the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg
should directly involve the producers themselves. School of Public Health, USA)
Ted Lefroy (Professor, University of Tasmania, Australia)
We would like to acknowledge the more than Helio Mattar (President, Akatu Institute for Conscious
60 contributors from 23 countries for the time and Consumption, Brazil)
thoughtful inputs that have enriched this process. Peter May (President, International Society for Ecological
Alphabetically they are: Economics and Professor Federal Rural University of Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil)
Ricardo Abramovay (Professor of Economics, University of São Monique Mikhail (Sustainable Agriculture Policy Adviser, Oxfam
Paulo, Brazil) GB, United Kingdom)
Bina Agarwal (Director and Professor of Economics, The David Molden (Director General, ICIMOD, Nepal)
Institute of Economic Growth, University of Delhi, India) Luis Genaro Muñoz (General Manager, National Federation of
Juliana Albertengo (Program Manager, Agricultura Certificada, Coffee Growers, Colombia)
Aapresid, Argentina) Mark Murphy (AVP Corporate Affairs, Cargill, USA)
Telmo J.C. Amado and colleagues (Professor, Federal University Amon Murwira (Professor, University of Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe)
of Santa Maria, Brazil)
Keith Newhouse (Director of Business Development, Winfield
Markus Arbenz (Executive Director, Int’l Federation of Organic Solutions, Land O’Lakes USA)
Contents
Executive Summary iii
Acknowledgements vii
1. Introduction 1
Brief background 2
Methodology 3
2. State of agriculture and food: An overview 5
2.1 Introduction: The food challenge 6
Challenges to food security 8
Waste 9
The challenges of emerging dietary habits for human health and ecosystem health 10
Pressures on food prices 12
2.2 Shifting organization of the agriculture sector 14
Shifting roles and governance from public to private 15
Role of firms in governance 16
Integration and global markets 17
Increased role of technology and innovation 18
Increased concentration and dependence in food supply 20
2.3 External challenges 22
Increase in population 22
Agricultural land degradation and water scarcity 22
Climate change 24
Energy market impacts on agriculture 25
Rethinking agriculture’s role in the ecosystem: a necessary multifunctionality 26
2.4 Conclusion 27
3. Main challenges and priorities of global thought leaders 29
Themes addressed 30
3.1 Policy Group 30
Introduction: Successes and challenges 30
The Importance of technology and innovation 31
Shifts in research and development to facilitate innovation 31
Shifts in policy to incentivize prudent use of limited resources 32
Trade and markets 33
Focus on smallholders is crucial 34
Waste and consumption 34
3.2 Rural Livelihoods and Poverty Group 35
Climate change 35
Water 35
Soil quality 36
1. Introduction
familiar with one aspect of our science today. They environmental degradation, and political instability due
too faced the reality that people with diverse values to higher food costs or shortages. The issues are not
and politics, even diverse levels of tolerance for risk, those of political bickering but issues of the quality
tend to have diverse interpretations of evidence and of life and even death for considerable numbers of
science. Today, this is further fueled by vast amounts people. Even where food appears plentiful, in the more
of data that makes it easier to select the data that suits affluent realms of many decision makers, the available
a particular world-view and bolsters a position. choices in our agri-food systems are exacerbating
lifestyle and consumption patterns that are leading
The result is that we may be increasingly operating in to costly health crises as substantial portions of the
mental silos wherein our selected world view leads us population – about one-third in the US alone – are
to believe that we are correct and perhaps uniquely so. becoming significantly overweight and even obese.
Of course, mental silos imply distinct and sometimes From too much to too little, food is so primal and so
parochial limitations in so much as they intrinsically interwoven into our world views that it can be difficult
constrain and shelter our world view. Mental silos to look at the evidence with a neutral, open mind.
further influence our choices of what to measure, thus
spiraling toward an ever more inward looking approach The goal of the paper is to bring to light the “high
that is, in many ways, the antithesis of good science. impact” areas for consideration by decision-makers,
focusing on areas of consensus and areas where
There are heated debates about the “right” policies decisions will have to be taken. The contributors to
for the agriculture and food sector that could lead to this report are a very diverse group of global agri-food
sustainable development, and these are sometimes leaders that see the value of stepping outside of their
fundamentally divergent because they are typically silos. Each of these leaders proposes key avenues to
grounded in specific world views. Those views shape move forward and points to the roadblocks in the way.
attitudes towards dimensions such as government By synthesizing these approaches we see areas of
intervention, how distributional issues should be convergence. We can also see the areas of divergence
addressed, and the roles of corporations and markets and thus better determine what is missing or what
in society. There has often been a tendency for the needs to be convincingly demonstrated in order to get
proponents of different world views to advocate greater agreement. The purpose of this report is not to
for “silver bullets” or blanket policies. However, in diminish or deny any approach toward sustainability;
order to grasp the choices we face in addressing the instead it is to explore the potential value of each in the
challenges of the sector it is necessary to be free of spirit of open scientific inquiry.
our silos and honestly consider all the options. This
is critical if proposed policies are to be tested not The consensus of these thought leaders on both
only in light of past development experience but also innovative and of well-developed approaches is a
considered in an integrated manner that accounts valuable starting point to go beyond merely partisan
for the emerging – rather than the past – economic, discussions. Finding the areas of common ground
social, and environmental context. keep discussions and collaboration open and that
spirit itself could be a prerequisite of sustainability.
This paper is a dedicated attempt to open the silos
and to invite reasoned discussion, not so much about
distinct values or politics, but about the range of food Methodology
and agriculture evidence and the likely scenarios
that we will jointly face. It stems from a belief that the We solicited input from dozens of leading experts
issues we face are serious. Our agri-food systems in different dimensions of sustainable agriculture,
The complementary topics of finance, logistics, price The overall process was designed and managed by
volatility, food sovereignty, subsidies and trade were the Project Coordinator who drafted the final report in
also covered as each contributor deemed appropriate. collaboration with the Group Coordinators.
