Buddhist Model of

Conflict Resolution Contained in the Sāmagāma Sutta

Prof. Shanker Thapa

Abstract

Conflict has been a serious and pertinent problem modern society faces. It has different
forms, varieties, nature and intensity. Its impact in the society as whole is massive. It
threats to peace, progress, prosperity, freedom, expression, democracy so on. By all means,
conflict is an unwholesome act. Therefore, it needs to be duly addressed on time. Efforts
are being made to resolve them. However, series of conflict arise in other forms. Buddhism
as a religion is concerned with peace and happiness. It teaches to win over defilements like
lobha, doṣa and moha which are taken as the root of unwholesome acts. They are the root
of conflict. A number of Suttas in the Pālī Nikāyas discuss conflict and conflict resolution.
The Suttas contained in Dīgha Nikāya, Majjhima Nikāya, Samyutta Nikāya, Aṅguttara
Nikāya, Sutta Nipāta etc have several Suttas, which deal with conflict. These are the
teachings of the Buddha delivered in different places under different circumstances to
different audiences. Important Suttas to address the problem include – Aggñnña Sutta,
Kalaha Vivāda Sutta, Kinti Sutta, Kuṭadanta Sutta, Mahānidāna Sutta, Sāmagāma Sutta,
Vivādamūla Sutta, Śakka Pañña Sutta and so on. The Buddhist model of conflict resolution
is contained in the Sāmagāma Sutta. This theory can well be applied in the modern context
as well. This Sutta is significant to address conflict.
Key words: Buddha, Conflict, Sutta, desire, mental condition, peace.

Background
Modern world has achieved incredible process in science and technology and other
fields. Entire globe has been influenced by western thoughts and ideas. Oriental society too is
not free from such influences. So, Eastern society has forgotten ancient knowledge and its
benefit that was developed in the Indian sub-continent or the East Asian region. With the
process of modernization, conflicts tended to grow in various forms that have posed threat to
well-being and existence of the humanity. In the present world, conflict exists in multiple
forms such as wars and battles, terrorism, aggressions, insurgency, hegemony,
fundamentalism, political chaos, territorial occupation, ethnic conflict, racism, enmity,
inequality, injustice, control over resources, and so on. No nation is free from the
consequences of conflict. The big nations have been engaged in power struggle where as
small nations are anxious about their existence other threats.
Conflict, as a conceptual terminology, has become problematic while peace building
is the concern. It is the source of multifarious problems and an adversary of peace. Conflict
literally refers to ‘serious disagreement or argument, typically a protracted one. In other terms
it is a state of disagreement or disharmony. This situation could have relative impact in the
society creating disturbances in the peaceful coexistence and development. Since it has been

1
a series of unwholesome acts, a number of ideologues have proposed various models of
conflict resolution. Buddha is one among them.1
Attempts have been made and also being made to overcome conflictsto create
environment for sustainable peace. Western peace and conflict theorists have been working
for solutions through conceptualizing the process and finding a solution out of their
application. However, conflicts tended to originate and exist.
Eastern philosophical traditions particularly that developed in the Indian subcontinent
could provide better solutions to address conflict. For this, Buddha’s ideas contained in the
Pālī Nikāyas are foremost.
Buddhist Concept of Peace
Johan Galtung, a Norwegian pioneer of peace research says that world is “precisely a
process based on diversity in symbiotic interaction.” In this world of multi-leveled plurality,
peace is an interactive process of a series of changing and balancing acts, an on-going
dialectic between our actions and the world.2 This contingent view of peace is similar to
Buddhist perception of peace.3 Buddhism prefers a holistic view of peace, instead of peace in
separate contexts. Both peace and war are produced by the collective, rather than individuals.
Absence of conflict and violence only constitutes a temporary peace if there does not prevail
social justice.4
Buddhism is synonymous to peace and praised for its teachings it is destined to
achieve peace in individuals and in the society. Buddha says that there is no higher bliss than
peace.5Buddhism is further praised for its teachings of non-violence. Buddhism lays focus on

1
Buddha has defined and analysed conflict in his teachings that are contained in Pālī Buddhist
literature. He has also designed a model to resolve conflict. A number of Pālī Suttas contain
Buddha’s ideas on conflict.
2
Johan Galtung, Buddhism: A Quest for Unity and Peace, Honolulu: Dae Won Sā Buddhist
Temple, 1993, p. 23; Theresa Der-Lan Yeh, ‘The Way to Peace: A Buddhist Perspective’,
International Journal of Peace Studies, Vol. 11, No. 1, Spring/Summer 2006, p. 93.
3
Peace is divided into two categories - positive and negative peace. Negative peace is the absence
of direct violence (physical, verbal, and psychological) between individuals, groups, and
governments. It addresses immediate symptoms, the conditions of war, and the use and effects of
force and weapons. Positive peace refers to more than the absence of violence; it is the presence
of social justice through equal opportunity, a fair distribution of power and resources, equal
protection and impartial enforcement of law. It involves the elimination of the root causes of war,
violence, and injustice and the conscious effort to build a society that reflects these commitments.
Positive peace assumes interconnectedness of all lives.
4
Three approaches to nonviolent peace work have been identified –
1. Peacemaking (search for creative and mutually acceptable outcomes to conflict seeking to
transform the attitudes and assumptions of the actors in the conflict),
2. Peace building (activities that build structural and cultural peace seeking to transform and
eliminate social conflict at the source), and
3. Peacekeeping (pressuring and influencing the actors of the conflict to prevent, reduce, and stop
violence.)
5
Mahāvagga, Vinayapitaka.

