Section 1 Population and Settlement

Cambridge IGCSE®
Geography
STUDENT’S BOOK
Now Investigate Answers
Section 1 Population and settlement
Topic 1.1 Population dynamics

Topic 1.2 Migration
Topic 1.3 Population structure
Topic 1.4 Population density and distribution
Topic 1.5 Setlements and service provision
Topic 1.6 Urban settlements
Topic 1.7 Urbanisation
© HarperCollins Publishers 2018 Section 1 : Population and settlement 1

Now
Investigate
Answers Population dynamics
1.1
Page 3: Why are some families larger than others?
1 Biological factors including:

• sterility – the inability to have any children
• infecundity – the inability to produce an abundance of offspring
• effects of later marriage / coupling
• age at first marriage
• health of the mother / mother to be
• genetic (heredity) factors.
Economic factors including:

• occupation of parents
• income of parents / potential parents; desire to avoid financial stress associated with additional children / large
families
• need for agricultural assistance / help running a family business
• need of parents for care when elderly
• career development / progression (particularly of the mother)
• costs of child-rearing from birth to adult independence
• loss of income if mother gives up work while offspring are young
• costs of child care (nanny / nursery / kindergarten)
• costs of educating children
• the availability and cost of housing.
Personal preferences such as:

• number of wives
• preference for gender of children
• social status linked to the number of (male) children a man produces (e.g. in some very traditional African
societies)
• religious teachings about contraception
• religious teachings about parenthood expectations
• an individual’s views about parenthood / the desire to be child-free
• personal experiences of being an only child / growing up in a large family.
Cultural / societal factors including:

• war
• governmental policies / restrictions / incentives regarding family size and procreation
• social norms / society’s views about parenthood
• social class / deprivation
• mother’s country of birth – often a key cultural factor
• emancipation / role of women in society / increasing gender equality
• access to contraception
• sex and relationship education
• national laws – or local bylaws – stipulating the age of consent, particularly where the legal age of marriage is
below that of the age of (sexual) consent.
2 There are about 78.8 million extra people on Earth every year.
2 Section 1 : Population and settlement © HarperCollins Publishers 2018

3 a)
Billion-people points Number of years between these two points
First Second 123
Second Third 32
Third Fourth 15
Fourth Fifth 13
Fifth Sixth 12
Sixth Seventh 12
3 b) The table shows that the world’s population increased more and more quickly throughout the twentieth
century – although, at the same time, there is a suggestion of some greater stability from the 1970s; the
number of years between billion-people increases has stayed fairly constant at 12-13 since 1974.
4 a) The world’s population in 1800 was about 1000 million (i.e. one billion).
4 b) The world’s population in 2010 was about seven billion.
4 c) In 2000, most people lived in developing countries.
4 d) With low or medium fertility, the rate of world population growth is slowing down.
4 e) Using the high fertility option, the global population in 2050 is predicted to be 10.5 billion people.
Pages 5 and 6: Why did the population explosion happen?
1 a) For example: Elephants Create Indigo Lakes.
Remember that the idea is to come up with four words which create a link for you in your memory. If they can
make a short phrase, this will help you more than if you just list four random words. Of course, the words don’t
need to make a sensible sentence!
1 b) To recall the key points from diagram D, you need to work out what the most basic / important points are.
These are: Birth Control; Fertility Rates; Career Decisions; Cost of Living; Population Control Policies – which
give the letters: BC; FR; CD; CoL; PCP.
2 1 – c; 2 – b; 3 – a; 4 – e; 5 – f; 6 – d.
3 a) Europe.
3 b) Africa, Asia and South America.
3 c) There are two possible answers to this question, depending upon how you define the phrase, ‘most affected’.
You might think in terms of population size, or you might think about the percentage growth rate. A full answer
would refer to both.
Based on the increase in population numbers between 1900 and 2000, Asia is the most affected of these three
continents, with 2812 million extra people. Africa’s and South America’s increases were 678 and 445 million,
respectively.
However, based on the percentage increase in population between 1900 and 2000, South America is the most
affected continent, with 5.9 per cent growth. Africa’s and Asia’s percentage increases were 5.65 per cent and
3.12 per cent, respectively.
3 d) Africa’s population was 55 million in 1600, and had increased to 798 million by 2000 – a figure 14.5 times
greater. The African population only doubled itself between 1600 and 1900, so the great majority of this
increase clearly took place during the course of the twentieth century.
Asia’s population was 389 million in 1600, and had increased to 3714 million by 2000 – a figure 9.5 times
greater. The bulk of this continent’s increase also took place during the last century, when a rise of over 300
per cent occurred.

South America’s population was only 9 million in 1600, but this figure had increased to 520 million by 2000 –
a figure 57.8 times greater. This continent’s population was unchanged overall between 1600 and 1800, but
then it increased over eight times during the nineteenth century, and a further seven times during the twentieth
century.
Page 8: Why do populations grow at different rates?
1 a) Overall, map A shows seven different types of natural hazard, each of which has been responsible for the
deaths of more than 100 000 people since 1900. There is a very clear focus of these different events in south
and south-east Asia – with only two locations and one form of hazard (earthquake) occurring outside this
region. Two major earthquakes are shown as having affected Haiti (in the Caribbean) and Italy (in southern
Europe); between them, these accounted for about one third of a million deaths. Of the seven Asian countries
named on the map, only China and Japan have been affected by earthquakes, resulting in significant loss of
life. Both countries experienced a major tectonic event in 1923, whilst China also suffered the loss of about a
third of a million people in a single event in 1976. The effects of a second form of tectonic event, tsunami, is
also shown, but only Japan (2011) and Indonesia (Aceh in 2004) have suffered significant loss of life due to
them. Both of these locations lie on the western edge of the Pacific Rim.
Floods can also cause significant loss of life. The map shows two subcategories of flooding; ‘floods’ – which
can be assumed to be caused by extreme rainfall events, and ‘river floods’- which have probably followed
prolonged heavy rainfall but which have been directly caused by rivers over-spilling their banks. Both types
of major flooding have occurred in Asia, with two river flood events affecting China (in 1911 and 1935) and a
‘flood’ event occurring there also in 1931. The only other ‘flood’ event to cause 100 000 deaths happened in
Vietnam, in 1971.
The most commonly occurring hazard event is famine and, not surprisingly, it accounts for the greatest number
of deaths – 55.1 million. Among these, China experienced three such disasters during the twentieth century,
costing the country 32 million lives. India also experienced major famines in 1901/1902 and 1943, with a
combined loss of 21 million people. In 2008, Myanmar’s famine accounted for 138 000 deaths, and Vietnam
also experienced a major famine in 1945. Often accounting for (or at least contributing to) famine, droughts
also affect Asia, although only one such event is included in the map; this was in China, in 1941, causing three
million fatalities. Finally, Bangladesh has experienced two cyclonic events in the last fifty years – one in 1970
and the other in 1991.
In conclusion, it is clear that – where loss of life is concerned – south and south-eastern Asia appear to be
the major areas affected by natural hazards. However, it must be remembered that loss of life is not the only
indicator of an event’s severity; it can also reflect the level of preparedness for such hazards. Major natural
hazards can and do occur across wider belts around the Earth’s surface – and it does seem that major losses-
of-life events (as shown on the map) were three times more common in the first half of the twentieth century
than in either its second half or the early 21st century (with 12, 4 and 4 events, respectively).
1 b) Cyclones and hurricanes are the single most localised hazard, as the map shows that the only two such
events occurred in Bangladesh. As noted above, all but two of the events represented on the map occurred in
southern and south-eastern Asia. A third of China’s hazard events were famine, with a further third being due
to flooding, while India, Vietnam and Myanmar were the only other Asian countries to experience famine. China
– as might be expected across such an extensive land mass - experienced the widest range of hazard events.
On the other hand, both of Japan’s major events are related to plate tectonics – one an earthquake, the other a
tsunami triggered by an earthquake.
Famine fatalities
2 a) 25
Number of fatalities (millions)
20
15
10
0
0 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
Year

2 b) The over-riding trend is that the number of causalities due to famine fell significantly during the twentieth
century and at the beginning of the 21st century. In the early twentieth century, lives lost in India and China
were counted in tens of millions (e.g. 19 million in India in 1901/1902). Towards the middle of the century,
however, deaths were occurring in much lower numbers (e.g. three million in China in 1941 and 0.5 million in
Bangladesh in 1970). By 2008, only just over one eighth of a million people starved to death in Myanmar.
While the trends suggest that significant improvements in preparation for and responses to famines are
needed, some thought should be given to the area affected by famine and the size of its population. Large
countries and those with big populations might well be expected to lose more people to famine than smaller
countries with fewer people. However, the fact that the populations of all countries in this Asian region have
significantly increased since 1900 suggests that responses to major famine events have become more
effective during this period. So be very cautious of suggesting that famines have become less frequent or less
intense since 1900.
2 c) One possible reason for this trend may be connected to improvements in governmental organisation. For
example, a government department may have been established specifically to prepare for famine events using
long-term weather forecasting. Doing this would identify future periods of reduced rainfall, allowing relevant
organisations to be alerted and put on stand-by.
Other important reasons are the marked improvements to infrastructure and transportation which occurred
across this region during the twentieth century and which are still taking place. These allow famine relief
efforts, e.g. supplies of water, food and medications, to reach the affected areas in hours or days instead of
weeks or even months. Overseas NGO agencies such as Save the Children and Médecins Sans Frontiers
(MSF) are therefore able to move personnel, equipment and resources into areas much more quickly.
Also, TV and social media bring information about famine situations to countless potential aid donors across
the globe, helping raise disaster-relief funds more quickly and efficiently. Celebrities like Sir Bob Geldorf have
volunteered to head up appeals and attracted much larger donations to fund relief efforts. With sufficient
money, skilled personnel, water, food and medication, the worst effects of drought can be mitigated and the
resultant fatalities significantly reduced.
3 a) Africa is the continent which has been most affected by human conflict so far this century. This is both in terms
of the number of events (11 – compared to 10 in Asia and only one in Europe) and the total number of fatalities
(3.9 million – which is more than double the combined death totals in Europe and Asia).
3 b) The long-term effects of human conflict can be categorised as social, economic, psychological / ideological
and political.
During periods of conflict, social mores (behavioural norms) often break down; communities are torn apart
and wage-earners are killed. This leaves families without one or both parents, resulting in children being
orphaned. They can then be deprived of education, support and loving care, all crucial to their development
as fully-functioning adults. Rape is often used as a weapon of war. In countries where the honour of women is
paramount – this can be destructive to the basic fabric of society – with raped women and girls being shunned
and abandoned to bring up their unplanned children in poverty and hardship. Rape is in itself a traumatising
experience, so may lead to serious long-term psychological issues. Families are torn apart when fathers and
sons feel obliged to fight against each other. Many recent conflicts have involved widespread ethnic cleansing.
During periods of conflict, the economy of a region or country can spiral into decline as industries cease to
function efficiently. If wage-earners are away fighting or are killed, the family’s spending power drops and this
reduces its ability to shop. Governments spend vastly increased sums on armaments – to the detriment of the
basic services needed by people and putting their communities into heavy, long-term debt.
Post-traumatic stress disorder is frequently associated with conflict. This often makes combatants less
employable, reducing their families’ earning potential; their emotional instability impacts on the family as a
whole and can lead to partners separating.
Finally, conflict always has long-term political impacts. After a period of conflict, it may be that the government
that assumes power moves their country in a direction that many citizens do not support – or areas may be
annexed and key aspects of civilian life, laws, religion and infrastructures changed in such a way that citizens’
status, occupation and wealth are undermined. Their lives may be at risk if they resist the changes being
forced upon them.

Page 10: How are population growth and resources linked?
1 a) Example answer:
I live in the UK, actually in England. England is officially Europe’s most densely populated major country
(August 2017), with an average of 411 people/square km, and this figure is expected to rise to about 494/
square km by 2046. Many parts of the UK are very densely populated, like the London borough of Islington,
the capital’s most heavily populated area, with 15 670 people to every km. In the south-east region as a whole
there are 445 people per square km. In Leeds, where I live, the figure is 4066 people/square km at the present
time.
However, some areas of England remain very sparsely populated. For example, in South Lakeland (Cumbria),
there are on average only 67 people per square km, and in West Devon the density is even lower - at 47
people per square km. The figures for the other nations of the UK are also low: 14 people per square km in
Wales, 135 people per square km in Northern Ireland, and only 68 people per square km in Scotland. Overall,
the UK has an estimated population density of about 263 people per square km.
So, while official figures classify England as being very densely populated, there are wide internal variations
between the most populous inner cities and the remote, rural areas on the periphery of the country.
1 b) Example answer:
I wouldn’t think of England as being over- or under-populated at the moment. However, pressure upon the
available land is mounting in most of our urban areas, and many of our most basic resources have to be
imported from overseas. Every geographer, analyst or politician is likely to give different responses to this
question – which probably tells us that we are actually nearing our population capacity. Politicians and the
press increasingly talk about a housing crisis, and, in an economically advanced country like ours, this is likely
to provide another indication that we are nearing our population limit. It is only the wealth which we generate
from manufacturing and (especially) our services that allow us to pay for the imports which offset domestic
shortfalls in key foodstuffs, fuels and industrial raw materials. Without this ability to purchase imported goods,
we would certainly be rated as a heavily over-populated country.
2 a) The table shows the global percentage population changes for 1950–2100. It indicates that Africa’s natural
population growth (NPG) increased by 25 3 per cent in the fifty years to 2000. In the present half century, this
rate of growth is predicted to reduce, even although the total population is still expected to increase by 204 per
cent. Eventually, its NPG will grow more slowly (i.e. between 2050 and 2100) although even then it will still be
increasing by a projected 77 per cent.
During the second half of the twentieth century there was significant population growth in every continent.
The Americas grew by 148 per cent, Oceania by 139 per cent and Asia by 137 per cent. During the same
period, Europe experienced a 33 per cent increase whilst the global NPG was 143 per cent. Even so, Africa’s
phenomenal growth rate outstripped them all.
In the first half of the 21st century, the Americas, Asia and Europe are expected to experience a significant
decrease in their growth rates (45 per cent, 42 per cent and - per cent, respectively), although Oceania’s figure
is predicted to remain high at 84 per cent. Despite a drop in its exponential rate of increase, however, Africa’s
population will more than triple between 2000 and 2050.
(Based upon UN data, this suggests a population growth from 784.5 million in 2000 to one of 2.4 billion in
2050.)
By 2100, Africa is expected to remain the only continent still experiencing significant population growth, with
a projected increase of 77 per cent. Projections do, however, suggest that the population of Oceania will also
still be growing, although much more slowly, at 25 per cent. By this time, Asia and Europe are both expected
to have negative rates of growth (i.e. their populations will be shrinking) while the Americas’ growth will have
slowed to the point at which it will become static.
Overall, across the table’s 150-year time range, global population growth rates will probably have fallen from
a high of 143 per cent to 15 per cent. Yet Africa’s NPG is likely to remain unrivalled by any other region during
the next 100 years or so.
2 b) Hint: When practising for examinations, and when faced with a more complex question such as this, it is