We also asked that they consider the following in their In the final section of this paper, we will synthesize
replies, the role of: key areas of agreement, complementarity, and
• Governments (enabling framework, taxes and disagreement among the diverse groups of expert
incentives, role in research and extension) contributors. The narrative thus strives to provide a
• Markets (including post-harvest) and consumption balanced view of the relative frequency and emphasis
(prices, access, demand trends) of the views expressed. In many areas, quotations
• Farmers and their organizations highlight salient arguments and examples that
• Business, supply chains, and power relations within powerfully express or illustrate key messages of each
the chains group.
1050
2009
1000
950
2008
2010
900
1979-81
1969-71 1990-92
850
2005-07
2000-02
800
1995-97
750
Source: FAO. 2011. Rural Poverty Report. Rome – using other FAO publications sources: “State of Food Insecurity in the World” and “Global
Hunger Declining but Still Unacceptably High.
Figure 2.3 is based on characteristics of 1387 foods from the Food and Nutrient Database for Dietary Studies and the Center for Nutrition Policy and
Promotion food prices database. Depictive photos are representative of category; price is based on averages within the group.
Source: Drewnowski, Adam. 2010. The cost of US foods as related to their nutritive value. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2010 November;
92(5): 1181–1188.
Grain products 63 26
Fresh Vegetables 54 25
Red meat 31 19
Eaten Wasted
Poultry 20 13
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Kg per person, per year
Note: Includes small levels of natural loss, other than waste, coming from shrinkage (moisture loss), loss from mold, pests, etc.
Source: Buzby, Jean, Jeffrey Hyman, Hayden Stewart, Hodan Wells. 2011. The Value of Retail- and Consumer-Level Fruit and Vegetable Losses
in the United States. The Journal of Consumer Affairs. Vol 45, Issue 3, p. 492-515.
In addition to the waste and loss, the additional them obese.26 Obesity is just one of these challenges
conversion of some foods to non-human uses (i.e. that, according to the World Health Organization and
animal feed) then up to half the world’s harvest several medical journals, predisposes a population to
disappears between field and the table. While a numerous related chronic ailments from diabetes to
substantial percentage of the world’s grain output cardiovascular disease, hypertension, stroke, and even
today is fed to animals, The World Bank notes that at certain forms of cancer.27 A number of countries in
least 11 percent of the world’s corn crop is fed to cars Asia, the Middle East, Northern Europe, the Americas,
and trucks in the form of biofuels, as are many other and the Pacific now have increasingly overweight and
food crops such as soybean, canola and sugarcane.23 obese populations and the specific characteristics and
In terms of efficiency, livestock is challenged by quantities of foods they eat have become a serious threat
many other food sources. For example, soy – a major to their health.28 The numbers may be difficult to believe.
livestock feed – can provide up to 15 times more protein In the U.S., a majority is overweight and a third of the
per hectare than livestock.24 Many less well-known adult population is obese.29 Conversely, and somewhat
legumes also have higher levels of digestible protein. paradoxically, nearly 15% of the U.S. population is food
insecure.30 The trend toward food-related illness is not
limited to the US and not even to the most affluent
The challenges of emerging dietary countries; the issue is emerging in developing countries
habits for human health and ecosystem as well.31
health
Changing dietary habits, particularly among the fast-
For the first time in history, among both poor and affluent growing populations of developing countries, are creating
segments of society, the quality of nutrition and diet an increased demand for milk and meat-based proteins
poses entirely new health care challenges that we have with considerable implications for food production,
never faced on a wide scale.25 Globally, there are more processing, and retail systems (see Fig. 2.5).32 Livestock
than 1 billion overweight adults, at least 300 million of is a significant source of nutrition and even non-food
250
200
US$ adjusted
150
100
50
0
11
0
91
92
93
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
05
06
07
08
09
10
12
04
94
9
20
20
20
19
19
20
20
19
19
19
19
19
20
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
20
19
20
Source: FAO and deflated using the World Bank Manufactures Unit Value Index (MUV) rebased from 1990 =100 to 2002–2004=100.
The reemergence of high and volatile prices in Higher prices incentivize increased production and
2010, following a brief drop in prices in the wake of are positive for farmers who are able to benefit
the global financial crisis, suggest that the current from access to markets. For consumers, however,
situation is different in important respects to previous particularly those that are poor, the effects can be
episodes of price volatility (such as occurred in the daunting. Many of those classed as being in extreme
early 1970s), in large part because it is persisting poverty spend nearly 70% of their incomes on food.52
longer and may signal a transition to higher prices The roughly one billion undernourished are all too
and increased volatility. easily joined by several billion others at the margins of
Figure 2.7 Official development assistance to agriculture declines sharply since 1975
Share and level of ODA to agriculture Source of ODA to agriculture ODA to agriculture by region (billion 2004 US$)
Billion (2004 US$) Percentage Billion (2004 US$) Billion (2004 US$)
10 20 5 5
8 16 4 4
6 12 3 3
4 8 2 2
2 4 1 1
0 0 0 0
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
Share (% of agriculture to total ODA) MFIs Bilateral Africa Latin America Asia
The growth of retail chains and supermarkets around large processing, trading, and retail firms,” along with the
the world has changed food distribution systems. In “disappearance of traditional auction or spot markets
some cases, this can create new market opportunities. for exchange of farm products and their replacement by
In others it leads to new challenges to food producers various forms of contracts and vertical control,” mean
facing a limited number of buyers, and to consumers major structural changes in the way markets operate.91
dealing with larger but fewer retail outlets.90 Globally, The Government Accountability Office in the United
“Increasing consolidation and market domination by States (2009) similarly reports that: 92
Sub-Saharan Africa 88
Source: based on Cline, W. R. 2007. Global Warming and Agriculture: Impact Estimates by Country. Washington D.C.: Peterson Institute.