2
peace within for which individuals practice and train mind.6 The concept of peace is extended
to both inner and outer peace.7 Inner peace (ajihata-Śāntī), which is generally known as
‘peace of mind’, is a mental state free from ‘disquieting or oppressive thoughts or emotions’.8
Inner peace is prerequisite to outer peace, which involves interpersonal relations. Buddhism
believes that peace contributes to peaceful coexistence of sentient beings. Peace encompasses
absence of conflict and presence of social harmony
Buddhism and Conflict
Literally, conflict is the state of absence of peace. Its absence is visible not only in
war or other violent actions but in all kinds of injustices, inequalities, human rights
violations, ecological destructions and similar other context. Conflict is often defined as a
series of violent acts or incompatibility of positions.
Buddhism not only deals with philosophical matters but also contributes to various
socio-economic aspects in the human society. Buddhism defines conflict 9 as a series of
negative human actions.10 Actions occur due to volition (Cetanā). The mental conditions such
as desire, hatred and delusion are the source of all the problems. They produce unwholesome
acts (Akuśala). It remains as the barrier for peace. The ultimate aim of conflict resolution is to
recreate peaceful society. Negative actions require resolution for sustainable peace.
Conflict has various forms of origin and nature. In the present disturbed world due to
various forms of conflicts, Buddhism firmly stands for peace and peaceful coexistence.
Śikṣāsamuccaya [Śāntideva] mentions about the cause of conflict:
Wherever conflict arises among living creatures, the sense of possession is the
cause.11
Here greed can be seen as pertinent mental state that leads to originate conflict.

6
For details see: Arvind K. Singh, World Peace and Conflict Resolution: A Solution from Buddhist
Point of View’, In: Buddhist Contribution to Global Peace-Building, p. 2;
www.undv.org/icdv/2014paper/ws4_06_en__World_Peace_and_Conflict_Resolution_
652599916.pdf (retrieved on 10th Oct. 2015).
7
Phra Thepsophon, (Prayoon Mererk), A Buddhist Worldview, Bangkok:
Mahāculāloṅgkornrājavidyālaya University Press, 2000, p. 58; Quoted in: Arvind K. Singh, op
cit, p. 3
8
B. Khemānanda, The Buddhist Concept of Peace, Calcutta: Lazo Print, 1996. Quoted in: Arvind
K. Singh, op cit, p. 3.
9
Jacob Bercovitch, Victor Kremenyuk and William Zartman, The Sage Handbook of Conflict
Resolution, London: Sage Publications, 2008, p. 3.
10
Actions are either wholesome (Kuśala) or unwholesome (Akuśala). These are based on six types
of roots (mental conditions): Lobha (desire), Doṣa (hatred), Moha (delusion), Alobha
(unselfishness), Adoṣa/Metta (hatelessness), Amoha/Prajñā (non-deludness). Desire, hatred and
delusion lead to unwholesome acts. Wasanatha Priyadarśana, ‘The Buddhist Concept of Conflict
Resolution: An Approach to Global Recovery through Mental Recovery,’ In: Ven. Khammāi
Dhammasāmī (ed.), Global Recovery: The Buddhist Perspective, Bangkok:
Mahāculāloṅgkornrājavidyālaya University, 2010, p. 714.
11
Śikṣāsamuccaya: 20.

3
 The underlying causes of conflict are to be in three domains of external, internal and
root causes of conflicts. The Buddha looks at the external causes of conflict as consequences
derived from a general orientation common to all living beings: avoiding harm and obtaining
happiness. Anything contrary to this would result in disturbing one’s peace and lead to
conflict.12
Buddhism contends that these behaviours and structures originate from the state of
human mind, since the violence and injustice are responses toward external stimuli produced
by people’s inner mind operation. The deeper causes of any conflict lie internally in the
mental operations within each being. They are internal causes of conflict.13 On top of external
and internal causes, there is always the root cause as the fundamental cause of conflict that
results in inflicted sufferings. Ignorance is identified as the very root cause of violence,
conflict and war, which prevents human beings to live a peaceful life.14 However, Buddhism
believes craving also as the root cause.
The source of conflict is craving (Tṛṣnā) According to Buddhism all kinds of
defilements are the sources of conflict either political or social.15 The Mahānidāna Sutta 16
elaborates the sources of conflict. It discusses on how craving leads step by step to conflict

