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    Chapter3a Working

    Uploaded by

    Harry Guanous

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    of 9
    zie gnu Bus ‘At each stage in the above we are able to solve each new type of equation by extending the set of numbers in which we are working. Hence, to solve the equation 2” = —1 we introduce ‘a new symbol i (much as we introduced the symbol V2 to solve z* = 2.) We define ¢ to be the (complex) number whose square is —1. ie. i? = —1. Using this new symbol, we can now solve 2? = —1 to obtain solutions x = i. Furthermore, we can define the complex numbers by: Definition: ‘The set of all numbers of the form a + bi where a,b are real numbers and i? = —1 is called the set of all complex numbers and denoted by C. Summary of Basic Rules and Notation: Let 2 = a+ ib,w = c+ id be complex numbers. Then (i) ztw= (ato) +i(btd) (il) zw = (ac — bd) + i(ad + be). (iv) Re(z) =a, Im(z) = b. Example: 2=2-4iw=3+i,findz+w, 2—w, 20, 2 0-3 Beart eclast 4 tee Ff jo +108 = ga’ 10 Ex: Simplify (1 + i)*, (isif’ 2€ aey®s (20) 2 16 CP: Let n be an integer. By considering cases, simplify i" + i"+" + i"*?, Equality: ‘Two complex numbers are equal iff they have the same real and imaginary parts, ie. if 2 =a+bi=w =c-+di then we can conclude that a =c and b= Proof Suftm arhi> ctde anc =(d-h)i , thE: a ce ars deb but Her 6 eR 6 ete ae bef Patee Roots of Unity: ‘A complex number a # 1 is called an n-th root of unit For example, if w* = 1, and w # 1 then we can write, 3 w-l Fe (wr) (wt =O Geweise oe OFT. Example: To show just a little of the power of complex numbers, we seek to find a simple closed formula for C=C Q-C) where n is an integer divisible by 6. We begin by noting that if w is a complex cube root of unity then I + w* +w* can only take the values O70 3 sine ‘ . fe = mull a kets few co keds 3 fo dae hers ptadqw%s [Rate =O oO ers ‘ 24 hess edew’ ef tree 73 fa fale efaah « Now expand out (1 +w)" and (1 +)". add: He ire)” fis’) Gags GCP | a iy bases eh dite eer [REECE food ep tps ee? Hence if ¢ is the largest integer such that 3¢ 1 is a multiple of 4. By expanding (1+i)", (1—#)",(1+1)", and (1 1)", find, in as simple a form as you can, the sum ()+G)+@) eG) Polynomial Equations: We ean now solve ALL quadratic equations. Bx: Solve 52? — dz +1 = 0 and 2? - 32+ (3 +i) = 3 (1-2) wo #2 $f fic-20 "i A Sane, ret zara gu So ¥ ~ Note also that we can find ‘new solutions’ to old equations such as 0. hice TE xl ne Ase (1-9 Genes v Both of these are examples of the following remarkable theorem: ‘Theorem. (Fundamental theorem of algebra, FTA) Suppose plz) = dur" + aqa2"! +--+ + axz + ap is a polynomial, whose co-efficients @y.+++ ya,,a9 axe all real (or complex) numbers, then the equation p(x) = 0 has at least one root in the complex numbers, Corollary: The equation p( bers (counting multiplicity). 0 has exactly n (complex) solutions in the complex num- (The last proviso ‘counting multiplicity’ refers to polynomials which may, for example, have factors such as (x — 2)! in which case the root x = 2 is counted four times.) The above result tells us (among other things) that we do not need to find any larger set of numbers if we want to solve polynomial equations. The complex numbers contain all the roots of every polynomial Solution of Cubics: ‘The FTA tells about existence, but doesn’t give us the machinery to actually find the roots of a polynomial. For quadratics we have the quadratic formula, what about cubics? ‘The first thing to observe is that every cubic equation 2° + px* + gx +r = 0 can be