Experts predict that the next generation of biofuel Eco-agriculture systems therefore seek to strike a
technology will more effectively convert lignocellulosic balance between production outputs, biodiversity
materials to fuels and engage agroforestry and conservation, diversified nutrition, and livelihoods.131
community forestry to ease pressure on food crops Agriculture will have to become an active partner,
while having potential benefits for carbon and forests. along with other sectors, in managing resources and
Significant potential also exists in the conversion of the environment for multiple and interrelated purposes:
micro-algae to biofuel.122 providing goods and services for both private and
public benefit.132 Such a paradigm of multifunctionality
Given that the price of oil now has a more direct effect is thus emerging and, if nurtured, can address several
on the price of corn (previously more indirectly as of the most pressing challenges for agriculture and our
fuel costs of energy-intensive fertilizers), these trends resources.
arouse concern as an increasing number of people in
developing countries are dependent on international In some cases, these multiple functions can be
markets for their food. Agriculture uses seven times achieved at a farm level but, more typically, these
more synthetic fertilizer today than a half a century eco-agriculture landscapes require coordination
ago although food production has not increased by among diverse stakeholders. For example, land
as much.123 Most countries are fertilizer importers. managers and resource users downstream may not
Thus high petroleum prices could depress the use of have the resources or the mandate to influence land
fertilizers that have facilitated much of the increase in management upstream that affects their production
farm production during the past half century.124 or resource access. Key resources that will have
an immediate impact such as water can only be
managed in this way as an integrated landscape.
Rethinking agriculture’s role in the These productive landscapes manifest together as a
ecosystem: a necessary multifunctionality mosaic of interdependent production and conservation
functions that, when managed as a whole, are
Energy, industry, and urban development all compete greater than the sum of parts. Emphasizing the
with farmers and will have to increasingly share the inter-relatedness and the importance of cooperation
But, ultimately, data collection is not enough. On the other hand, Raj Patel, Honorary Research
Suppan says any global soil partnership launched Fellow at the School of Development Studies,
at the upcoming Rio+ 20 meeting should not wait University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa and visiting
for completion of a global soil survey to agree on scholar, UC Berkeley’s Center for African Studies,
a dedicated fund for soil building. There is already says that the main issue, and one that he fears will
a considerable body of scientific and traditional be the barrier to consensus, “is whether large-scale
knowledge that can be applied to help farmers now.157 capitalist agriculture is part of the problem or the
solution.” Conventional agricultural practices, which
are highly dependent on fossil fuels, continue to be
Rural livelihoods and the role of small promoted by many governments and agricultural
holders: Encouraging agroecological research institutions as the way forward for developing
farming practices world farmers. On the other hand, there is a great
need to popularize agroecological practices and
Many of the contributors point to the important role provide opportunities to scale them up for different
that agroecological farming practices (defined as communities, countries, and regions. Many of the
methods and practices that increase organic nutrient contributors expressed the need for global extension
inputs, retention, and use to build soil organic matter, and knowledge-sharing effort to promote the scaling
increase soil moisture retention, and reduce the up of agroecological practices. These practices can
need for synthetic fertilizers158 ) have in increasing have multiple benefits, including increasing yields and
yields and improving livelihoods. Coonrod writes improving soil health, while also reduce the amount of
that the introduction of agroecological techniques, inputs, including artificial fertilizers.
including micro-dose fertilizer, has been one of
the most important trends in land management in
the past twenty years. These techniques serve to Encouraging cooperation and farmer
minimize cost and environmental impact while greatly organization and improving extension
increasing yields.159 Several contributors discuss
the need to move away from high-input and capital- Many methods, such as community rainwater
intensive agriculture to agroecological practices. “This harvesting and forest management, hold great
includes a recognition that ‘new technology’ does not promise, but cannot be done by individual
only apply to external inputs, but to agroecological households to be effective – they, in essence, need
practices, innovations, and adaptations continually a village. Agarwal suggests increasing “institutional
occurring on smallholder fields,” noted Mikhail. innovations which focus on community and small
Allen Blackman, Senior Fellow at Resources for Several of the contributors mention the connection
the Future, encourages “building political and between food safety and new technologies. Stephen
community support for natural resource management Ruvuga, Executive Director of the National Network of
in developing countries,” something that could be Farmers Groups in Tanzania, mentions the popularity
reinforced through better extension services, as well of the idea that GMOs will save Africa, which is
as increasing the role farmers groups play in spreading questionable in terms of GMOs benefits, costs and
innovations. impacts.165 According to del Castillo, the possible
influence on human health of GMOs and hormones in
Women farmers groups also need more support. vegetal and animal production, respectively, are the
Coonrod emphasizes the importance of women most important issues emerging over the last 20 years
farmers for the global food system and environment. with relation to food safety.