a good idea to create a graffiti-board of shared (and developed) ideas before starting your written answer.
Depending upon the numbers in your class, this exercise may be a whole-group activity or you could split the
class into several groups which complete the task before coming back together to contribute to a summative
display of the main ideas put forward.
Perhaps the main reason for the decline of Europe’s NPG is the combination of its ageing population and the
changing role of women. Obviously, birth rates fall when a country’s population is made up of significantly
more elderly people than previously. Across Europe, this is a growing trend. Another trend is for women to
follow careers rather than be stay-at-home wives and mothers. Educating girls to age 18 – or to degree level
– enables them to develop careers and this tends to defer the age at which they marry and/or decide to start
a family. Another consideration is career progression; time out for child-rearing can inhibit advancement up
the career ladder. Therefore family size is generally much smaller across many parts of Europe than it was a
generation or two ago; this negatively impacts upon the NPG.
As more couples decide to limit their family size, or opt out of having children completely, this (coupled with
the ageing population) accelerates the rate at which the NPG will fall. Another key factor is that within Europe,
citizens enjoy some of the world’s highest standards of living. Families who have studied hard and are working
hard to maintain or even advance their living standards are often not keen to have large families in which
the costs of child-rearing may undermine their aspirations and hard-won financial security. For example, it is
currently estimated that it costs the average British family £231,843 to raise a child born in 2016 from birth to
the end of university education.
3
Facts about Liberia’s people
Information about Liberia’s Reasons for these rates of Other information about Liberia
population change rates population change
Liberia had one of Africa’s highest The infant mortality rate is one of 64 pre cent of Liberians live in
NPG rates – in excess of the world’s 20 highest poverty – down from 80 per cent at
4.5 per cent the start of this century
This NPG rate has recently fallen 61per cent of all Liberians are The literacy rate is only
and by 2017 was down to below 25 years of age 47.6 per cent
2.4 per cent
The birth rate is 34 per Life expectancy is 59 years
1 000 people
The fertility rate is the world’s The country’s population is only
26th highest 4.3 million
Contraceptives are used by only Liberia remains one of the world’s
20 per cent of adults poorest countries
The country has experienced two
civil wars fairly recently and these
are a major cause of its poverty
As a result of these civil wars
about a quarter of a million people
were killed
These wars ruined the national
economy
Unemployment is very high – at
about 85 per cent
Approximately 75 per cent of all
workers rely on agriculture as their
source of food / income
It is one of Africa’s smallest
countries

Pages 12 and 13: Over-population and under-population
1 Under-population exists when a country’s population is too small and therefore unable to fully utilise the
available resources of the area it occupies. Under-population is also characterised by a situation where the
available resources are capable of supporting a much larger population, with no reduction in living standards.
The most immediate indication of Canada’s under-population taken from Table A is its average population
density – which currently stands at only 4.0 people per square km. This ranks the country as the 232nd in
the world. Linked to population density is the country’s vast area (9 984 670 square km) which makes it the
second largest country on the planet, and its population of 35.4 million. While this is actually the 32nd largest
population globally, it is the relationship between the size of the population and the land area which is evident
in Canada’s exceptionally low population density. Other data from this table suggesting under population is
Canada’s annual income from exports which, at $402.4 billion/year, indicates that this is a country which has
surplus food products and raw materials which can be harvested for export rather than used domestically.
Figure B shows that Canada has “Huge … forests in the north…” indicating that these have not needed to be
sacrificed for either urban development or the economic exploitation of minerals. This initial data cell of the
table (plus the sixth) also confirms it has significant natural resources/raw materials and that the country is
a “… net exporter of energy.” This information jointly indicates that this is a country with surpluses, greatly in
excess of its population’s current needs. Figure B further confirms that Canada has sufficient foodstuffs to be
in a position to export them – indicating that it is a “major global exporter of wheat.”
Finally, the data set tells us that Canada actively encourages in-migration with up to a quarter of a million new
arrivals being welcomed every year. Many of these incomers increase the country’s workforce – again reliably
informing us that Canada lacks the population numbers needed to fully exploit its huge potential and hence
remains underpopulated.
2 a) The answer which follows is an example. There is no right or wrong data to select although, in the context of
this topic, it would be reasonable to expect you to choose at least some linked to the ideas of over- and under-
population. Including some information about why you picked each is one way to fulfil the requirement to write
in full sentences. This is a ‘coded’ instruction to add information about each criterion to show your geographical
knowledge and understanding. Although you have been instructed to write in sentences, there is no reason
why your sentences cannot be listed in bullet-point form.
The six most significant data items from Table A are:
• population density (as this indicates the relationship between the size of a country and that of its population)
• population growth rate (showing possible future pressures upon the resources of the country)
• GD per capita (as it is an indicator of the wealth of a nation)
• the value of the country’s exports (a marker of surplus resources / raw materials available for international
trade)
• percentage of the population living in poverty (an indication of a community’s quality of life)
• infant mortality rate (providing indications about the health of the people and current levels of general medical
and maternity care).
Population density is a measure of overcrowding (or otherwise) within a country – and hence may reveal
aspects of its people’s quality of life. According to this table, the population densities of Canada and Tanzania
show a marked difference. In Canada, there are only four people occupying every square km (on average)
while in Tanzania there are 62. Tanzania is far from being the most densely populated nation on Earth: it is
ranked only 153rd. This suggests that it is significantly more densely peopled than Canada and may indicate
that it is over-populated and/or that the quality of life of its people is lower.
The population growth rate indicates not only information about current living conditions but also possible
trends for the future. Canada’s population growth rate is low (it is ranked 146th globally), and we know from
Figure B that its natural population growth trend is supplemented by in-migration, currently in excess of
5.7/1000 population. Generally, young and economically active people are those most likely to migrate and,
because of their age, these people will bolster Canada’s low population growth rate in the future. Tanzania’s
growth rate, on the other hand, is the 11th highest in the world, currently 2.8 per cent, and this indicates that
the country’s population is probably set to increase for at least one more generation, if not two. This suggests
that, in future, the country will have to support a much larger population, even although a significant proportion
of its people are already living in poverty, with a very low quality of life. On the other hand, Canada’s population
growth rate might well have already become a negative figure, were it not for its present in-migration policy
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is a good indicator of the wealth of a nation. Canada ranks 32nd wealthiest
in the world, with a GDP of $46 200 per capita; Tanzania’s average GDP per person is only $3100 – placing it
90th. This shows that there is a marked contrast between the average wealth of individuals in the two countries
and, by inference, between the two countries as a whole, with Canada clearly an economically advanced
nation whilst Tanzania remains an LEDC.
To support this argument, I chose to consider the value of international trade, based on my assumption that
an under-populated, advanced economy will have excess resources available for export and so earn valuable
foreign currency. Conversely, an over-populated country will struggle to provide for its people and therefore
have fewer surpluses to trade with other countries. As measured by the value of exports, this certainly appears
to be the case: Canada’s exports are worth $402.4 billion, compared to Tanzania’s $6 billion. This suggests
that Canada is able to export more of her natural resources than Tanzania because these are not required as
much to support the population. However, it may be that Canada’s resources are considerably more valuable
on the world’s commodity markets than those produced in Tanzania. This too would account for Canada
earning so much more each year and being ranked as the world’s 12th most valuable exporter, as compared to
Tanzania in 108th position.
Another important comparator is the level of poverty. Tanzania currently has over two-thirds of its population
living in poverty, while Canada identifies poverty in only about 9 per cent of its people. People living in poverty
cannot enjoy a ‘good’ quality of life in terms of the levels of health, comfort, and happiness experienced by
them. In Tanzania, poverty is rife – evidence that there are too few opportunities for people to obtain work
or increase their earnings because there are more people than its economy can sustain. However, under-
population (as in Canada) offers people opportunities to work and access resources. This, in turn, increases
their income and allows them to drive their standard of living upward.
Finally, I believe infant mortality to be a key indicator of both living conditions and economic investment and
therefore able to reveal a considerable amount about life in any country. In Canada currently, infant mortality
is about 4.6 per 1000 live births, while in Tanzania the figure is almost nine times higher at 41.2 per thousand.
Infant mortality is a useful figure for geographers because it indicates the health of the nation. Healthy mothers
produce fit, robust babies better equipped to survive the first twelve months of life. Such mothers pass natural
immunity to their babies via breast milk and so strengthen their children’s resistance to a range of diseases.
Low infant mortality rates are also indicators of good health care generally, of effective maternity care and the
availability of obstetricians and trained midwives to help deliver babies and look after mothers in the crucial
period immediately after birth. For this support to be available, a country has to be wealthy enough to invest
heavily in healthcare, maternity services and pre-natal education.
2 b) While this question gives you the option of discussing the information in the table under three sub-headings,
the example answer below has not been constructed in this way because, for top IGCSE grades, examiners
prefer well-considered, free-flowing answers. Writing under sub-headings can help you plan your answer –
and may, indeed, help you to structure your finished response, but it is certainly not the only way to tackle
questions. The answer has been constructed to parallel the previous answer about Canada and under-
population – and to show you how you can use the same writing frame in a slightly different context.
Over-population exists when the population of an area is so great that overcrowding is common, natural
resources are depleted, and environmental deterioration becomes likely.
The initial indicator that Tanzania may be over-populated is its population density; ranked 158th in the world,
46 people share every square km of land and, presented in a table next to Canada’s 3.4 people per square km,
it is easy to assume that this indicates the overcrowding suggested as a criterion for over-population. However,
a degree of care must be taken over making such assertions; England, for example, has a population density
of 411/square km, while the UK as a whole averages 263/square km. Few residents of either nation would
describe themselves as being overcrowded in the sense used above, and neither country is, as yet, considered
to be over-populated. Indeed, when considered in the light of this additional data, 46/square km seems rather
sparse!
Therefore, it is necessary to look at some other indicators. The definition of over-population refers to the
depletion of natural resources and the table does include some indication of this issue. Firstly, if we think

about the Tanzanian people themselves being among the most important resources the country has, we note
that less than 65 per cent of the population are literate. This means that this resource cannot function fully
and effectively to drive the economy forward. Industrial development, and even agricultural advancement,
require literate operatives. Modern technology is complex and, for example, automated equipment needs to be
operated by workers who are both literate and numerate.
If the economy is stagnant, the country will not have the funds to import foodstuffs and raw materials to sustain
its growing population. Nor will farming communities be able to introduce new crops and farming technologies
to increase yields and produce crops for export. Out-migration figures, although only running at 0.5 per cent,
suggest that young adults are leaving the country. This may be due to overcrowding in their home village or
city, but is much more likely to be the result of lack of opportunities at home and a desire for self-improvement.
The fertility rate of 4.8 per cent suggests that, if Tanzania is not presently over-populated, it will be in the near
future: an average family size of approximately five children means that the population will more than double
in one generation. This indicates that close to half of the population is likely to be under the age of 15 or 16 –
suggesting that, without a clearly enforced population policy, Tanzania is facing a population explosion within
decades. Again, this will tax the country’s resources and increase over-population in the future. Furthermore,
short life expectancy and high infant mortality indicate poor health care, inadequate access to doctors and
nurses, and probably a shortage of clinics and hospitals. If this is the case, it suggests that there is insufficient
money in the economy to invest in these key services; combined with the low literacy rates, this makes a fairly
convincing argument that resources are under great strain.
With only $6 billion coming into the economy from exports yet $10.3 billion leaving the country to pay for
imports, this is a further indication that resources are stretched and the economy is running at a deficit. All
this data paints a picture of a country unable to provide enough foodstuffs and raw materials for its people to
improve their health and standards of living. In summary, Tanzania is indeed an over-populated country.
High infant mortality and low life expectancy may (although this data cannot actually evidence this) point to
environmental deterioration. We know that less than 56 per cent of the population has access to safe drinking
water. If the water is unsafe, we could suggest that this may be the result of environmental degradation/
pollution – maybe the leakage of chemicals into water courses and lakes, for example. Again, this is one
possible indicator of over-population. Or it may simply be that the country cannot afford the cost of providing
piped, potable water to all homes; in which case, the problem indicates an economy which is not expanding
adequately to meet the needs of its people.
One positive point, however, is the indication that the economy is growing. The GDP per capita growth rate is
presently 7.2 per cent, making Tanzania the ninth ranked country globally – and outstripping Canada’s growth
rate of 1.2 per cent. So, Tanzania may presently meet some, if not all, of the criteria for an over-populated
country, but it need not necessarily remain so. The UK – through the wealth it earns from manufacturing
and service provision is able to supplement its own natural resources through imports. Thus, despite its high
population density, it avoids being classed as ‘over-populated’. If Tanzania’s economy can grow at its present
rate, it may be that, at some point in the future, it becomes able to afford improvements to its domestic service
provision and earn sufficient foreign currency to be able to supplement its resources shortfall.
3 ‘Standard of living’ is a term used to refer to the wealth, comfort, material goods and necessities available to
either a group of people or a geographic area; it is closely related to quality of life. In countries with a high
standard of living, it is often observed that birth rates are low and/or average family size is small – with one, or
possibly two, children being the norm. This reflects the cost of child-rearing among groups of people enjoying
high living standards. Often, such countries are those which are wealthier and this suggests that children
can hold back improvements in a family’s living standards. Certainly in industrialised countries this may be
true, although in agricultural communities or those where the state does not participate in care for the sick,
unemployed and/or elderly, the value of children as workers/carers may over-ride the desire of the community
to drive the quality of life upwards. Having someone to take care of you as you age or become ill will in itself
improve the quality of one’s life.
However, in industrialised nations, higher standards of living are often associated with improved literacy,
wider educational opportunities, and the increased chances of studying at university. This often applies to
girls as well as boys. Educational success and income combine to drive living standards upwards and many
aspirational families rely upon the income from both partners to sustain their lifestyles. Loss of income because
of maternity leave and child-rearing, coupled with the ever increasing costs of childcare, means that smaller
families become the norm.
We can therefore assume that the reverse is true; where living standards are low and rapid population growth