re- written in the following form: x +ar+b=0. ‘This is achieved by the change of variable, a = y ~ §. Example: Remove the square term in: 62? +r +3, Pute=y (yep eyed rare? GAYA ae sys 4° Gyr lay t 8 8 ¢ yr-"y - . Cardano stole from Tartaglia, the secret of solving the cubic. He made the change of variable r= u—v, It is technically easier to put x =u +v. Example Find the real root of 2° + 32 = 1. Alo nem wry? ¢ Bur lary) > ‘ ‘ bin ts 1 Bay =-> 2 avert Strange things can happen when we apply this method to cubics which have three real roots. Example: Solving 2* — 6x +4 = 0 which has x = 2 as one of it roots. Renaud, wave saer ae) 7 CCH) | 3 wats 74 wk = 345 ay x ge WV aad Los rent a-$ imag. ak = We lose the notion of comparison in the complex plane, That is, we cannot say whether one complex number is greater or lesser than another. ‘You have already seen that complex numbers can be expressed either in Cartesian Form, a+ ib,a,b €R. We can also specify a complex number z by specifing the distance of = from the origin and the angle it makes with the positive real axis. This ‘ance is called the modulus and written as |z| while the angle is called the argu- ‘ment and written as Arg(z). We insist, to remove ambiguity, that ~r < Arg(z) <7. Pythagoras’ theorem gives: If z=a+bi then |2| Care must be taken to find the correct argument. It is easiest to find the related angle 0 s that tand = |2| and then use this to find the argument in the correct quadrant. recalling that we, use negative angles in the third and fourth quadrant. Ex: Find the modulus and argument of 2 = —1 + iv@ and w= 1— 2 Iw 7 fea ed Properties of Modulus: ‘The modulus function has the following properties: (i) [zw] = |2/h) 2 = fap’ Provided w #0. =0e2 (iv) 10 Example: (Sums of squares) We can write the integer 5 as 2? +12 = |2 +i]? We can also write the integer 13 as 243? =|2 43%), Hence sla on solar) 32 rae” v is= (Sra) . seeerel +) as) | sence -| ae) Br2)] epiegih cree” | el pend 2 PEO a ‘Try doing the same for 17 and 29. CP: Use the idea above (not expansion) to prove that (a?+b?)(¢2+d?) = (ae—bd)?+(ad-+be)* ‘and conclude that, in general, the product of any two numbers which are each the sum of two integer squares, is itself the sum of the two integer squares. ‘This begs the question: What numbers can be written as the sum of two integer squares? ‘This is a hard problem. Experiment with prime numbers and make a conjecture. CP: Suppose A and B are two points in the complex plane corresponding to the com- plex numbers a = a+b and 8 = ¢ + id respectively. Explain why the triangle OAB is right-angled if and only if la — BP = |al? + [AI B la-3 (al la ° Show that if triangle OAB is right-angled then ac = —bd. Deduce that if triangle OAB is right-angled then Re(aB) = 0 iv Properties of the Argument: We can distinguish between the principal argument of 2, written Arg(z), which is uniquely defined and takes values between —7 and = (excluding —x), and the more general argument, ‘written arg(e), which is a set of values. We have Arg(s) = arg(z) mod 2x, which means That we can recover Arg(2) from arg(z) by adding or subtracting the appropriate multiple of 2r ‘The Argument function has the following properties: (i) Arg(2w) = Arg(2)+Arg(w) mod 2m: (i) Arg(z/w) = Arg(z)—Arg(w) mod 2n. ‘The proofs of these will become apparent later. Ex: Suppose [al < 1, use a diagram to explain why |Arg(}#2) | < ¥ a6. 7 t _ fry (LE) = hy (tee) tp (1on) wt ts (rare 6 | [=a] (12 OP | Pi Rela) Le yo cine ele! sity dhe (toned wnat oti) vor paps MOP 5% | ~ [age

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