He argues that building and strengthening women
farmers’ organizations should be the first step taken in In a related topic, Lawrence warns that the misuse
the next few years in order to improve their livelihoods of antibiotics threatens food health: “The misuse of
sustainably.162 antibiotics as growth promoters in industrial food
animal production has produced a significant increase
in antibiotic resistant bacteria, threatening the safety
Research and extension with small- of the food supply, including vegetable crops irrigated
holders with contaminated water.”166
Suppan mentions that, unfortunately, most While new technologies are often tossed about as a
new research conducted by governments, potential solution to problems plaguing agriculture
intergovernmental institutions, and the private sector in developing countries, many new technologies
focuses on a few grains and oilseeds, and a few are unknown, unaffordable, and inaccessible
livestock varieties.163 Del Castillo, Lawrence, Karanja, to smallholder farmers who form the majority of
Njenga, and Mikhail mention that governments producers in most of Africa. Ruvuga states that
need to put more money into research, but research increasing research should be devoted to technologies
specifically focused on the needs of smallholders. that are appropriate for such farmers.167
Others point out that the needs of women farmers
should be part of the research as well. Helio Mattar mentions the role consumers play in
whether these new technologies flourish. He says
Mikhail discusses that extension and knowledge- “Consumers have tended to demand healthier and
sharing will impact most of the other categories. safer food. Research has shown that impacts on
Environmental Sustainability
Salient trends and looming challenges
Group184
In the past several years, the research community has
Introduction: Many shades of green produced a very strong knowledge foundation about
the major trends, impacts, challenges, and alternative
The impacts of industrial agriculture and the Green
scenarios for food, agriculture, land, and water. As a
Revolution in the last half of the twentieth century are
result of this work, there is far less disagreement about
now widely known and well documented: agricultural
the nature and causes of these challenges than about
research, investment, and innovation boosted yields
the most appropriate solutions. Nonetheless, differing
dramatically and reduced hunger and poverty in
interpretation of past events (and the relative emphasis
many regions.185 Yet, these gains created enormous
placed on different factors) tends to frame differing
damage to ecosystems, biodiversity and climate –
worldviews and future courses of action. It is thus helpful
through both agricultural expansion and intensification
to highlight some salient trends of the past 20–30 years
– while failing to address the needs of hundreds of
identified by experts with especially strong sustainability
millions of poor people.186 Going forward, there is
and agroecological perspectives. As indicated below,
widespread agreement that farmers must produce
experts tended to emphasize the detrimental aspects of
more food per unit of land, water, other inputs, and
recent trends in agriculture and food systems, (without
environmental impact. Even most advocates of
necessarily negating the benefits that such systems have
large-scale and industrial, input-driven agriculture
provided to many). These detrimental impacts frame the
acknowledge the need to increase input use efficiency,
key challenges to forging a more sustainable alternative
reduce environmental impacts, and consider social
set of systems in the coming decades.
Trend Effect
Policy, investments, and business models favor medium- Declining incomes for most farmers; smallholder distress; failure to
and large-scale farmers over smallholders and pastoralists address rural poverty and the Millennium Development Goals
Replacement of traditional agroecosystem management Rapid increase in the environmental footprint of agriculture
and endogenous inputs with synthetic external inputs and (including greenhouse gas emissions); dependence of agriculture on
technology packages unsustainable sources of energy, nutrients, and water; focus on a
small number of crops
Reduction in agricultural system diversity, at the gene, Increased vulnerability and fragility of food and agriculture systems
species, farm, and landscape levels; homogenization (including to climate change); accelerating loss of wild biodiversity
of agricultural landscapes through both expansion and intensification
Increased pressure on local land and resource endowments, Land degradation, widespread soil erosion, declining soil fertility,
often driven by population growth and market forces, and and desertification; dispossession of vulnerable farmers and rural
exacerbated by weak governance and social conflict people; rural-urban migration
Globalization and consolidation of food distribution and Declining nutritive quality of foods; rise in diet-linked disease;
markets; growing urban populations; consumer choice monopolization of supply chains and reduced farmer control over
and food marketing favors processed foods production
Increased world population, increased aggregate food Rapid increase in the environmental footprint of agriculture;
demand, and increased demand for higher-impact foods deforestation; increased opportunities for product marketing and
(e.g., meat, dairy, and air-freighted foods) trade
All of the above Decline in ecosystem services from and to agricultural systems
Population trends and nutrition security As we look to expanding the promise of technologies
we need to adapt them to smallholder farming for
On a global basis, the agricultural and food system use in developing countries. In addition, we will need
faces the significant challenge of a projected world to expand capacity development for the utilization
population of 9 billion by mid-century. Even with global of these technologies across all farming regimes.
growth in the absolute number of undernourished, the Research in these areas needs to be stepped up and
total numbers of undernourished people is significantly this requires more training of scientists, especially
lower in parts of Asia today, despite continued high African scientists. New solutions have to be sought
population growth. The frequency of famine in Africa that are environmentally sustainable while increasing
has significantly diminished, thanks in part to an productivity, against a backdrop of a world where the
upgrade in famine early warning and food aid delivery climate is changing. Greater understanding of linkages
systems. But with a predicted population growth of between healthy ecosystems, ecosystem services,
2 billion more than present, and three times more per food production and human-wellbeing is fundamental
capita income, consuming twice as much as today,195 to developing this definition of sustainable productivity.
food sufficiency will be a major concern, especially
in the developing world. Crop production will have In Africa, small land parcels are often not economically
to double to meet this demand. Building a resilient viable, and there is a need for land policies that can
and sustainable agricultural and food system is our strive to consolidate parcels or to get smallholder
only solution. This sustainable food system will have farmers into cooperatives to ensure economics of
to account for natural resource inputs, adapting scale in training and marketing, or agro-processing.
agricultural practices, bringing a sustainability Women play an important role in small shareholder
framework into the global and local markets, and agricultural production, particularly in Africa, and
improving supply chains to be more resilient. programs and policies targeted at women are also
important. A number of African countries including
Mozambique, Mali and Kenya have amended
Sustainability and rural livelihoods legislation to allow women to inherit land. Now that
this has happened, women will be able to farm their
Rural smallholder farmers, particularly in developing land with surety, and to invest in their soils. Funding
and least developed countries, still account for the organizations now have to reciprocate to ensure
Technology 1 1 1.25
3rd
Bio-based products (including biofuel) 0.25 0.25
Note: Responses weighted equally and adjusted to each of the four thematic groups accounting for 25% of the total to eliminate
overrepresentation of groups with more contributors. The Policy group had 3 write-in votes (one in each ranking) for “non-distorted trade system”
and the Agricultural Production and Environmental Sustainability group had 8 write-in votes (all ranking third) for “consumption and demand
patterns” and “markets-supply chains”.
4.2 What a new era for agriculture 1. Organized small and medium farmers, fully
including women farmers, should be a primary
looks like: Consensus areas
focus of investment – recognizing that private
enterprise will play a significant role in many
In light of the State of Agriculture and the Main Trends
solutions
and Challenges identified in section two and the main
2. Define the goal in terms of human nutrition rather
visions of different world views elaborated in section
than simply “more production”
three,208 this section looks at where there is agreement
3. Pursue high yields within a healthy ecology – they
and where there is not. Being explicit about both the
are not mutually exclusive and policy and research
differences and the areas of consensus enables us to
must reflect that
focus on realistic efforts right now.