is the norm, then family incomes are, by necessity, going to be spent on raising the children and meeting the
basic needs of the family group; mothers who are frequently pregnant are not going to be able to contribute
significantly to the family budget for many years. Therefore, the opportunity to increase the wealth of the family,
improve the levels of comfort in the home, and have sufficient surplus to purchase luxury goods will be limited.
It is perhaps relevant at this point to consider the situation in China. For many years, mothers were
encouraged, under the Communist regime, to have large families in order to expand the workforce. However,
the vast majority of these large families experienced a relatively low quality of life. When the one-child policy
was introduced and family size was effectively capped, many Chinese families discovered that they were able
to increase their spending power and so raise their standard of living. This led directly to the emergence of an
increasingly large and affluent middle class who enjoy relatively high standards of living, apparently the direct
result of an enforced slowing of the population growth rate.
In conclusion, it is evident that rapid population growth is the result of large families and many pregnancies.
This impedes the earning power of the mother and takes money which might otherwise be available to drive
living standards upwards. The limited money often available to the average worker in less economically
developed countries is, instead, having to be spent in meeting the basic needs of their numerous children
Page 15: Diseases are deadly!
1 a) Graph A shows the main causes of early death in LEDCs and MEDCs. The most noticeable difference
between its two pie graphs is that most premature deaths in LEDCs appear to be caused by infection, viruses
or pathogens. On the other hand, in MEDCs, such deaths tend to be linked to human activity/lifestyle choices.
For example, in LEDCs, four of the five main causes of early death are HIV/AIDS, bronchitis and other
breathing problems, childhood diseases and cholera/dysentery. In MEDCs, however, heart attacks (including
stress-related events) and strokes (often linked to stress and poor lifestyle choices) make up over 70 per
cent of all early deaths; lung conditions now include cancers (often, but not solely, linked to smoking) which is
absent from the category in LEDCs.
Less common causes of early death in MEDCs include Road Traffic Accidents and suicides, neither included
in the LEDC data. Indeed, only three causes of early death appear in both graphs: those of the respiratory
system, TB and stokes. Only in MEDCs are cancers included as a cause of early death; however, in LEDCs,
conditions eradicated in most developed countries such as childhood diseases (12 per cent), Malaria (8 per
cent) and cholera/dysentery (12 per cent) are still significant factors.
1 b) In LEDCs, poor sanitation, unsafe drinking water and the lack of protective immunisation in children take a
heavy toll on people’s lives and lead to many early deaths – often among the youngest in the population.
In addition, industrial pollution is an increasing cause of respiratory problems such as asthma in these
countries; asthma sufferers, in turn, have a greater susceptibility to respiratory diseases which often prove
fatal. Furthermore, treatment for those infected with HIV may be minimal. Sometimes, this is simply because
a country cannot afford the antiretroviral drugs which, while they cannot cure HIV, can help people live
significantly longer, healthier lives and also reduce the risk of HIV transmission.
Lack of knowledge about HIV itself, about how it is transmitted and/or fear of admitting that a person is infected
can also contribute to the spread of this disease. It is also frequently the case that in some LEDC societies
the use of a condom during sexual intercourse is discouraged or even forbidden. This may be because of the
desire to have many children; it may be the result of religious teachings, or even ignorance that condoms offer
effective protection against transmission of the infection. Being infected with HIV/AIDS does not mean that
someone will die as a consequence, but it does increase vulnerability to other infections – especially once the
sufferer has developed AIDS. At this point, the immune system is so weakened that the patient is extremely
vulnerable to infections such as bronchitis, cholera and typhoid which remain endemic in many LEDCs.
In MEDCs, on the other hand, many infectious diseases are being eradicated. Most children/young people
are vaccinated routinely against the major childhood diseases, together with smallpox, tetanus, typhoid, TB
and meningitis – even some forms of cancer. HIV is being treated effectively and social stigmas around the
infection are diminishing. Needle exchanges are available for infected drug users and the babies of infected
mothers receive drug therapies as a matter of course during their first weeks of life in case the disease has
passed from mother to baby before birth. These babies are additionally fed formula milk to avoid infection
through their mother’s milk.
Although bacterial infections are developing drug resistance, most illnesses such as bronchitis and pneumonia
still respond to antibiotics; asthma sufferers are offered flu vaccines and care is taken to avoid post-operative

infections. Therefore, it is the unhealthy lifestyle followed by many in developed nations, including stress-
inducing employment, heavy smoking and/or drinking, lack of exercise, junk food and obesity which are now
contributing significantly to early deaths.
Despite air pollution controls introduced in many MEDCs to combat industrial pollutants from the mid-1950s
(often called Clean Air Acts), air pollution due to vehicle exhaust fumes is a growing concern in such countries
today, due to a combination of increased car ownership, their increasing use for short journeys, and a reliance
on roads for commercial transportation.
2 There are many ways in which individuals can help to reduce the spread of malaria. As with the prevention
of any such illness, education is key. Therefore, communities should be ensuring that everyone is aware
of the issues – and the most effective methods of protecting themselves. One method may be to appoint a
key member of the community whose responsibility it is to educate family groups and then to oversee that
prevention methods are put into place effectively.
Householders should make sure that insects are unable to access static water in which to lay eggs; for
example, in buckets and discarded tins. Any still water should be securely stored; at the very least, a cloth
should cover the opening. Better still, water should be stored in a vessel with a tight-fitting lid. During daytime,
the insects usually rest in weeds and long grass, so clipping these very short makes good sense. Additionally,
draining ponds and marshy areas reduces the habitats which mosquitoes favour and helps to deplete their
populations.
It is also important to prevent insects from entering houses through doors and windows, especially in the late
evening, when mosquitoes prefer to feed. Insect screens can be fitted over doors/doorways if these need to be
open to allow air to circulate. Otherwise, doors should fit securely and be opened infrequently during evenings.
Windows should be covered or kept shut. Using protective bed netting (ideally treated with insecticide) gives
additional overnight protection. Mosquito-repellent lotions and creams reduce people’s vulnerability to attack,
but must be applied frequently to be effective. Covering arms and legs is important when walking outdoors so
light, loose-fitting trousers are preferable to shorts and long-sleeved shirts give better arm protection. Anti-
malarial tablets are only partially effective, so avoiding being bitten is the key to reducing the spread of malaria
9
3 a)
Fertility rate (average number of
8
children born per woman)
7
6 Uganda
Malawi Zambia
5 Mozambique
Tanzania
4
Kenya Zimbabwe
3 Botswana
2
1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
% of population infected with HIV/AIDS
3 b) The general link between the sets of data plotted on this graph is that the fertility rate in women of child-
bearing age decreases, although not dramatically, as the percentage of the population infected with HIV/AIDS
rises.
3 c) Fertility refers to the number of live births per 1000 women in a population – usually women between the ages
of 15 and 44.
The fertility rate may drop when women are infected with HIV/AIDS for a number of reasons. Firstly, a woman
may take precautions to ensure that she does not become pregnant because of the possibility that her baby
may be born HIV-positive. This can occur during the pregnancy or during the birthing process; it can also
occur because HIV can be transmitted in breast milk. If she does fall pregnant, it is possible that a women
may opt to terminate the pregnancy in countries where this is a legal option. Alternatively, an infected woman
may choose to avoid a sexual relationship completely – either to protect a possible partner or simply though
embarrassment about being HIV-positive.
Other possibilities may include the fact that, particularly in LEDC countries where antiretroviral medications
are not available, women infected with HIV at an early age are too ill to successfully carry a baby to full term.
Illness does not usually prevent pregnancy, but often, the less healthy a woman is, the less her chances of
becoming pregnant; certainly, untreated HIV does affect all aspects of a women’s health, and may reduce her

actual fertility.
Where the male partner in a relationship is HIV-positive, he may opt to forego fatherhood so that he does
not infect his partner/wife with HIV, so uses a condom on all occasions of sexual intercourse. Alternatively,
a couple may choose to avoid all sexual contact with each other so as not to infect the other partner or a
resultant child.
Page 18: Anti-natalist population policies
1 1945
1949: China’s first ‘baby boom’
1950 population explosion begins
1955
1958–61: Droughts and floods cause
1960 deaths of 2 million Chinese
1965
1970: China’s fertility rate reaches 5.8 children/woman;

1970 this is decreased to 2.7 by 1978
1975
1980 1979: One-child policy introduced
1985
1990 1992: Policy rules relaxed; adoption legalised
1995
2000
2004: Shanghai city allows divorcees who remarry to
2005 have a second child without incurring the usual penalties
2008: National Population and Family Commission stated
2010 that the policy would continue nationally for at least 10 years
2015 2015: Chinese government announces a new two-child policy
2 a) This is a pupil-led question involving the student’s own choice of internet research sites.
2 b) Your answer to this question should mention some or all of the following points:
• China’s fertility rate is now about 1.6 (compared to the standard population replacement level of 2.1)
• The one-child policy seems to have avoided the financial burden of 400 million extra births; this has facilitated
China’s development as a global economic superpower.
However, these benefits have to be considered together with the following major population structure and
economic issues:
• China now has a very ‘unbalanced’ population structure, with more men than women – 117 men to every 100
women.
• In some rural provinces (especially rural areas), 130 boys are actually born for every 100 girls.
• More than 24 million Chinese men could find themselves without a wife by 2020. The main reason for this is
the high number of sex-specific abortions, a direct result of China’s traditional bias towards male children.
• A major concern is China’s rapidly increasing age dependency, which means that the elderly population
becomes more dependent on the younger generations. In China, this is described as the ‘4-2-1’ problem,
because many single children (1 person) will become responsible for caring for their parents (2 people) and

their four grandparents (4 more people). In 2050, it is predicted that there will be only half as many under-
60s to support the elderly people as there were in 2010.
• China’s adult workforce is expected to decrease by almost ten million people each year after 2025.
Page 20: Pro-natalist population policies
1 This is a pupil-led question.

3.5
2 a–b) 1980
2016
3.0
Population replacement level, at which
the population total remains the same
2.5
Fertility rate
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
g
nd
ay
en
nd
m
ria
ce
ly
n
m
ga
an
nd
ur
ar
ai
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do
iu
rw
an
ed
la
la
st
rtu
Sp
nm
bo
rm
la
lg
Ire
er
Au
ng
No
Fr
Sw
er
Be
Po
Ge
itz
De
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Sw
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ite
Un
2 c) In 1980, the fertility rates of only four European countries were above the population replacement level ly
above most of the other 14 countries. During this 36-year period, the only countries to have increased their
fertility rates were Belgium, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Sweden and France (the latter with clearly defined pro-
natalist population policies).
The chief reasons for this apparent continent-wide trend towards lower fertility rates include the more
widespread use of contraceptives and a desire for increasing numbers of women to progress their careers
uninterrupted by maternity leave. In addition, many couples do not wish to undermine their high standard
of living by having large families. In the UK, the average cost of supporting a child from conception to the
completion of a university first degree is a six-figure sum, and it rises every year. It is also likely that the
global recession of the early 1980s and the financial collapse of 2007/2008 made couples hesitant to commit
themselves to the long-term financial responsibilities of childrearing.

3 a)
Type of benefit Economic Educational Recreational
Childcare facilities ✓ ✓ ✓
Crèches for toddlers ✓ ✓ ✓
Entitlement to time off work ✓ ✓ ✓
Graded income tax system ✓
Large Family Card ✓ ✓ ✓
Loss of earning payments ✓
Maternity leave ✓
Nursery schools ✓ ✓ ✓
Paris Family Card ✓ ✓ ✓
Pre-school facilities ✓ ✓ ✓
State nursery schools ✓ ✓ ✓
Working mothers’ tax deductions ✓
Total (ticks) 12 8 8
3 b) Economic considerations are clearly the main type of benefit likely to persuade French parents to have a larger
family. This is partly explained by the impact of child-minding facilities (e.g. nursery schools) being state-
funded, thus having a double economic impact; not only do parents save money by not having to pay childcare
costs, they also gain financially as both of them are able to obtain paid employment, thereby increasing the
family income.