4. Impel innovation and the availability of diverse
technologies suitable in different socioeconomic
Important areas of consensus emerged among all four
and ecological contexts
groups as being necessary for a sustainable food and
5. Significantly reduce waste along the entire food
agriculture system.209 Nine key areas have been further
chain
developed and formulated here as the key paths of
action:
1. Organized small and medium farmers, fully • Private enterprise will play a major role in any
including women farmers, should be a primary solutions. Companies have enormous impacts that
focus of investment can be positive or negative. Few policy tools are
as effective as market and price signals to value
Both food security and environmental benefits, especially and foster the key public goods and societal values
in developing countries, will continue to depend upon that can be generated by agricultural landscapes.
increased and more secure production among small and Companies have enormous impacts, so it will be
medium farmers. And they have proven that they can do vital to learn how to appropriately manage and
it. In parts of peri-urban China the yields of food crops incentivize firms to ensure that their activities result
on small parcels of land (less than one hectare) provide in public benefits even if these may sometimes be
not only diversified subsistence for the household but intrinsically less profitable in the short term.
also substantial supplies of marketable produce as well
– all without excessive agrochemical use.210 Even where
markets are lacking in urban areas, such as Havana and What
Dar es Salaam, for example, a substantial percentage
of the cities’ total fresh food comes from very small 2. Define the goal in terms of human nutrition
intensively farmed urban plots within both cities.211 So, rather than simply “more production”
farm scale itself is less the problem than the ability to
cooperate and get access to necessary resources such • Agriculture policy and investment will be
as knowledge, financing, markets, and inputs. smarter to focus on improved human health and
access to nutrition, and not only on increasing
• Farmer organizations and extension services food supply. We are simultaneously faced with
are indispensable. These require consistent public record numbers of malnourished people and an
policy and friendly institutional support in order explosion of obesity and diet–related diseases.
to thrive. Extension must also be co-managed Since food crises and malnourishment occur even
and evaluated by producers and adequately in countries that have adequate production and are
incentivized so as to tailor public-private models net exporters, access to nutrition is a vital issue.
of extension for both their effectiveness and their Yet, the consistent failure of structural mechanisms
overall sustainability impact. to shift food from abundant sources to areas of
• It makes sense not to completely rely on them for • Invest in water-conscious agricultural systems.
all the solutions to this complex problem. If food Water’s role in agriculture is pivotal, particularly to
security is also perceived as a national security generate the necessary increases in productivity.
issue, then it is smart to have balanced policies There is complete agreement that many fresh
that – while continuing to refine and improve the water sources are in decline and agriculture is
trade regimes and market delivery systems – also increasingly competing for water resources while
stimulate more localized resiliency and self- water quality is also deteriorating in many parts
provision of at least some foods rather than having of the world. The adoption of conservation tillage,
marginal groups rely solely on purchasing and modern genetics (not necessarily GMOs) and
markets.214 If done with care for environmental mechanical or drip irrigation can further increase
and social concerns, localized systems can also the amount of ‘crop per drop’. Policies that
offer an opportunity to improve local well-being by support the concept of multifunctional agriculture
fostering greater crop and nutrition diversity. can contribute to water quality at the landscape
level and remedy contamination with improved
management of erosion and of nutrient or biocide
It is foolish to depend completely on local
applications. Fair allocation and sometimes
foods or completely on trade, both are
pricing of scarce water resources can encourage
valuable for food security
increased efficiency by all users.
• Subsidies for foods that do not contribute to • To conserve our remaining biodiversity, the best
public health must be eliminated. Public funding option is to focus on rehabilitating agricultural
should support not only research for low-cost, and pastoral areas that have been eroded and
high-nutrition options but also the systems of degraded, rather than converting new lands
access to sound nutrition (e.g. via schools and since most suitable new land is a repository for
local markets). The current food system’s valuable important biodiversity or otherwise fragile. Soil
technical breakthroughs in increased shelf-life and health determines the productivity and resilience
variety are increasingly overshadowed by the issue of agriculture and, along with valuable soil organic
of nutrition quality since some foods are associated matter, soil health is in decline in many agricultural
with a variety of ailments including heart disease, areas.215
some cancers, diabetes, and obesity.
• Climate-smart production systems will be
3. Pursue high yields within a healthy ecology – vital for necessary adaptation. Agriculture both
they are not mutually exclusive and policy and contributes to climate change (GHG emissions
research must reflect that mostly via livestock, deforestation, and fertilizers)
and is also in turn affected by the shifts in climate.
• Agriculture will become a central feature Impacted areas will need to rely on food from
in the management of healthy ecosystems healthy regional and international markets. At
and multifunctionality will become a key the same time, food production must adapt and
consideration as we evolve beyond just ‘yield become more resilient. Even where agricultural
per hectare’ to broader working definitions of conditions could benefit from climate change (i.e.,
‘productivity’ in agricultural landscapes that more rain in semi-arid areas or higher temperatures
encompass valued ecosystem services such in cold regions) the near-term benefits are still
Simplicity may be why governments and development • Biofuels, particularly second and third
agencies overlook such efforts in favor of more generation technologies218, have potential
sophisticated technologies. Simple cost-benefit to provide more energy security and even
analysis coupled with a practical understanding of contribute to rural livelihoods but they are
how technology spreads can facilitate thousands of counter-productive when they divert arable
such simple innovations. Indeed, without such simple land and food sources. Using sound metrics to
technological precursors, it is considerably riskier to understand the outcomes will likely suggest that
introduce more sophisticated technology. The global any support or subsidy only apply to biofuels that
interest in identifying, stimulating, and transferring do not negatively impact the food economy.
practical innovation needs to manifest in visible
incentives and investment to encourage systemic 7. Insist on intelligent measurement of results –
innovation and reward breakthroughs across the we cannot manage what we cannot measure
entire food system and especially at the local level.