Now
Investigate
Answers Migration
1.2
Page 23: Why, where and how do people move around?
1 Pupil-led answer.
2 a) Temporary migration is when people leave their homes for a short period of time then return. Permanent
migration is when people leave their homes and do not go back.
2 b) Voluntary migration is when people leave their home because of a desire to live somewhere else. Forced
migration is when people have no choice but to flee their homes.
3 a) Life in rural areas can be hard, particularly in LEDCs with few services for local people. There may be more
jobs and opportunities in the cities and urban areas. There are also more services such as hospitals and
schools and entertainment facilities. One example of rural-urban migration is from rural Luzon to Manila in the
Philippines.
3 b) In many MEDCs, people may want to move from urban areas and cities to the countryside in a process known
as urban-rural migration. They may move because there is less pollution in rural areas, there is often less
pressure on services such as schools and the quality of life may be better, especially for families with children.
4 a) Push factors could include: lack of running water; lack of services; no local schools or hospitals; lack of farm
machinery; unemployment; population increases resulting in lack of food; natural disasters; other reasons
specific to the local area. Pull factors could include: good education facilities; better food supply; available
services; entertainment; a greater variety of jobs; medical care; a better quality of life; other reasons specific to
the local area.
4 b) Pupil-led answer.
Page 25: Moving from one country to another

1 Pupil-led answer.
2 Economic migrants may want to move for a better way of life and to earn more money. Refugees - people who
are forced to move - may do so to escape persecution or war, because they are forced into slavery, because
of racial or religious discrimination or because of famine or natural disaster. The advantages would be to get a
better quality of life or to ensure survival. Things you would miss will be specific to individual pupils.
3 Reasons will be very varied depending on the country but could include economic reasons or to escape
persecution or some threat as outlined in the answer to question 2 above.
4 The main reasons for forced migrations include: escaping from war or persecution and the threat of violence;
to avoid slavery; because of racial or religious discrimination; because of famine or some other kind of natural
disaster.
5 Advantages include: migrants sending US$600 million home to their families; an increase in the country’s
GDP; returning migrants have increased skill levels; emigration means a decrease in demand for scarce
resources. Disadvantages include: the loss of a young, educated and productive workforce; an elderly
population increasing the pressure on resources; jealousy against migrants when they return home; a gender
imbalance with more women left in Senegal. Overall effect is a matter for pupil discussion.
6 Impacts for European countries, both positive and negative, include: the influx of a young, educated and
willing workforce; more taxes for the receiving country; greater cultural mixing; resentment amongst the native
population; conflict; pressure on resources such as schools and hospitals.

Now
Investigate
Answers Population structure
1.3
Page 28: Why are there more older or younger people where you live?
1 a-d) Pupil-led answer.
2 a-c) Pupil-led answer.
3 The answer below represents only one possible way of responding to the question and does not exclude other
ways in which a country/government may use census data.
Five ways in which census information might be useful to a country are:
• Forecasting the likely number of school places required, and hence whether extra schools need to be built – or
closed; similarly, this calculation will highlight the need for more teachers in the future and advise the
government to recruit and train more student teachers
• Forecasting the future requirement for medical care facilities such as hospitals and for care for the elderly
• Predicting the financial cost of funding state pensions in the foreseeable future
• Monitoring population trends, so that construction programmes can be matched to future housing demands
• Assessing a country’s changing ethnic diversity, to ensure that appropriate provision is made for its different
population groups, e.g. introductory language classes for recent immigrants.
4 Pupil-led answer.
Males Age Females
There are more elderly people 80+
aged 60 or over than young 75–79 There are more females than
70–74 males over the age of 60.
people in the 0–15 age group. 65–69
60–64
55–59
The number of males and females 50–54
45–49
are about the same in most 5-year 40–44
age groups below 60 years. 35–39
30–34
25–29
20–24 This graph shows the population
15–19 structure of a more economically
10–14 developed country.
5–9
0–4
5 4 3 2 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5
Percentage of total population
5 a) False. The total percentage for males over the age of 60 is 11.0 per cent, compared to 14.2 per cent for
females.
5 b) False. The total percentage of people aged 60 or over is 25.2 per cent, compared with 16.3 per cent for those
in the 0-15 year age group.
5 c) True. All of the five-year age ranges (quinquennials) below 60-64 display a 0.2 per cent or less gender
difference. Most are within 0.1 per cent, whilst only three display 0.2 per cent.
5 d) False. Age/sex pyramids for LEDCs typically have a broader base and a much narrower apex.
6 There are fewer males than females over the age of 60. Note: Link by a single straight line to age ranges 60-
64 and above – bracketed together on the male side of the pyramid.

There are more elderly people aged 60 or over than young people in the 0-15 age range. Note: Link by two
straight lines to both 60+ and 15- age ranges (bracketed separately); place this on the other side of the
pyramid.
The numbers of males and females are about the same in most five-year age groups below 60 years. Note:
This box can be free-standing, i.e. not linked to the pyramid by a straight line.
This graph shows the population structure characteristic of more economically developed countries. Note: This
box can also be free-standing, i.e. not linked to the pyramid by a straight line.
Page 31: Changing stages of economic development
1 The governments of such countries may respond to the issues of an ageing population in several ways. These
include:
• making extra medical provision for the elderly, including the training and equipping of geriatric nursing teams
• providing support to family members so that they can care for their elderly relatives within the family home, in
an environment they are familiar with
• educating younger people about the issues of ageing and providing dementia-awareness courses
• introducing policies which allow/encourage older workers to remain in the workplace beyond the traditional
retirement age
• monitoring population trends more closely, to identify any changes in the size of the population’s elderly
component
• ensuring that pension arrangements keep pace with inflation
• helping local authorities to provide enough safe accommodation for their elderly people
• encouraging ageing people and the elderly to stay physically and socially active by providing
appropriate recreational and transport amenities.

Now
Investigate
Answers Population density and distribution
1.4
Page 33: Why do some people have more neighbours than others?
1 Example answer: I would much prefer to live in the area shown in Photograph B. This is an area of open
countryside which is very sparsely populated. I love the countryside, the fresh air, the peace and the slower
pace of life which it offers. I find the city that I live in at present (which does give me a short commute to work)
is noisy, dirty and polluted. Any air pollution aggravates my asthma and makes my life uncomfortable. Scientific
evidence is beginning to prove that country-living brings many benefits and I look forward to enjoying these
when I retire. These include the effects of being surrounded by a green environment which has been shown to
be very calming. Being surrounded by trees and plants helps to reduce aggression and violence – which I find
to be a very disturbing aspect of life in the city where violent crime, lack of personal respect like verbal abuse
and issues like road rage are getting to be more common all the time. Also, green environments help to reduce
anxiety, sadness and depression, so living in the countryside can help people feel happier! Food can often be
bought directly from local farms and farmers markets, making it fresher, healthier and more affordable. Also,
housing is much more reasonably priced in many rural areas.
2 a) Hot deserts are challenging as a result of the lack of rain/water, the intense daytime temperatures and the
wide diurnal temperature range. In most deserts there is a lack of fertile soil, which makes cultivation of crops
difficult, if not impossible. Where deserts are sandy, it is possible to fertilise the soil with manure or charcoal,
which enhances its ability to hold water and nutrients, but using manufactured fertilisers is far too costly for
most farmers. In rocky deserts, this is not an option as the rock itself impedes plant root growth. Fresh water
to irrigate crops can be harvested from aquifers in some desert areas, or produced using desalination plants,
but again this is costly.
Forests may be classified as being either tropical (as in Photograph E) or temperate; however, both share
some common challenges such as lack of light, mainly poor soils and extreme weather conditions. Tropical
forests are noted for their shallow and infertile soils, as well as high levels of heat, humidity and rainfall. Trees
can be felled relatively easily with machinery, but the soil loses its fertility within a few years due to heavy
leaching and the lack of leaf litter. Layers of hardpan below the surface mean that non-native plants struggle
to put down roots and lack the nutrients they require. Living in such heat and humidity is often described as
being enervating (i.e. drained of energy and vitality), even without the exertions of farming or mining there.
Temperate forests fall into two groups. Across the most northerly continental edges are huge tracts of boreal
forest; they share many of the problems of life in tropical forests, although the climate is characterised by low
precipitation and extreme cold, rather than extreme heat and high rainfall. Within these forests, light levels
are low and soil fertility is poor; this is because of the acidity of the leaf litter which rots very slowly – so, if
temperate forest cover is removed, the soil is unlikely to yield good crops due to the climate and the thin, acidic
soils. Here, too, roots are unable to penetrate a sub-surface stratum, formed by the layer of permafrost which
is also a characteristic of life in more northerly climes.
Only in temperate forests is life much easier. It is not a coincidence that the most densely populated continent
(Europe) was once mostly covered by broad-leaved temperate forest. The climate there is more moderate –
with few extremes of temperature or precipitation - and deciduous trees’ leaf fall helps to produce deep, fertile
soils which retain moisture without water-logging. Additionally, unlike tropical forests, their undergrowth is less
dense, making walking around the trees much easier – although its tree cover can be quite dense in ancient
woodlands. Therefore, even though broad-leaved forests can provide excellent environments in which to live
and work when cleared, they can still prove difficult to inhabit – particularly where wild animals are still at large.
Hint: although the question shows a tropical rain forest environment, the question actually asks: “Explain why
a dense forest environment is a challenging place to live” and so your answer should include at least one other
type of forest which presents challenges to living there.
Mountainous regions are often challenging to live in because the air there tends to be ‘thin’. This makes it

more difficult for your body to get enough oxygen to allow you to work hard. Steep slopes mean that growing
food and building houses is also very difficult. Travel can be hard; roads have to take long, winding routes
up the mountain sides and any bridges needed to cross ravines and fast-flowing rivers are both difficult and
expensive to build. In addition, mountain climates are invariably harsh and extreme. Long, cold winters often
bring heavy snowfalls and some mountain communities can be cut off for weeks or even months. Avalanches
can make life in the mountains extremely hazardous.
Polar regions have the most extreme conditions on Earth, so life in such places (most especially in Antarctica,
shown in the photograph) can be incredibly challenging. Bitterly cold winds (raging at over 300 km/hour)
whip across the landscape. Winter temperatures can plunge well below zero - 49˚C being the mean winter
temperature at the South Pole, but temperatures have been recorded as low as 89.2˚C, and winter night-time
can last for up to six months! Some groups of people have adapted to life in the northern polar regions along
the coastline of the Arctic Ocean (where conditions are milder due to the warming influence of the ocean).
However, nobody lives permanently in the south polar regions because this is where the most extreme winds
and low temperatures occur.
2 b) Example answer: None of the options in these photographs appeals to me! I personally can’t cope with
extreme cold and strong winds, so Antarctica is the first environment I have discounted. Although I have
travelled to Iceland, and thought about visiting Greenland, I cannot imagine that I would cope any better with
the low temperatures and the long winter night of the Arctic fringes – so that must be discounted as well!
Humid tropical rainforest and dense boreal forests don’t attract me, either. Neither of them puts me off because
of their vegetation; it is the climate which is the real problem. I am uncomfortable in humid places, and I really
do not care for snakes and the hundreds of other creepy-crawlies which think this is their ideal habitat. I much
prefer to feel cool and fresh, but don’t think the taiga climate is for me – except perhaps for a brief holiday! Its
winters are long, cold and dark and the range of vegetation and wildlife there not very varied. I suspect that I
would find life in the taiga quite dull and boring.
Hot deserts and mountains seem a little more attractive. I think that life in an oasis in a hot desert might be
quite pleasant; there is abundant water and I could grow fruit and vegetables and keep goats and chickens.
Also, with some solar panels, I could have electricity, run a fridge and cook. Living in the desert itself, however,
would be a non-starter – unless in a city like Dubai or in a luxury compound provided by a big mining company
– where all the basics of a modern lifestyle would be available and there could be some human company.
Adjusting to life at altitude might take some time, but most mountain areas are pollution-free, which is good,
and there are usually plenty of villages in mountain areas so I should be able to survive and enjoy life. Being
cut off during winter would not necessarily be a problem as I could prepare for this in advance.
So, on balance, the hot desert would probably win out – but I’d be quite happy to sample mountain living,
provided I could return to Leeds if it turned out to be a disappointment!
3 a)
Continent Total population Total area Average population
density
(people per km²)
Africa 1 216 000 000 30 065 000 40.45
Asia 4 436 000 000 44 579 000 99.51
Australasia 40 000 000 7 687 000 5.20
Europe 739 000 000 9 938 000 74.36
North America 579 000 000 24 256 000 23.87
South America 423 000 000 17 819 000 23.74
3 b) The most densely populated continent is Asia, while the least densely-populated (or sparsely-populated) one is
Australasia.

4
Low population density and extreme environments
T h e N o r t h P o l a r W i l d e r n e s s
Alps
Rocky Mountains
Himalayas
Sahara Desert
Arabian
Desert
Amazon Rain Forest South-east Asia Borneo Rain Forest

Rain Forest
Congo Rain Forest Ethiopian Highlands
Sumatran and
Javan Rain Forest
Andes Mountains
Great Sandy Desert

Kalahari Desert
Key
The most sparsely
populated areas Great Victorian Desert
Hot desert areas
Patagonian Desert
Mountain areas
Forested areas
The Antarctic Wilderness
Page 35: Areas of high population density
1 a) Example answer: My city of Leeds had a population density of 4 066 people/square km in 2017, which I think
is quite high, with lots of people living in close proximity to each other. However, compared to London’s 13
709 people/square km, Leeds is perhaps not all that densely peopled after all. However, if I define where I live
as England (413 people/square km) or as the U.K. (255 people/square km) then perhaps it is not particularly
heavily populated. In comparison, Macau has a density of 18 534/square km, Monaco has 16 923/square km,
while in Singapore there is an average of 7148 people living on every square km of land. However, if I lived in
Iceland (3.1/square km), Australia (3.3/square km) or Namibia (2.6/square km), and visited the area of Leeds I
live in, I might reasonably think that the people there are very tightly packed together.
The concept of high and low population density may be useful to geographers when they compare areas but,
in many ways, it depends upon an individual’s own perception to decide whether data within the middle range
of values is high or low.
1 b) For Leeds in the past, most of these suggestions would be true and would have contributed to the city’s growth
to become West Yorkshire’s regional centre. The exception would be the final bullet point - about coasts,
because Leeds occupies a site some distance from the sea; however, it is on a river, which would have given
early settlers access to the North Sea. Today, the main factor which remains important is the city’s situation on
gently sloping land. This makes it possible to construct its roads and railways which mean that Leeds remains
an important route centre (nodal point).
2 This city is located on a coastal site, which has allowed it to grow into an important port. This is evidenced by
the huge area providing holding space for containers being shipped in and out. The highway adjacent to the
port area gives road access to move goods in transit.
The land is flat. This makes it easy to build on and, in this case, to create the facilities needed to service the
port and store containers awaiting shipment.
In the past, the original settlers were most likely attracted to this particular site because it offered excellent
opportunities for fishing; this provided high-protein, nutritious food for them.
Singapore is a small island state which lacks many essential fuels and raw materials; its site provides a safe
harbour and gateway to other areas in South East Asia from which foodstuffs and both raw materials and
finished goods can be imported.