• In an era of “big data”, agriculture is tera-miles
Rather than operate with a false dichotomy behind. We must use our new technical impact
between high yields and healthy ecology, we measurement ability to drive performance-
must evolve technology complementarity to play based investment and more informed policy. 219
multiple roles of improving both inputs and natural Improved science-based metrics are emerging
resource management in the same system. 217 To do to define common and comparable indicators of
this requires moving away from the outdated pipeline sustainability based on empirical data. Advances
model of research and innovation toward models that in several fields now enable more comprehensive
create inclusive learning alliances that engage farmers, understanding of what works and what does
private firms, and civil society organizations alongside not. So, for the first time, we can assess not only
researchers and policymakers. simple economic or financial outcomes but the
accompanying social and environmental ones as
well.220 If we can thus better manage our outcomes
Technologies will become increasingly
we can better devise learning pathways and
democratized and more widely available in
guide smart investments and policy toward those
low-cost forms. They can be game-changers.
approaches that provide effective multi-dimensional
solutions while elucidating the relative efficiency
5. Significantly reduce waste along the entire food or distortionary effects of tools such as subsidies,
chain green incentives, and environmental taxes.
Will large or small In order to provide adequate food • Recognize that smallholders will likely continue to play a key part
scale farming along with necessary social and globally in the coming two decades
best deliver food environmental benefits, do we • Rather than large vs. small, apply research to better understand
security? focus principally on larger scale when each is appropriate
capital and technology-based • Critical to have good governance systems that account for both
intensification or also on more large and small scale agriculture to promote equitable land and
traditionally-oriented agriculture natural resource control, positive environmental outcomes,
intensification? market access, and nutrition security
• Provide institutional support and funding for smallholder
associations to facilitate scale and aggregation
• Test existing evidence of highly productive small farm systems,
can they be adapted and spread?
• Integrate balanced measures of both productive efficiency and
multi-functionality in the research on scale agriculture
What roles should How can we overcome the • Joint government, private and civil leadership efforts with
corporations considerable distrust of transparent and balanced representation
have in our food corporations to deliver well on • Explore how we can realize the market efficiency benefits of
systems? sustainability? corporate supply systems without sacrificing all farmer and
Can intellectual property rights be consumer control
formulated such that they stimulate • Transparent and neutral bodies pledged to measure and report
innovation and are not negative for consistently on key indicators to ensure commitments are
poor farmers? honored
• Incentivizing innovation (i.e. tax breaks) around key food crops
for the poor to reduce or eliminate royalties and IP burdens for
them
• Innovate ways of sharing public-private value of genetic
resources
What agricultural What is the optimal balance More practical research to understand:
production between input-based (e.g. • the knowledge gaps to deliver both significant ecosystem
technologies synthetic fertilizers or biocides) services and high levels of production.
will best deliver and ecologically-based production • trade-offs in balancing high production levels with potential
sustainable food approaches (e.g. bio-controls, negative human or environmental consequences
security? compost)? • how to improve efficiency and reduce volumes of any
applications, whether natural or synthetic, by better tailoring to
particular farming systems and farming regions
• how to evolve better management of natural biological
(and lower-cost) alternatives that have equal or better net
effectiveness, particularly for smaller farmers who cannot
consistently rely on having non-renewable off-farm inputs.
What role could - Is fear preventing development of • New forms of governance, continuing dialogue, and public-
GMOs play in useful tools for food security? private collaboration need to be carefully engineered if these
improving food - Can concerns about the potential capabilities are to be harnessed to provide a balance of both
security? for negative long-term health and public and private benefits.
environmental impacts be eased? • Distinguish genetic breeding from cross-species GMOs to avoid
- Reflecting the lessons of the demonization of technology advances that are more commonly
recent financial crises, can private agreed upon by experts as simple and safe
decisions adversely affect our • Continue research on potential benefits and risks but with
public food system? broader participation for credibility
- Can the technology be effective • Increase assistance to developing countries to develop and
for poorer producers and food implement bio-safety regimes
insecure areas? • Identify ways to address liability concerns
- How will intellectual property • Increase international data-sharing on approvals to reduce trade
rights to genetic resources obstacles
interface with traditional systems
of farmers’ access to seeds and
seed-sharing?
How much Is it wiser to focus on increasing • Better research to compare tradeoffs and synergies of
agrobiodiversity and protecting production of current agrobiodiversity in terms of both food production efficiencies and
should we main crops (i.e., maize, wheat, rice) risks
promote in our for efficiency and food security • Estimate the potential investment and market development costs
farming systems? or to focus more on diversified to achieve commercial viability of agro-biodiverse systems in at
systems with higher crop and least select areas with high agro-biodiversity value.
varietal diversity (i.e., substitutes
for livestock feed, underutilized
species, local foods) for ecological
and climate change resilience?
How can How are we to address the food • explore more efficient practices including decentralized methods
we adapt to and ecological challenges posed and select animals that better fit into a resource-constrained
growing demand by increased consumption of environment
for livestock livestock products if we are • increase education and policy support for optimal balanced diets
products? to meet the nutrition needs of • explore existing tissue research creating meat from industrial,
growing populations? non-animal processes222
How can trade How can countries determine • Rather than a black-white perspective – since shortages of the
best affect food the right mix of trade and other world’s main food crops tend to affect multiple countries and
security? instruments in order to ensure thus call for more agile trade regimes – focus assessments
food security in different country on when selective trade barriers may be temporarily useful to
contexts? protect against subsidized or predatory practices and when they
ought to be removed in the complex equation of food security.
• Ensure that trade negotiations recognize that any viable concept
of free trade must also be a more equitable food and agricultural
trade system that eliminates trade distorting practices.
• Explore how we can optimally combine: a) increased levels of
investment in diverse domestic crops; b) multi-market access;
and c) adequate measures to reduce and cope with increased
price volatility and shortages.
Endnotes
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95 Delgado, Christopher, Clare A. Narrod, and Marites M.