3
The climate is ideal for settlement; there
Flat land made it possible for is adequate, reliable rainfall and average
early settlers to grow crops temperatures in the high 20°C which
and build settlements help crops and fruits to grow and ripen.
Fertile soil is ideal for

growing crops and
rearing animals Fresh water from the River
Parramatta met the needs
of early settlers
Image credit: Kgbo: CC by S.A. 4.0

Coastal location at the mouth of a river
Sydney, Australia
provided a sheltered harbour to protect
shipping and developed into a major port
4
Countries with a high population density
Albania Luxembourg
Belgium Monaco
Czechia Netherlands Lithuania
France Poland
Germany San Marino
Hungary Serbia Moldova
Italy Slovakia
Kosovo Switzerland North
Liechtenstein United Kingdom Armenia Korea
Portugal South Japan
Lebanon Syria Korea
Israel China
Kuwait
Pakistan
Tropic of Cancer Haiti Bahrain Bangladesh Tropic of Cancer
23½ºN Cuba Dominican Republic Taiwan 23½ºN
India
Cape Verde Vietnam
Guatemala Jamaica Philippines
El Salvador Trinidad The Gambia
and Tobago Nigeria
Sri
Lanka
Equator Uganda Equator
0º Rwanda Singapore 0º
Burundi Indonesia
Malawi
Mauritius
Tropic of Capricorn Tropic of Capricorn
23½ºS 23½ºS
Key
Countries with population
densities over 100 people
per sq km
Page 37: Areas of low population density
1 Note: This is a rather demanding question as it requires you to pull together information from several other
parts of the IGCSE course. Such questions are referred to as ‘synoptic’. They are used to ensure that you
have a genuine grasp of several linked elements of the course and that you can bring them together to create
enriched answers. By the time you are ready to take your examinations, you should be able to describe both
tropical rainforest and hot desert biomes - and supplement this knowledge by using the internet to explore the
Mediterranean climate found in North Africa’s coastal regions.

The map shows two key aspects of the natural environment. The primary data relates to the climate of the
northern regions of Africa; the secondary data focuses upon aspects of the local ecosystems as it indicates the
extent of the desert and the Sahel.
We are told that, in the far north-eastern area of the map, there is over 250 mm of precipitation per year, but
less than 500 mm. This is actually typical of many areas bordering the Mediterranean Sea and is, therefore,
referred to as a Mediterranean climate. Although summers are typically hot and dry (being a northward
extension of the Sahara desert at this time of year), winters are mild and wet. This means that there is
sufficient rainfall for plants to flourish, although these and the woodlands, have had to adapt to several months
of drought. Vegetation in such regions is usually described as ‘scrub’. Mediterranean forests are generally
composed of broadleaf trees such as oak; they tend to be found only where there is more summer rainfall as
their need for water is greater than low-growing shrubs. The undergrowth is often composed of woody plants
or shrubs with evergreen leaves that are tough and thick in order to reduce water loss. Coniferous forests can
also occur, with pine often being the dominant species. In many areas, however, the ancient mature
woodlands have been cleared and today, the vegetation is typically a mix of small trees and shrubs such as
lavender and rosemary, none of which are more than 2.5 m tall.
Immediately inland of the coast is an extended area of desert – which covers at least 40 per cent, maybe
45 per cent, of the area of this map. The climate data shows that temperatures are high (reaching the mid-
30s°C) during the summer months (May, June, July and into August) and that, at this time, little if any rain falls.
In fact, for this location in the Sahara desert, it seems that no rain falls from the end of May until the beginning
of November. Thereafter, rainfall totals are low (less than 50 mm) and temperatures are mild. During the winter
months of December and January, temperatures do not fall below 8˚C. The vegetation which survives in this
harsh environment must be drought-resistant.
Prominent among the woody plants of the Saharan highlands are species of olive and cypress; these
represent the vegetation which once thrived there when the climate was cooler and wetter (e.g. during the
Roman occupation). Other woody plants found in the highlands and elsewhere in the desert include species of
acacia and artemisia, doum palm (or gingerbread tree), oleander, date palm, and thyme. These plants have
adapted to unreliable precipitation and excessive heat. To survive, many have modified their leaves into spines
to reduce loss of water from the plant body; also, many have deep (tap) roots to access underground water
sources. Plants also tend to be well-spaced, so that each has its own ‘territory’ from which it can draw the
water it needs. Other adaptations include having small, seasonal leaves which only grow after it rains; such
plants photosynthesise in their green stems during periods of drought. Plant and tree growth is more
concentrated in oases and along river beds.
Other adaptations include the ability to store water in thick stems (e.g. the Peyote cactus); such plants are
called succulents. Some vegetation is restricted to areas where underground water is close to the surface, for
example, the date palm. Olive trees are also native to North Africa and survive because of their very small
leaves which reduce transpiration, and the leaves’ waxy surfaces, which further reduce water loss and also
protect the leaves from the sunshine. Many plants are exceptionally slow growing (like the olive tree), because
this requires less energy so that plants do not need to produce so much food.
To the south of the desert is a transition area marking the change from desert to savanna grasslands or, to the
south-west, to tropical (equatorial) rainforest. This region is known as the Sahel. Its climate data shows a
division of the year into two: a hotter, dry season which corresponds to ‘winter’ and a cooler, wet season
extending from May to the end of September. During the dry season little or no rain can be expected – and
temperatures average about 30˚C at their peak in April. Once the rains arrive (that is, if they do) temperatures
dip – but still average readings in the low 20s.
In theory, as one travels south through this transitional zone, vegetation should become denser, with taller
grasses and shrubs beginning to appear. However, vegetation still needs to be drought-resistant in order to
survive during the dry months, but it gradually takes on a richer more verdant appearance as the rains from
central Africa begin to take effect. Grasses have the ability to turn brown and die back during the dry season
and are able to lie dormant during prolonged drought before bursting back into life as soon as the first rains
fall. Succulents and herbs tend to disappear as you travel south, but stunted acacia and even baobab trees
(which have adapted to store water in their trunks) begin to appear – although at first they are so well-spaced
as to appear isolated.
Acacia have exceptionally wide-spread tap roots to access water from a large area; they are deciduous (losing
leaves in the dry season) and have thorns to protect them from animal predation. They also have exaggerated
umbrella-shaped crowns which enable them to capture the maximum amount of sunlight, with the smallest of
leaves. In addition to storing water, baobab trees have very small leaves in order to reduce water lose.

Baobabs also have a shiny and slick outer bark, which allows them to reflect light and heat, keeping them cool
in the intense savanna sun.
In central Africa, the Sahel transition zone eventually gives way to fully developed savanna parklands, or
grasslands. Here, vegetation responds to increased rainfall (the map suggests this is usually in excess of
1000 mm per year), although the ability to survive droughts remains essential as the savanna areas are
characterised by alternating wet and dry seasons, during which rainfall can be very unreliable. Mature (or
climax) savanna, is a mixed woodland/grassland ecosystem characterised by trees (chiefly mature acacia,
baobab and jackal berry) which are sufficiently widely spaced that the canopy does not close. An open canopy
allows enough light to reach the ground to support an unbroken herbaceous layer consisting primarily of
grasses such as Bermuda grass and plants like okra. In most regions, the savanna is itself a transitional zone
between forest and desert or grassland but, in central Africa, it forms a continuous ecosystem extending into
southern Africa as a response to lower rainfall totals in the continental interior.
Below latitude 10˚ north, rainfall increases and temperatures become more consistently high throughout the
year. In West Africa this gives rise to an equatorial (or tropical) rainforest biome, although increased rainfall in
Ethiopia does not have quite the same vegetation response. Equatorial climates have no dry season; most
months (except, in this case, January) have an average precipitation value in excess of 60 mm, with a
maximum in October of about 220 mm. These regions have no summer or winter; it is typically hot (about
25–27˚C) throughout the year and rainfall is both heavy and frequent. One day in an equatorial climate can be
very similar to the next, while the change in temperature between day and night (the diurnal range) may be
larger than the average change in temperature across a whole year (the annual range). These conditions are
the optimum for plant growth and the result is a dense luxuriant forest, typically comprising of several distinct
layers or strata with vegetation organised into a vertical pattern from the soil surface to the top of the canopy
Each layer is a unique biotic community containing different plants and animals adapted for life in that
particular stratum. Only the emergent layer is unique to tropical rainforests, while the others are also found in
temperate rainforests. The forest floor receives a mere 2 per cent of the sunlight so only plants adapted to low
light levels can grow in this region and away from riverbanks, swamps and clearings, where dense
undergrowth is found, this zone is relatively clear of vegetation because of low sunlight penetration. The forest
floor also contains decaying plant and animal matter, which disappears quickly because the warm, humid
conditions promote rapid decay. Many forms of fungi growing here help the animal and plant waste to decay.
The understory layer lies between the canopy and the forest floor; its vegetation usually consists of shade-
tolerant shrubs, herbs, small trees, and large woody vines which climb into the trees to capture sunlight. Only
about 5 percent of sunlight breaches the canopy to reach the understory, causing true understory plants to
seldom grow above 3 m.
As an adaptation to these low light levels, understory plants have often evolved much larger leaves. Many
seedlings that will grow to the canopy level are in the understory. The canopy is the main layer of the forest
and forms a ‘roof’ over the two remaining layers. It contains the majority of the largest trees, typically 30–45 m
in height. Tall, broad-leaved evergreen trees such as African mahogany, oil palm, coconut, okoume and cacao
are the dominant plants. They are supported by shallow rooted, buttress supports which help to carry the trees’
great weight.
The densest areas of biodiversity occur in the forest canopy, as it supports a rich flora of epiphytes, including
orchids, bromeliads, mosses and lichens – although these do not grow in the large numbers we find in the
Amazon Basin. These epiphytic plants attach themselves to tree trunks and branches and obtain water and
minerals from the rain and debris which collects on these supporting plants. Finally, above the main canopy
exists a final stratum made up of a small number of very large trees, known as emergents. These grow above
the general canopy, usually reaching heights of 45–55 m, although some species can attain heights of 70–80
m. One such emergent, typical of rainforests in West Africa is the Great Maobi. Such trees need to be able to
withstand both the high temperatures and strong winds that occur above the canopy in many areas.
2 Note that this is an example which is, of course, biased towards the writer’s point of view. As geographers,
we know that there are two sides to this argument. However, in this case, your focus should not be to put
both sides but to empathise with a typical farmer who probably feels helpless in the current situation within the
Sahel.
Dear Friend,
I thank you for your recent letter, which raised concerns about our farming practices out here in South
Sudan. I am concerned that you seem to understand only one side of the problems we experience on a day-
to-day basis. In part, you do make some valid points. Maybe it is that we are worsening the problems; but we
struggle in poverty and, in many cases, in ignorance as well. We try to eke out a living using the traditional

practices which have served our families so well for generations. We really cannot be blamed for not knowing
things we have never been taught or, like me, not being able to afford to introduce new crops or methods of
farming.
You see, our biggest problems come down to rainfall (or lack of it) and soil degradation. Both of these
we see as being natural factors which are totally beyond our control. We know that we live and farm on the
edge of a large desert but, in the past, our people have thrived and many of us do not understand what has
changed. We do know that the whole area has been suffering from unprecedented droughts since the early
1980s. In other words, the rains fail – year on year. How can you suggest that in some way this is our fault? I
am surprised that you can even think this! The result of drought is inevitably famine.
We cannot grow enough food to feed our families, even though we grow crops well suited to drier climates,
such as millet and sorghum. The grasslands dry up and our cattle become hungry. Without enough food
ourselves, we cannot grow fodder to feed them. So then they ‘over-graze’, just as you say. But animals have
to eat. Do you think that we would purposely overgraze land which is so valuable for feeding our animals in
the future? If the rains came, at the right times and in sufficient amounts, there would be plenty of moisture to
keep their pasture growing.
And then what happens? Because there is no rainfall, or not enough rain, our crops don’t grow – so there
are no roots to hold our precious soil together; the winds blow and we have to sit and watch our source of food
blowing away in front of us. And, maybe yes, the cattle do not help, because they graze the vegetation right
down to the soil-level. So, once again, the roots can no longer hold the soil in place and we see even more
being blown away! To make matters worse, in years when we get heavy rains the soil surfaces are baked dry,
and have turned to dust. The first rains then wash even more soil away because, of course, we cannot grow
crops or trees to put a natural cover over the land, to act as a sort of umbrella reducing the power of the rain
before it hits the surface. So now we live with a situation in which we lose our soil when it is dry and the wind
blows. We lose our soil when the much needed rains come. How can you possibly think that we would bring
all this on ourselves?
And, we are now finding that the soil which is left is poisoning the few crops we are still able to grow. I
am told that this is because the Sun is so hot that it evaporates the moisture left in the topsoil and this makes
dissolved salts rise to the surface. Everyone knows that salt kills plants. How can we cope with this? We
cannot protect our soil from sun and rain; if we could, our seeds will never grow and we will have nothing. On
top of all of this, people from the Government who come to test the soil which remains, told us about a process
called leaching. They say this happens when heavy rain washes nutrients down through the soil – so far down
that our plants’ roots can’t reach them. But how do I pay for fertiliser to replace these lost nutrients? Any
money I have saved has to be spent on basic necessities to keep my family alive!
You tell me that this is all our fault. I tell you, you may be right in part; some of our problems may be
due to human activity. But I ask you this: Look at your activities, away in your great city. Look to see if your
country, and others in your region, are fulfilling their commitments to reduce the polluting emissions which
cause global climate change. It is these, I believe, that are the cause of our problems here in South Sudan.
We do not pollute or damage the environment; but it is us who bear the cost of your actions – or inactions –
whichever way you want to look at it.