Tiongco with Geraldo Sant’Ana de Camargo Barros, Maria
Angeles Catelo, Achilles Costales, Rajesh Mehta, Viroj
Endnotes
ecosystems can function as a direct source of medicine, Watson (Eds.). 2009. International Assessment of
ritual space, shelter materials and fuel. Agricultural Knowledge, Science and Technology for
129 McCartney, M., L Rebelo, S. Senaratna Sellamuttu, S. de Development. IAASTD, Washington, D.C.
Silva. 2010. Wetlands, agriculture and poverty reduction. 136 HLPE. 2011. Price volatility and food security. A report
Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management by the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and
Institute. Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security: Rome.
Beed, Fen, Anna Benedetti, Gianluigi Cardinali, Sukumar 137 Headey, Derek, Shenggen Fan. 2010. Reflections on the
Chakraborty, Thomas Dubois, Karen Garrett, Michael global food crisis: how did it happen? how has it hurt? and
Halewood. 2011. Climate change and micro-organism how can we prevent the next one? Research Monograph
genetic resources for food and agriculture: state of 165. Wash. D.C.: International Food Policy Research
knowledge, risks and opportunities;. Background Study Institute.
Paper no. 57. Rome: FAO.
138 Prepared by Charlotte Hebebrand under the auspices of
Eswaran, H., R. Lal and P. Reich. 2001. Land degradation:
the International Food & Agricultural Trade Policy Council.
an overview. In: Bridges, E.., I. Hannam, L. Oldeman,
F. Pening de Vries, S. Scherr, S. Sompatpanit (Eds). 139 Clay, Jason. Nature Vol.475, pp 287–289 http://www.
Responses to Land Degradation. Proc. 2nd. International nature.com/nature/journal/v475/n7356/full/475287a.html.
Conference on Land Degradation and Desertification, Khon 140 Prepared by Danielle Nierenberg of Worldwatch Institute’s
Kaen, Thailand. Oxford Press, New Delhi, India. Nourishing the Planet Project.
Turbé, Anne, Arianna De Toni, Patricia Benito, Patrick 141 IPCC (2007) ‘Contribution of Working Group II to the
Lavelle, Perrine Lavelle, Nuria Ruiz, Wim H. Van der Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel
Putten, Eric Labouze, and Shailendra Mudgal. 2010. Soil on Climate Change’, http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_
biodiversity: functions, threats and tools for policy makers. and_data/ar4/wg2/en/contents.html.
Bio Intelligence Service, IRD, and NIOO, Report for
142 A term first mentioned by ecologist Eugene Stoermer but
European Commission.
popularized by Nobel Prize-winning atmospheric chemist
DFID Agriculture and Natural Resources Team and Jules
Paul Crutzen. http://www3.mpch-mainz.mpg.de/~air/
Pretty. 2004. Agricultural sustainability. UK Department for
anthropocene/.
International Development (DFID).
143 “Agriculture at a Crossroads: Global Report.” IAASTD
130 Wood, S., K. Sebastian and S.Scherr. 2000. Pilot
(2009). http://www.agassessment.org/reports/IAASTD/
Assessment of Ecosystems: Agroecosystems. Washington,
EN/Agriculture%20at%20a%20Crossroads_Global%20
D.C.: World Resources Institute.
Report%20(English).pdf.
131 Scherr, Sara and Jeffrey McNeely. 2007. The Challenge for
144 See also the various articles on carbon market “readiness”
Ecoagriculture. In Farming with Nature (Eds) Sara Scherr
projects, a full list of which is provided in the Annex;
and Jeffrey McNeely. Wash., D.C. : Island Press.
“Transitional Committee for the Green Climate Fund of the
132 OECD. 1998. L'agriculture dans un monde en mutation : UN Framework Convention on Climate Change,” Institute
quelles politiques pour demain ? Réunion du Comité de for Agriculture and Trade Policy (IATP), 2011.
l'agriculture au niveau des ministres, Communiqué de
145 The Clean Development Mechanism, defined in Article 12
presse, Paris, 5–6 Mars.
of the Kyoto Protocol, allows a country with an emission-
FAO has used similar terms such as “Multifunctional
reduction or emission-limitation commitment to implement
Character of Agriculture and Land”. Also see: OECD. 2008.
an emission-reduction project in developing countries.
Multifunctionality in Agriculture: Evaluating the Degree of
Such projects can earn saleable certified emission
Jointness, Policy Implication. OECD Publishing: Paris.
reduction (CER) credits, each equivalent to one ton of
133 UNCTAD. 2008. Tackling the global food crisis. Policy Brief. CO2, which can be counted toward meeting Kyoto targets.
Geneva. http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/mechanisms/clean_
134 Future Harvest and IUCN characterized agriculture as the development_mechanism/items/2718.php.
greatest threat to biodiversity. Agriculture, by definition, 146 Sandra L. Postel, “Getting More Crop per Drop”, State of
has a dynamic tension with biodiversity to favor only very the World 2011: Innovations that Nourish the Planet (New
select species but sensible practices can reduce the York: W. W. Norton, 2011), pp. 39–48.
negative impacts on the environment on which it ultimately
depends.
Endnotes
Quality, April 2009, pp. 1,086–108. 2008, at http://www.un.org/issues/food/taskforce/cfa.
167 Gordon Cpnway and Jeff Waage, with Sara Delaney, shtml.
Science and Innovation for Development (London: U.K. 181 Maputo Declaration: Together Shaping Out Future, 4th
Collaborative on Development Sciences, 2010). Summit of ACP Heads of State and Government, Maputo,
168 “FAO. Women in Agriculture: Closing the gender gap for Mozambique (2004) at http://www.acpsec.org/summits/
development. The State of Food and Agriculture 2010– maputo/maputo_declaration_en.html; Joint Statement on
2011. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the Global Food Security (“L’Aquila Food Security Initiative”),
United Nations). Group of 8 (G8), G8 Summit, L’Aquila, Italy (2009) http://
www.g8italia2009.it/static/G8_Allegato/LAquila_Joint_
169 Bina Agarwal, “Food Crises and Gender Inequality,” UN
Statement_on_Global_Food_Security%5B1%5D,0.pdf.