Now
Investigate
Answers Settlements and service provision
1.5
Page 40: Why do people live in the countryside?
1 Example answer:
The settlement which I have chosen is Liverpool – which is situated on the coast of north-west England. The
factors in diagram C which apply to its site are:
• Flat land for building and later expansion
• By a river for drinking, washing and fishing; then later for transport
• Sheltered coast: a natural, sheltered harbour exists which is safe from strong tides and which encouraged the
development of port facilities.
2 a)
Must-have Good to have Could do without
Near a spring (if you live in an area River confluence Gap in the hills (unless you live
of permeable rock) in a mountainous place – then it
might be a must have)
By a river (where surface rocks are Dry point (but only if you settle in
impermeable) an area prone to flooding)
Near to woods River-bridging point
Sheltered coast (if you are settling Higher ground
along the coast)
In a valley – providing fertile land Road junction
for growing crops
On a meander
2 b) Must-haves were determined by basic needs – water, food and shelter. Fresh water was available only from
rivers, streams and springs. Settlements were associated with the move to farming rather than a hunter-
gather existence and so flatter land (often found along the coast or in river valleys) was needed to grow crops
and graze animals. Building materials – either wood or rock – were needed for building – and wood was also
essential as a fuel.
Good to haves are more about preferences. If the settlement is to grow and thrive then it needs to trade with
others. River confluences give meeting points for valleys; valleys are natural routeways – and so a settlement
at a confluence is likely to become both a route and trading centre.Similarly, river-bridging points attract routes
to them in order to cross the river, stimulating trade and growth. Higher ground and meanders help to defend a
settlement from attack and higher ground also elevates the settlement out of the flood plain of a river ensuring
that the risk of flooding is reduced. Settlements along the coast often provide meet many of the essential
needs of the population of a settlement – and increase protein sources from fishing; however, storms at sea
can be disastrous, so some degree of shelter is an advantage. Maybe a gap in the hills would be a good idea
also – for routeways cross higher land along valleys and other naturally lower land – and so trade links could
be developed if a settlement develops in or near such a gap. However, such sites can also be constraining –
with future development having to climb the valley sides – and this may be a deterrent to future expansion and
economic success.

3 Five factors that are likely to hinder the growth of settlements are shown in this table:
Factor Reason(s) why this factor can hinder the growth of settlements
Steep gradients Building on them is both difficult and expensive; also, steep roads
become hazardous in winter when surfaces are icy.
High relief Because of exposure to high winds and wind-chill; water pipes and
drains are more likely to freeze due to lower temperatures and there
may be an increased risk of landslides after prolonged heavy rainfall.
Avalanches could occur in winter.
Marshy land Because it doesn’t provide a firm foundation on which to build; for larger
buildings, it is usually necessary to drive piles deep into the ground to
support their weight, and doing this is very expensive. It may be liable
to flooding. It is not easy to grow crops where the soil retains too much
moisture.
Land liable to flooding Because flooding causes severe damage to buildings and infrastructure
such as roads and bridges; it also reduces the sale value of properties
and causes building insurance rates to rise. Floods destroy crops and
people’s livelihoods.
Existence of disused mine working Because the land will settle over time due to the gradual, natural infilling
of mine shafts and tunnels. Pit props may rot and collapse. These
issues cause subsidence at the surface, which in turn can cause cracks
in walls and make it difficult for house buyers to obtain a mortgage.
Sometimes whole rows of houses can ‘vanish’ into collapsing mines or
pits.
Page 41: Rural settlements on Ordnance Survey maps
1 (i) Almondale 1249 – linear.

1 (ii) Cabiche 140480 – nucleated.
1 (iii) east side of 1451 – dispersed.
1 (iv) Grande Rivière 1351 – nucleated.
1 (v) La Feuillet 1453 and 1454 – linear.
1 (vi) north-east part of 1352 – dispersed.
1 (vii) west side of 1149 – dispersed.
2 a) Bois d’Orange:
• lies on south-sloping upland, rising to 540 feet; this provides excellent drainage and so avoids issues with
flooding
• sited above a natural harbour (bay) giving access for trade
• excellent visibility out to sea, which may have been advantageous in the past if there was a danger of attack
• more recently, this aspect may have made the settlement attractive to tourists, which will bring money into the
area
• adjacent to the coastal highway linking Port Castries and Gross Islet; this gives good access to two other
important ports/coastal towns (Gros Islet to the north and Castries to the south) meaning that goods can be
moved in and out easily and quickly’
• the upland is well-wooded, providing fuel and building materials for the local population
• although not immediately built on a stream, there is one very close by
• the quarry at 121533 shows that there is building stone available in the vicinity meaning that houses can be
built more substantially which may be advantageous as the island is subject to tropical storms.

2 b) Grande Rivière:
• is sited where three surfaced roads and several unsurfaced tracks meet; this makes it a route centre – which is
good for establishing a trading centre/trade routes
• the settlement stands on the south-east bank of the River Grande Rivière, which will have been an excellent
source of fresh water
• the routeways tend to follow valleys eroded by tributaries of the Grande Rivière, meaning that the routes will
not be unduly steep, making journeys easier
• the settlement is sited on a well-drained slope with a westerly aspect
2 c) Gros Islet:
• is a coastal settlement, sited on lowland at the head of Rodney Bay; this sheltered harbour is a major asset as
the map shows that a variety of marine functions are now located here, providing employment for local people
and increasing their earning potential
• the settlement is to the north of the point where the Ravine Castagne flows into the harbour and then the open
sea; this suggests that access to marine trade routes was probably important in the past
• it now lies to the immediate west of the major coastal highway, providing good access to the major settlement
of Castries to the south; this will benefit trade and the movement of people. It will most likely also give access
to much of the rest of the island, for it is reasonable to assume that this main road services the northern areas
of the island, linking them to the main town of Castries
• the harbour has a recreational/tourist aspect as there is a ‘yacht harbour’ clearly marked – suggesting one
advantage of this site is its attractiveness for tourism, which will bolster the local economy.
Page 44: Life in rural areas
1 Your answer to this question is totally dependent upon where you live – but below are some guidance notes
about what to include under each heading:
Food and water:
• In Chembakolli, the forest provides fuelwood for cooking as well as a source of meat through the trapping of
deer, rabbits and wild boar. Most villagers are farmers, whose main arable produce is subsistence crops such
as rice, onions, tomatoes and peppers. Growing crops is a joint responsibility shared between all the members
of a family; the women and children have responsibility for any goats and chickens. Only the better-off can
afford to buy a cow. The success of the crops is heavily dependent on the summer monsoon rains. All the farm
work is done by hand, although elephants are trained to help with the heavier tasks
• In Chembakolli, water for cooking, drinking and personal hygiene comes from the village well
• You could describe the wide range of food your own family enjoys and where it is grown or bought from. If
you live in an MEDC, it is worth mentioning that most foodstuffs are obtainable all-year-round, and can be
stored through refrigeration and freezing
• Describe how your water is supplied; again, if you live in an MEDC, include information about how it is purified
to make it potable (safe to drink) before reaching your house. Your family will pay water rates for this service
– either a standard rate for your type of house, or a variable amount if your usage is metered. It might be worth
mentioning whether any seasonal climate variations affect your area’s water supply (or crop production), as is
clearly the case for Chembakolli.
The work that people do:
• In Chembakolli, farming is the chief occupation and some farmers grow tea as a cash crop in order to buy
the materials their children need for school. Working on the ginger estates owned by more wealthy farmers can
supplement this extra income. Some employment is also available in the school and the small clinic

• Start by describing the kinds of work done by members of your own family, adding whether these are part- or
full-time jobs. Don’t forget to include any seasonal or casual work undertaken by students in the family trying to
support themselves.
Health problems and medical support:
• In Chembakolli, typhoid is a common, life-threatening illness because the villagers’ well is also used by
animals. Diarrhoea is also common and can be fatal, especially for children and old people. The village now
has a small clinic, which a doctor visits regularly
• You could list the most common ailments and diseases affecting people in your local area. What impact do
these have on people’s longevity? Describe how your area’s medical facilities compare with those of
Chembakolli.
2 a) The climate graph shows that there is a much greater annual variation in rainfall than in temperature. A
‘rainy season’ lasts from June to October, peaking in July with almost 1000 mm. The remaining months of
the year receive only very modest amounts of rainfall and it appears that rain rarely falls during December.
Temperatures remain high throughout the year, ranging from 25°C in January and December to a maximum
of 30°C in May. The temperature dips significantly during the rainy season, but climbs again in October before
dropping a degree or two during the dry season.
2 b) Answer this question by describing the annual temperature and rainfall patterns displayed on a climate graph
for your local area and then compare each observation you make with the equivalent information in the climate
graph in this topic of the book.
2 c) (i) Chembakolli’s farmers are heavily dependent on both the timing and the nature of each year’s summer
monsoon. Too little rain, too late in the year, can reduce yields for both subsistence and cash crops, with
potentially serious financial and ultimately health issues for their families. Also, too much rain, too early in the
season, can wipe out young crops by flooding their root systems; the consequences are much the same as too
little, too late.
2 c) (ii) All the village people – and their animals – rely on the well for water. However, wells can only be replenished
when enough rainwater percolates down through the soil and overlying rocks to maintain the water table (i.e.
keep the uppermost saturated layer of the aquifer at the same level). If seasonal rains fail significantly in the
catchment area, the water table drops as water is extracted and the well may have to be dug deeper in order
for it to reach saturated rock layers; in the worst case scenario, the water table may fall below the level at
which it can be accessed and the local people have to rely on rainwater harvesting or on possibly polluted
water courses for their water – bringing the risk of disease and illness, as well as increasing the workload
through having to collect and carry water back to the village. Particularly heavy monsoons bring the risk of
flooding in homes and businesses, with the possibility of loss of possessions and earnings. Also, during the
monsoon it can be very difficult to get about; walking, cycling or even driving through muddy or flooded streets
can be dangerous.
Pages 46 and 47: The settlement hierarchy
1 a) Pupil-led answer.
1 b) Pupil-led answer.
2 Pupil-led answer.
(Answers continue on the next page)

3
Function First feature grid First feature Second feature Second feature
reference grid reference
Administration 082482 Government House - -
Culture 085475 Caribbean Museum - -
Education 081501 St Mary’s College 083472 University Centre
Health 077490 Mental Hospital 099496 Health Centre
Hotels 071484 La Toc Hotel 085483 Villa Hotel
Industry 1050500 Industrial area 106494 Quarry
Leisure 084494 Marina 106511 Halcyon Beach
Club
Places of worship 091485 Cathedral 100482 St Joseph’s
Convent
Public buildings 090483 Police HQ 089487 Post Office
Public utilities 092488 Power station 114477 Reservoir
Residential 082500 Teachers’residence 098486 Rose Hill residential
area
Sport 1458 Golf course 096480 Stadium
Transport 092498 Vigie Airport 121576 Anchorage for ships
4 a)
France Peru
13 13
12 12
11 11
10 10
City population (millions)
City population (millions)
9 9
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th
Rank order of city size Rank order of city size
4 b) Overall, the two sets of plotted data indicate very similar city size rankings. Each has one considerably larger
settlement (its ‘primate city’), separated from the second-ranked city by a far greater population difference
than those which exist between any of the smaller-sized settlements; many of these, though, act as ‘regional
capitals’ within their countries.
As a general rule-of-thumb, primate cities usually function as the capital city, as in the case in France, where
Paris is the pre-eminent city.

Page 49: Service provision in an area
1 Pupil-led activity.
2 Your answer will be individual to your location; however, as well as discussing existing transport facilities and
the centre’s threshold population, you should consider whether:
• there is enough land on which to build a sufficiently large car park
• there is land available to expand the centre, should this become necessary due to it becoming increasing
popular
• it is near enough to local schools for their children to visit without having to travel far. Many smaller schools
have limited outdoor play facilities, and even large secondary schools are fortunate to have a swimming pool
on site.
3 Graph E shows that the Isle of Wight has 15 doctors’ surgeries, but only 9 dental surgeries. There are very
interesting reasons for this significant difference in provision:
Doctors deal with a wide range of medical issues, whilst dentists focus on problems relating only to the mouth.
This means that doctors’ surgeries experience a much greater demand for patient appointments – and,
therefore, it is not hard to understand why there need to be more doctors than dentists on the island.
Many dentist visits are routine check-ups, scheduled well in advance and do not take very long. Most people
only see their dentist once every six months and this alone reduces the volume of dental appointments relative
to that for doctors – where the young and old may visit far more frequently due to more complex medical
needs.
Doctors also make house calls to the sick and injured; these can take up quite a lot of time as the doctor may
have to travel quite a distance between house-calls, get held up in heavy traffic, and then needs spend much
longer than the standard five- or ten-minute appointment with the patent who, if they cannot get to surgery,
will probably have serious or complex medical needs. Dentists tend not to make house calls - except to care
homes for the elderly - and so are able to see more patients per clinic than can a doctor.
The lonely may make appointments with their doctor quite frequently because they require reassurance
and some company rather than because they are actually ill. For example, instead of using routine repeat
prescription requests via their pharmacy, they want to go into surgery to chat to the doctor; dentists are not
likely to see many patients under similar circumstances as they are not issuing repeat prescriptions and most
people would not use their dentist in this way!
Therefore, it is quite clear why the Isle of Wight requires more doctors than dentists – especially as the island
has an ageing population compared to the UK as a whole, meaning that doctors will be seeing more patients
with more complex medical needs. The need for the elderly to see their dentist is not likely to be any greater
than that of the population at large, however.
4 Newport is one of three settlements on the Isle of Wight with populations over 10 000, and one of only two
with more than 20 000 people – the other being Ryde. Both settlements currently have populations in the
24 000–26 000 range, with Newport having about 1500 more people than Ryde.
As the populations of Newport and Ryde are so similar, there must, therefore, be other factors which explain
why Newport has a total of 80 services, compared to Ryde’s 52. The most obvious of these is that Newport
is located centrally within the island, meaning that it is only a short travelling distance to all the other main
settlements. The map shows that, unsurprisingly therefore, it is also the island’s main transport hub, with
roads radiating out from it in several different directions. Ryde, on the other hand, is considerably more
isolated. Its location on the north-east coast actually works against it and it is served by only two routeways in
the island’s transport network.
Therefore, Newport has more services because it is more easily accessible; most of the population of the
island is able to reach it easily and quickly either by bus or car and so businesses can make far greater profits
than if they were located in a more isolated settlement such as Ryde.