DESA Working Paper No. 107, June 2011.
182 The Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development
170 “Women in Agriculture: Closing the gender gap for
Program (CAADP), http://www.nepad-caadp.net/; The
development,” The State of Food and Agriculture 2010–
Global Agriculture and Food Security Program (GAFSP),
2011, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
http://www.gafspfund.org/gafsp/.
Nations (Rome: FAO, 2011).
183 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
171 Donald Mitchell, “A Note on Rising Food Prices,” World
(UNFCCC). Transitional Committee for the design of
Bank Policy Research Working Paper Series, (Vol 4682),
the Green Climate Fund. http://unfccc.int/cooperation_
July 1, 2008.
and_support/financial_mechanism/green_climate_fund/
172 See also, M. B. Charles, R. Ryan, N. Ryan and R. items/5869.php.
Oloruntoba, “Public policy and biofuels: The way forward,”
184 Prepared under the auspices of EcoAgriculture Partners
Energy Policy,( vol 35, 2007) pp. 5737–5746; Peter Hazell
(Sara J. Scherr and Jeffrey C. Milder).
and R. K. Pachauri (eds.) “Bioenergy and Agriculture:
Promises and Challenges,” International Food Policy 185 Foresight The Future of Food and Farming (2011) Final
Research Institute (2020 Focus No. 14, 2006). Project Report. The Government Office for Science,
London.
173 “The Environmental Food Crisis”, United Nations
International Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge,
Environment Program (UNEP), 2009 at http://www.
Science and Technology for Development (IAASTD). 2009.
unep.org/publications/contents/pub_details_search.
Agriculture at a Crossroads.
asp?ID=4019.
186 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (http://www.maweb.
174 IEA (2010) World Energy Outlook 2010 estimates support
org).
for biofuels in 2009 was $20 billion, the bulk of it in the
USA and EU. This figure is projected to rise to $45 billion 187 FAO (2011) Save and grow: a policymaker’s guide to the
by 2020 and $65 billion by 2035. sustainable intensification of smallholder crop production.
Rome: FAO.
175 Livestock to 2020: The Next Food Revolution. International
Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), 1999. 188 Growth originating in agriculture, in particular the
smallholder sector, is at least twice as effective in
176 GRAIN, Seized! The 2008 Land Grab for Financial and
benefiting the poorest people as growth from non-
Food Security (Barcelona: October 2008).
agricultural sectors. FAO (2010) ‘How to Feed the World’,
177 Ibid. p.2. See also Ha-Joon Chang (2009) ‘Rethinking public
178 United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization policy in agriculture: lessons from history, distant and
(FAO) “Smallholder Farmers in India: Food Security and recent’, Journal of Peasant Studies, Volume 36, Issue 3,
Agricultural Policy” (2002); Beverly D. McIntyre, Hans July 2009, pp.477–515.
R. Herren, Judi Wakhungu, and Robert T. Watson (eds.) 189 Love, C., Carroll, P., and Prior, J. 2010. Building Social
“Agriculture at a Crossroads,” International Assessment Capital to Achieve Sustainable Farm Practices, Section
of Agricultural Knowledge, Science and Technology 3, In Jennings, J., Woodside, D., and Packham, R.
(IAASTD), (2009). (eds) Enabling the Sustainable Management of Natural
179 ‘Agriculture at a Crossroads: Global Report.’ IAASTD Resources and Agricultural Production: The Role of
(2009), at http://www.agassessment.org/reports/IAASTD/ Extension, Australia Pacific Extension Network, Brisbane.
EN/Agriculture%20at%20a%20Crossroads_Global%20 190 Popkin, B. M. (2003). The Nutrition Transition in the
Report%20(English).pdf. Developing World. Development Policy Review, 21(5–6),
581–597. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8659.2003.00225.x
Endnotes
on the global food crisis: how did it happen? how has it
hurt? and how can we prevent the next one? Research
Monograph 165. Washington, D.C.: International Food
Policy Research Institute.
215 About half of agriculture’s positive contribution to climate
change – as a carbon sink – is from soil organic matter;
yet, each year, this is eroding and degrading in many
regions at an alarming rate.
216 See existing systems e.g. Communication Education and
Public Awareness (CEPA).
217 While contributors had diverse perspectives regarding the
role of GMOs, as noted later in this section, they agreed on
many other aspects of technology.
218 Include biofuels that are available from non-food sources
such as grasses, lignocellulose, and algae would not
compete directly with food production and also be
ecologically superior in terms of their land-use impact and
GHG.
219 New technology and methods permit new insights and
advantages. For example: McKinsey Global Institute (“Big
data: The next frontier for innovation, competition, and
productivity”) notes that “Improved data handling ability
opens up many new opportunities and may be “a key
factor in how nations, not just companies, compete and
prosper”. (Brown, Brad, Michael Chui, and James Manyika.
2011 Are you ready for the era of ‘big data’? McKinsey
Quarterly).
220 We are beginning to understand the impact that different
agricultural approaches have on sustainability. Scientific
efforts include: UNDP’s Multidimensional Poverty Index,
Ecological Footprint, Keystone Field to Market, Yale
University/CIESIN Environmental Sustainability Index, and
the Committee on Sustainability Assessment (COSA).
221 Saltuk, Yasemin, Amit Bouri, Giselle Leung 2011. Insight
into the Impact Investment Market. J.P. Morgan and the
Global Impact Investing Network: New York.
222 Tuomisto, Hanna and M. Joost Teixeira de Mattos. 2011.
Environmental Impacts of Cultured Meat Production.
Environmental Science & Technology., 45 (14), pp 6117–
6123.
223 Details vary, but a review of the recent major agriculture
reports from the World Bank, the UK’s Foresight
Programme, IFPRI, Agrimonde, the International
Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge, Science and
Technology for Development and others concur on
the identification of similar challenges and some of the
solutions.