Now
Investigate
Answers Urban settlements
1.6
Pages 51 and 52: What kind of settlement do you live in?
2 (i) True.
2 (ii) True.
2 (iii) False. The land on the banks of the river Seine is gently sloping and easy to build on.
2 (iv) False. The river made transportation by boat very easy.
2 (v) False. The original site of Paris consisted of an island in the middle of the river Seine.
2 (vi) True.
2 (vii) False. Paris is 375 km upstream from the mouth of the river Seine – which is located on the Channel coast;
it is also 196 km by road from the port of Le Havre. (Note: the distance measured upstream is calculated by
following the course of the meandering river; hence it is longer than the route by road)
2 (viii) True.
3 Paris lies in the north-central region of France, in the centre of the area known as the Paris Basin. The Paris
conurbation is approximately 45 km across from north to south, and a similar distance from east to west.
Paris acts as the primary hub of all of the country’s transport networks. It was the focus of many waterways
(rivers and, later, canals) in medieval times; the late 18th century saw the construction of a system of major
roads (the routes nationals), which radiate from the city in many directions. A similar network of railways was
constructed in the 19th century, to serve all parts of the Paris Basin and well beyond to the major industrial
region in the north-east and key ports such as Cherbourg, Bordeaux and Marseilles - on the English Channel,
Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts, respectively. In addition, the city is served by three international airports –
all of them beyond the conurbation boundary. Le Bourget and Charles de Gaulle are to the north-east, whilst
Orly is due south.
There are many industrial zones, both within the urban area and on its rural-urban fringe. The largest industrial
concentrations, however, are beyond the northern edge of ‘the city’, many of them on or close to the banks
of the meandering river Seine. In addition to its manufacturing industries, the Paris Basin has several other
major land uses which have enabled the city to prosper and expand over two millennia. It is one of the richest
agricultural regions in France, with wheat and barley being grown in the vast, gently undulating fields of
Beauce, 90 km south-west of Paris; soft cheese produced in Brie, 27 km to its south-east; and champagne
from around Reims, north-east of the capital.

4
Highways link Castries to other
Sandy beaches attract tourists, who create settlements sited on the narrow coastal
employment in coastal hotels and clubs like strip of flat land around St Lucia.
the Edgewater Beach Hotel. Quarries are a source of stone
for constructing Castries’ main
public buildings.
Flat land close to Port Castries Brickworks indicate a source

on which there is a of clay for manufacturing
1¾ km-long airstrip bricks for building construction
for international passenger in nearby Castries.
and freight aircraft.
Woodland on nearby
hillsides provides Castries
The wide harbour
with raw materials for
entrance, sheltered
building construction and
by headlands on both
the manufacture of goods
sides, provides a safe, natural
such as furniture.
harbour for ocean-going ships.
Streams provide additional
water for Castries via its
network of pipes, reservoirs
and water tanks.
Castries river is a major source

of pumped water for Castries Minor roads link Castries
with numerous villages in
its upland hinterland.
Key
CBD of Castries
other built up area
highways
other roads
river
water pipeline
.
.
water tank
746 spot height (in feet)
Q quarry
BF brick factory
Page 54: How does urban land use change, and why?
1 Pupil-led answer.
2 a) The Central Business District (CBD).
2 b) Hoyt.
2 c) Hoyt.
2 d) Hoyt.
2 e) Some kinds of urban zones are common to both MEDC and LEDC cities - the most obvious being the CBD,
which is characteristically dominated by high-rise buildings designed to maximise the economic benefit to be
gained from such valuable land.
The main difference is likely to be towards the rural-urban fringe. This is where the MEDCs’ formally planned
estates of community- and privately-owned housing with large gardens and garages are - in direct contrast
with the low-quality ‘unofficial’ residential peripheral developments typical of many LEDCs. Such areas are
often called shanty towns or spontaneous, informal settlements because they have received no planning

permission and their inhabitants do not own the land they occupy. These developments are referred to as
favelas in Brazil, barrios in Venezuela and bidonvilles in former French North African colonies like Tunisia.
Similar developments frequently occur on waste land closer to the city centre and near to railway lines, as
well as on marshy areas adjacent to rivers and swamps. Although hardly pleasant places in which to live and
raise children, they are likely to attract people who are in desperate need of low-skilled employment in urban
transport or other services.
Another difference is that, in or close to the central area in LEDC cities, areas of older, higher-class housing
is often found; such residencies occupy a large footprint and are often surrounded by sizeable landscaped
gardens. They are frequently a legacy of the former colonial past of many LEDC countries. Traditionally,
however, in many MEDC cities, such housing is absent from the inner areas of the city. Instead, the houses
of the wealthy were more often located in rural or semi-rural areas – away from the pollution and poverty
of industrialised cities. Recent, rapid urban sprawl means that some of these properties are located in the
suburbs of larger towns – as the built-up area has grown outwards and ‘swallowed’ them up.
Both LEDC and MEDC land-uses increasingly share peripheral industrial zones – although for different
reasons. In MEDC cities, industrial zones in the rural-urban fringe are often the result of the congestion
within cities, together with the lack of space for expansion. On the edges of the city, land is much cheaper
so modern, single-storey buildings can be constructed, suitable for today’s industrial processes and access
(most often by road) is easier and hence cheaper. In LEDCs, the only land still available for new industries to
locate upon is often on the city’s periphery, as the inner zones are congested and polluted and so do not offer
suitable sites. Also, such industries rely upon the cheap, unskilled in-migrants to the city who cannot afford
public transport or their own transport; factories located in the outer regions of the city have access to a large
workforce of in-migrants seeking appropriate employment opportunities.
Page 56: Urban zones
1 Pupil-led answer.
2 a) The CBD of Castries is located in grid squares 0848 and (mainly) 0948.
2 b) The police headquarters, fire station and port police building, the cathedral and the post office are key
buildings which indicate that this is a CBD zone.
3 The image in the textbook on page 56 does not show as many rural-urban fringe activites as the image below.
The following table gives answers for this image.
Clay Farm, Trumpington, on the southern edge of Cambridge.

Image courtesy of Oxford Archaeology, oxfordarchaeology.com

Agricultural Commercial Recreational Transport Other
and industrial
Arable farming Mineral extraction; Recreational open Road network, Residential (e.g.
(i.e. crops or this is suggested space – possibly particularly within the rows of semi-
vegetables); the by the circular grey sports or playing residential areas. detached housing in
range of brown areas within large fields (especially A main road route the right-hand area
shades suggests fields. These are the green area cuts across the of the photograph,
that crops have water and may surrounded by bottom left-hand around the ‘sports
been harvested – or indicate gravel housing on far right corner of the image field’).
that land is lying extraction. of photograph). and there is a Also along the main
fallow. Also, the similar main road in road in the bottom
green-coloured The dark brown the upper right-hand left of the image.
fields may show areas in some fields area.
newly sprouting show disturbed soil.
crops – as we do This could be from
not know the time farming or mineral
of year that the extraction. [You
photograph was can’t tell what they
taken. actually are from
the photograph, but
in this case they
are the result of an
archaeological dig
ahead of a planned
development of the
area].
Pastoral farming Bird-watching Disused railway line Educational (the
(raising cattle or and other eco- (The gently-curving cluster of buildings
sheep). This is recreational linear feature across in mid-centre of
suggested by the activities; the the photograph is right-hand side,
several green- hedgerows and typical of railway adjacent to a large
coloured fields – wooded areas offer track layouts; also; open space is
although see above. suitable habitats for this is confirmed typical of secondary
a range of wildlife. by the Ordnance school layouts
Survey maps of the in the UK; this
area). This may confirmed by the
suggest that there local O.S. map).
is a main-line in the
vicinity.
Walking / cycling, The cluster of large,
for example along modern, uniform-
the disused (curved) design buildings in
track-way which the far left of the
cuts across the picture could be an
image. [It is, in fact, industrial / higher-
a disused railway education / hospital
route: these often complex. The local
provide recreational O.S. map suggests
opportunities]. that it is indeed a
medical facility; a
recent expansion
of Addenbrooke’s
Hospital.

Page 58: The environmental impact of pollution
1 Example answer:
Activity Type of pollution Effects of this type of pollution

Pleasure barges cruising Water pollution Oil from propulsion machinery and anti-fouling paint on
on the Leeds and the hull poison fish in the canal.
Liverpool Canal
Commuters travelling by Noise pollution Engine noise disturbs local residents, especially during
train through Headingley the morning and late afternoon peak rush hour periods.
People travelling to Visual and noise The stadium has a 17 500 seat capacity. Some of the
and from matches at pollution people visiting the stadium drop cans and other items of
Headingly Cricket Ground litter on the ground. This is very unsightly. Also there is
loud noise associated with matches – especially 20-20
fixtures when loud music is played.
Dog walking on the banks Environmental Dog waste not disposed of properly causes a range of
of the River Aire pollution environmental problems. It creates offensive smells,
contaminates walkers’ footwear and attracts flies which
can spread disease to humans.
Driving cars on the A660 Air pollution Exhaust fumes from the heavy volume of traffic makes
main road between Leeds local residents more vulnerable to respiratory problems
city centre and the A6120 such as asthma. Emissions from diesel vehicles are now
ring road believed to be particularly harmful and, in 2016, Leeds
was named as a ‘hot spot’ for air pollution, being the third
worst place in the country.
Designated as a ‘hot spot’ for air pollution, being the third
worst place in the country.
2 a) Example answer: In my opinion, wind turbines are beautiful things and so do not cause visual pollution. They
are also very useful. Quite simply, I would be happy for a wind turbine to be built in my own community.
2 b) Example answer: I believe that wind turbines are beautiful because they are so well-designed. Also, they
have smooth white columns and blades which make them look graceful. They are useful because they
generate electricity in a way that does not cause air pollution as fossil fuels do, and they do not pose a
hazardous radiation threat like nuclear energy. Their blades make a sort of swishing noise when turning, but
this isn’t really loud and you can’t hear it unless you are quite close.

Pages 60 and 61: The effects of rapid urban growth on the rural–urban fringe
1 a)
Grid references Type of land use
971057 and 987066 Cemetery
978067 and 978069 Factory
972032 and 984053 Hospital
9906 Industrial estate
985069 and 997065 Road
9805 or 985051 Power sub-station
9703 and 9803 Race course
990038 and 984032 Reservoir
990039 and 990047 School
9705 Sports ground
964028 and 998022 Woodland on a steep slope
1 b)
Brown: Economic (including power generation)
Yellow: Recreation
Red: Transport
Green: Others
2 Pupil-led answer.
3 a) Fishing: Many rural-urban fringe areas have ponds, lakes, rivers and canals, which are all ideal habitats for
fish. Also, they tend to be quiet locations, so the fish are not unduly disturbed by traffic noise and other urban
activities.
Golf: This is a very land-intensive sport, and it is rare for enough vacant land to be available within urban
areas.
Hospitals: Hospitals are increasingly being relocated to rural-urban fringe areas, where there is adequate
space for parking and helicopter ambulances to land on; ring roads and direct highways from city centres
facilitate rapid transit for ambulance crews and family visitors. They are often less polluted than inner urban
areas, which is a positive factor in patients’ recovery.
Modern industrial estates: Rural-urban fringe areas can provide plenty of space for car and lorry parks - as
well as for industrial buildings and their future expansion should this become necessary; they usually have
good road links and public transport facilities.
Power stations: Fossil fuel-powered generating stations emit chemicals which pollute the air, so it is
appropriate for them to be located away from densely populated areas. They also cause thermal pollution,
due to the high temperature of the coolant water discharged directly from generating plants into local water
courses.
Reservoirs: Reservoirs require large expanses of land, so are best situated where they are likely to cause
minimum disruption to existing settlements, transport networks and commercial activities – i.e. in out-of-town
locations.
Supermarkets: Like retail parks, these require large areas of relatively low-value land with excellent road
access for shoppers and delivery lorries.
3 b) Many rural-urban fringe activities are likely to induce conflict when undertaken in close proximity to each other.
Four such activity ‘pairings’ are:
Fishing and speed-boating: The noise from boats’ engines disturbs the fish, which can be poisoned by
leakages of fuel and lubricating oil. The chemicals in anti-fouling compounds designed to stop weeds growing
on boats’ hulls and slowing them down are highly toxic to fish and other forms of wildlife in the marine
ecosystem. Kite-flying and shooting game birds: for obvious reasons!
Power station and hospital developments: The first development is likely to create air pollution, which will
increase respiratory problems for vulnerable patients currently staying in the hospital.
Dog walkers and farmers: Potential conflicts include dogs harrying sheep (especially at lambing time) and
leaving gates open which allows cattle to stray onto roads. Unthinking walkers deviating from public footpaths
damage crops by trampling on them.
4 Quarries are unsightly (i.e. a cause of visual pollution) and their heavy lorries frustrate visitors when they block
narrow, winding country roads; they invariably discharge clouds of rock-dust onto following vehicles. This rock-
dust often means that people living in the locality cannot hang out their laundry outside to dry because the dust
settles on it, meaning that it has to be rewashed. Also, rock blasting causes noise pollution, which can alarm
farm animals and disturb local residents – especially babies and shift-workers sleeping during daytime. The
heavy lorries cause noise pollution and their rumbling sound often causes vibrations which can be felt in local
housing; this can lead to walls cracking. Many people find the vibrations quite disturbing – and, again, night-
workers can have difficulty sleeping because of them.
Page 63: Urban change
1 The crucial difference in the ways that the two areas developed is because they originated and grew during
different historical periods.
The Romans established Londinium beside the River Thames over 2000 years ago. Their exact site was
chosen because it could be defended and developed as a route centre. It is now occupied by ‘The City’ –
London’s financial district. It lies between Westminster and the East End.
The East End developed well before Westminster. Roman ships could not sail under London Bridge, the
first to cross the Thames, so a port was established downstream from it. Industries developed behind the
port’s quays, together with low-quality housing for the dock and factory workers, many of them migrants from
mainland Europe.
Westminster developed around an eleventh century abbey. It became the preferred location for royalty, the
very wealthy and the most influential people in government. This was an ideal place for the upper classes of
the time because it was up-wind of the air pollution produced by the industrial and commercial East End; this
was due to the prevailing (dominant) south-westerly winds, which blow over the city towards the North Sea.
The large parks which are such a feature of this part of London were once heavily wooded hunting grounds,
reserved exclusively for the enjoyment of the royal family and the privileged few who were close to them.
Although now recreational open spaces for use by the general public, they are still referred to as ‘Royal Parks’.
2 a) It became necessary to regenerate London Docklands because that area’s industries had declined and
local unemployment reached record levels. Both issues were due to the ever increasing size of ocean-going
ships. These could no longer navigate the Thames safely as far as the original docks in the Isle of Dogs so
larger, deep-water berths had to be constructed towards the river estuary at Tilbury. Also, more modern cargo
handling equipment was required to transfer containers between ship and shore. Shipping containers reduced
handling costs by 90 per cent and became commonplace during the 1960s and 1970s. The London Docklands
Development Corporation was established to redevelop the area and give it a new lease of economic life not
based on cargo handling and processing.
The Lea Valley area was regenerated because it had become run-down due to widespread dereliction and
deprivation. London’s response was to undertake urban renewal using redevelopment strategies – the
wholesale clearance of the old and its total replacement by new construction. The long-term aim was to create
an environment which would attract people and persuade them to stay due to the enhanced employment
opportunities. The catalyst for this transformation was to be the 2012 London Olympic Games.

2 b) There are several regeneration aims that are common to both projects. They are shown in this table:
Common regeneration aim Response by London Docklands Response by the Olympic

Village
Creating new homes 22 000 units 3300 units
Ensuring that some new homes 10 000 upgraded local authority 30 per cent of new stock to be
are affordable/available to people houses affordable housing
in need of social housing
10 000 upgraded local authority
houses 30% per cent of new stock
to be affordable housing
Providing new/improved transport Docklands Light Railway built – High-speed rail link to central
infrastructure giving 10-minute access to central London
London Park-and-ride car parks built
London City Airport built – it can New bridges built over existing
handle 500 000 passengers a year main roads
New road link to M11 motorway
Creating new job opportunities 43 000 jobs created Media centre – created office
1500 new businesses established facilities for 8000 workers
370 km2 of land allocated to future
business developments
Providing new recreational New indoor sports centre Olympic Stadium – able to
opportunities New yacht marina established accommodate 80 000 spectators
within the redundant dock area Velodrome – with links to new
cycle circuit and cycling routes
across London
Wetland habitats restored –
providing additional,
environmentally rich, recreational
open space

Now
Investigate
Answers Urbanisation
1.7
Pages 65 and 66: What problems are caused when cities grow?
1 Pupil-led answer.
2 a) Pupil-led activity.
2 b) Pupil-led activity.
3 • The first rush hour period starts during 0500-0600 and finishes during 1000-1100.
• The second rush hour period starts during 1500-1600 and finishes during 1900-2100.
• The peak volume of traffic during the first rush hour was 4100 vehicles. The peak volume of traffic during the
second rush hour was 5400 vehicles.
4 Car ownership in India totalled about 700 000 in 2000, rising to over 26 million in 2017. It rose annually
throughout that period - relatively slowly up to 2006, after which it accelerated significantly.
Page 68: Squatter settlements
1 a) Environmental problems of shanty towns include:
• Many people working from home, not in purpose-built factories, so there is serious air pollution (causing
respiratory problems) and high noise levels for long periods of time
• Inadequate sanitation and high population densities, meaning that disease is rife and spreads quickly between
people.
Social problems of shanty towns include:
• High rates of unemployment, forcing people into theft, drug-related crime and prostitution in order to survive
• Anti-social behaviour by gangs of boys being a particularly serious problem in many shanty towns.
•
Economic problems of shanty towns include:
• Most people working in the low-income informal sector, in activities such as recycling plastic bottles, oil drums
and cardboard boxes
•
• Many families having to rely on others to provide the water they need – often at an exorbitant price, which they
can’t afford
• The constant influx of newcomers making it increasingly difficult for established residents to find employment
1 b) Possible good things about living in a shanty town include:
• The fact that difficult living conditions encourage families to help each other in times of distress. This can
occur when severe weather conditions render flimsy dwellings uninhabitable and people offer temporary
accommodation and shelter for their neighbours

• Such adverse conditions can, over time, create very close-knit communities - a social asset rare in much
wealthier societies
• Living in such settlements within the inner city means that the people do not have to spend money travelling to
work if they are employed in the informal sector providing services to the other shanty town residents – or if
they work in the nearby CBD
• Shanties in the peripheral zones may allow their residents easy access to work in newer factories located in
the outer zones of the city – reducing their travel time and costs.
2 Mumbai’s bustees are distributed widely throughout much of its urban area.
Zones where bustee development is especially discouraged include the city centre, in the south, and the
Sanjay Gandhi National Park further north. Both are easy to explain: land in the CBD is so valuable and
intensively developed that such informal (unapproved) and unsightly sprawl would not be tolerated; national
parks are environmentally protected areas, in which all forms of residential and commercial development are
strictly enforced by law. Few shanty towns encroach on the challenging salt pan and mud flat environments.
Only a few, modest-sized shanty towns are located in or close to the high-class residential area in south-east
Mumbai. An extensive area around the Sahar International Airport is free of shanty development.
The most popular bustee locations are within, or on the edge of, established urban areas. This is also where
the largest shanty developments are to be found. A likely reason for this is their proximity to transport services
and industrial centres, where the shanty-dwellers are more likely to find employment appropriate to their
inferior education and skill levels.
3 Your answer should include considerations such as:
• How will displaced families feel about and react to being parted from long-term neighbours and friends?
• Some squatter families earn a living by working from home (e.g. in small-scale recycling). How is a move likely
to affect them and their business activities?
• There will have to be alternative home-work travel arrangements for people who are employed elsewhere.
There could be distance, time and cost implications for such employees due these new arrangements
• Enforced moves could result in some families having a higher standard of accommodation, with greater
protection against bad weather and improved water, sewage and power facilities. However, many LEDC cities
have already overstretched budgets for urban renewal schemes, so there is no guarantee that moving home
will result in an improved quality of life for all – particularly those who have already managed to upgrade their
own accommodation
• Many favelas now have some basic schooling facilities for their younger children; it may be that new
developments elsewhere do not at the time people have to move into them
• Existing squatter settlements are frequently plagued by crime and other forms of antisocial behaviour. A move
could give people a respite from such problems.
Page 70: Ways of upgrading residential areas
1 Renovation and redevelopment are different forms of urban renewal.
Renovation raises housing standards by improving people’s existing accommodation; this usually involves
rewiring houses, replacing obsolete windows and doors, and installing an inside toilet in the oldest, most basic
properties.
Redevelopment achieves an improvement in an area’s housing stock by demolition and total replacement; in
larger redevelopment schemes, it is possible to rearrange the street layout to provide better road access and
enhance the environment by creating additional recreational open space.
2 Possible disadvantages of living in high-rise blocks of flats include:
• the risk of being trapped in the event of a major fire (e.g. the 24-storey Grenfell Tower inferno in West London
in June 2017 in which over 70 residents lost their lives)

• the reliance on lifts; when these break down, residents have to walk up and down many flights of stairs
• getting the weekly shopping home, especially if several carrying ‘trips’ are needed
• the appearance and standard of cleanliness of communal areas such as lifts and entrance halls; these can
deteriorate over time due to graffiti and other antisocial behaviour
• restrictions on pet ownership
• the challenge of regularly exercising and toileting pets
• the risk of noise from neighbours living in adjacent flats
• the increased difficulty that disabled residents may experience accessing their flats
• the inconvenience of delivering post, milk and other items
• disposing of/recycling domestic waste.
3 If you are making notes to help with revision, using bullet points to identify key ideas is an excellent technique;
it means you are not copying huge passages of text without really thinking about what it says. Instead you are
engaging your brain in sorting and sifting key ideas and so you have started revising effectively without even
realising that you are doing so!
The self-help scheme in Brazil:
• ‘Self-help’ schemes improve housing conditions
• They do this by providing people with some land to build on
• They also provide the basic materials needed to build and improve their own homes
• The Brazilian case study is based on Roçinha
• Roçinha is a shanty town in Rio de Janeiro
• It was first developed on a steep hillside in the 1950s
• Roçinha now has over 100 000 inhabitants
• The early dwellings were small, flimsy wood and canvas cabins
• Most of these have since been enlarged and improved
• The residents used bricks and tiles provided by the city authorities to improve their homes
• Vital financial support made it possible for residents to undertake most of this work themselves
• This is a key aspect of ‘self help’ schemes.
The site and service scheme in Egypt:
• ‘Site and service’ schemes also improve housing conditions
• They do this by providing people with basic accommodation
• This accommodation includes facilities such as water supply and sewage disposal
• This means that they are much more ambitious projects which are, as a result, more obvious within the urban
landscape
• The Egyptian case study is based on the 6th of October City, near Cairo

• This settlement is typical of site and service schemes because sufficient land was allocated to create extensive
new developments
• Its basic water, sewage and electricity services were installed prior to building
• This is a particularly important initiative in small-scale schemes
• This is because most families are only able to use basic materials which they can afford at first but they know
that they will be able to make further improvements in the future, when they have enough money to do this.
Page 72: More sustainable cities
1 This is how the Brazilian city of Curitiba managed to fulfil four sustainability strategies:
Strategy 1: Pollution reduction, especially air pollution from vehicles and factories
• New buses could discharge and embark passengers at the same time, meaning that their engines spent less
time idling and polluting the air around bus stops
• A technology park was built, with specialist research facilities to develop non-fossil fuels.
Strategy 2: Using fewer natural resources such as fossil fuels, by encouraging more people to use public
transport instead of private vehicles
• Bus-only lanes were introduced on roads
• Public transport was made more affordable
• Buses capable of carrying 270 passengers were introduced on the busiest routes
• The Bus Mass Transit system was introduced; this reduced car journeys by 70 per cent
• It introduced sight-seeing buses for tourists, which meant they didn’t have to use large numbers of taxis or their
own cars
• The city’s bus fleet can now carry 50 times more passengers than it did 20 years earlier
• All bus routes were colour-coded and provided with the size of bus most appropriate to their individual needs
and passenger numbers.
Strategy 3: Recycling and disposing of waste materials in environmentally less damaging ways
• Introducing a city-wide waste recycling programme meant that Curitiba achieved the highest recycling rate in
the world!
Strategy 4: Creating more recreational open spaces and planting more trees and other plants
• ‘Green zones’ were created within urban areas and given protection against future unsustainable development
• 17 large urban parks were established
• Some botanical gardens were created
• The city’s Mayor, Jamie Lerner, allocated 1.5 million young trees to deprived neighbourhoods
• 150 km of urban pathways were created for use by city walkers, cyclists and roller-boarders.

2 The information obtained for your chosen city can be displayed as a three-column table. Below is an example
for Cairo, focusing on two of its most serious environmental issues.
Type of Pollution issues Remedial measures

pollution
Air High levels of air pollution pose a serious The Ministry of the Environment has inaugurated
pollution risk to public health and are a major factor a project to use natural gas for public transport
in the national annual 2500 death toll instead of conventional fuels.
and 330 000 serious cases of respiratory There are also plans to make oil refineries
infection. Factories contribute about half enhance their fuel quality so as to reduce the
of Cairo’s air pollution. The widespread potential for environmental harm.
burning of straw after clearing rice fields is A million trees are being planted to replace
another major problem because it releases environmentally hazardous greenhouse gases with
deadly carbon monoxide gas. beneficial oxygen.
Monuments of great cultural and historical It is planned to build a fourth metro line for the
importance become crusted with unsightly Cairo conurbation and create 200 new bus
grey and black deposits and their stonework lanes; these measures should jointly reduce
is weakened then eroded - particularly those traffic congestion – and the additional pollutant
constructed of limestone. emissions caused by engine idling – by up to
40 per cent.
Noise Blaring car horns and boisterous wedding The Environmental Protection Agency has set
pollution celebrations are just two common causes of some noise limits, but these are clearly too high
medical and psychological conditions which and are too often ignored.
people develop over time. In central Cairo,
noise levels never fall below 70 decibels
(dBA) and maintain an average of 90 dBA
- the equivalent of motor bikes running
constantly at almost full power!

Section 1 Population and Settlement

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Section 1 Population and Settlement

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Cambridge IGCSE®

Now Investigate Answers

Section 1 Population and settlement

Topic 1.1 Population dynamics

© HarperCollins Publishers 2018 Section 1 : Population and settlement 1

Page 3: Why are some families larger than others?

1 Biological factors including:

Economic factors including:

Personal preferences such as:

Cultural / societal factors including:

2 Section 1 : Population and settlement © HarperCollins Publishers 2018

4 b) The world’s population in 2010 was about seven billion.

4 c) In 2000, most people lived in developing countries.

Pages 5 and 6: Why did the population explosion happen?

1 a) For example: Elephants Create Indigo Lakes.

3 b) Africa, Asia and South America.

© HarperCollins Publishers 2018 Section 1 : Population and settlement 3

Page 8: Why do populations grow at different rates?

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The six most significant data items from Table A are:

• GD per capita (as it is an indicator of the wealth of a nation)

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Page 15: Diseases are deadly!

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Page 18: Anti-natalist population policies

1970: China’s fertility rate reaches 5.8 children/woman;

1980 1979: One-child policy introduced

1990 1992: Policy rules relaxed; adoption legalised

2015 2015: Chinese government announces a new two-child policy

© HarperCollins Publishers 2018 Section 1 : Population and settlement 13

Page 20: Pro-natalist population policies

1 This is a pupil-led question.

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Page 23: Why, where and how do people move around?

Page 25: Moving from one country to another

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1 a-d) Pupil-led answer.

2 a-c) Pupil-led answer.

Five ways in which census information might be useful to a country are:

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Page 31: Changing stages of economic development

• ensuring that pension arrangements keep pace with inflation

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Amazon Rain Forest South-east Asia Borneo Rain Forest

Great Sandy Desert

The Antarctic Wilderness

Page 35: Areas of high population density

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Fertile soil is ideal for

Image credit: Kgbo: CC by S.A. 4.0

Page 37: Areas of low population density

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Page 40: Why do people live in the countryside?