12
External conflict includes external verbal and physical wrongdoings as well as social injustice. If
people want to live an ultimately happy life with no harms toward themselves at all, the Buddha
teaches, they should start with avoiding causing harm to others, physically and verbally at the
personal level, since people are afraid of physical violence and resent harsh words; and the
physical and verbal harm we inflict upon others usually leads to hate and conflicts that, in turn,
would bring harm to us and cost our happiness. Theresa Der-lan Yeh, loc cit, p.94.
13
For example, confronted with the threat of physical and verbal harm, it is natural for us to feel
fear, dislike, resentment, anger or hate. Out of this negative caste of mind, we would again resort
to a violent response, and hence a conflict arises. Similarly, institutions or groups would respond
to adversity with establishing policies or laws trying to protect whatever interest they perceive to
be under threat or attack, which would cause conflicts since others’ interest and well-being might
be undermined by these measures. In other words, physical and structural violence are the product
of human mental status such as fear, anger, and hate, which are considered in Buddhism to be the
internal causes to violence and conflicts.
Theresa Der-lan Yeh, loc cit, p.96.
14
All our attachments, the resulting harming behaviors and the suffering hence caused, to the human
ignorance (avijja), that is, we cannot see the world as it is and see our self as such. We are
ignorant to the cosmic reality that everything in the world is inter-related, interdependent.
Individuals develop our attachments to views and desires through the reinforcing notions of “me”
and “mine.” We tend to focus on the harm that is done to us, instead of examining the whole
event in its context with all the causes and conditions conducive to its happening. This ignorance
to the principle of dependent origination alienates us from perceiving reality.
Theresa Der-lan Yeh, loc cit, p. 97.
Even wars between states come out of great fear and the collective ignorance. Thich Nhat Hanh,
Creating True Peace: Ending Violence in Yourself, Your Family, Your Community, and the
World, New York: Free Press, 2003.
15
Those defilements are to me enumerated as - tanhā (craving) māna (conceit), diṭṭhī (false view),
lobha (greed), doṣa (hatred) and moha (delusion). They are not to nurture but to overcome for
peace and eradicating conflict.
16
Mahānidāna Sutta, Dīgha Nikāya 2:2

4
due to occurring mental stages. Craving leads to Rāga (passion), Moha (delusion) and Doṣa
(hatred). This Sutta further elaborates relationship of craving to other mental stages in general
and conflict
ict in particular. It is illustrated as follows
follows:
Diagram: 1
Relationship Model:
Root of Conflict ((craving) and Subsequent Mental Stages

CRAVING Stinginess Defensiveness

Seeking Possiveness
CONFLICT

Acquisition Ascertainment

Attachment Desire

This chart defines craving as the source of conflict leading to negative effects in
individual environment.17 It directly contributes to conflict.18
To refer the Aggañña Sutta, it opines that the evolution of the society was based on
the craving of individuals, making negative effects to the individuals as well as the
environment.19 It also describes the state of tthe he individual and the environment at the
beginning of the world. It further explains the changes occurred in the individual’s physical
and mental states and the environment due to craving.
Vivādamūla Sutta puts forward six causes of social conflict -20
 Anger and grudging
 Merciless and spiteful
 Selfish and envious
 Crafty and deceitful with evils
 View and wrong view
 Holding on one’s views
Pālī Suttas on Conflict

17
Aggañña Sutta, Dīgha Nikāya 3:4
18
H. R. Nishadini Peiris, ‘Buddhist
Buddhist Social Conflict Management Approach,’
www.undv.org/vesak2015/paper/
www.undv.org/vesak2015/paper/buddhist_social_conflict.pdf
19
Sebastian Musch, ‘Buddhism and Social Conflict,’
www.undv.org/vesak2015/.../
www.undv.org/vesak2015/.../buddhism_and_social_ conflict_in_age.pdf
20
Vivādamūla Sutta, Aṅguttara
guttara Nikāya 10:42.

5
 The subject matter of the Pālī Sutta contained in the five Nikāya texts in the Tripitaka
is diverse. Its subject ranges from philosophy to cosmology to address to social problems. In
fact, Buddha's teachings that are collected in the Tripitaka address pertinent human problems
and provides its rightful solution. Among many subjects, peace and conflict are very
important themes that some of the Pālī Suttas address. Those subjects are addressed with
profundity and farsightedness. Some of the important Suttas to deal with conflict are
Aggñnña Sutta (DN 3:4), Ambalatthikā Rāhulavāda Sutta (MN 2:1:11), Aṅgulimāla Sutta
(MN2:1:36), Araṇa Vibhaṅga Sutta (MN2:1:39), Kākacupama Sutta (MN 1:2:21),
Kalaha Vivāda Sutta (SN4:11), Kālāma Sutta (AN 3:66), Kinti Sutta, (MN 3:1:3), Kosaṃbiya
Sutta (MN 1:5:48), Kuṭadanta Sutta (DN 1:5),Mahādhupiṇḍika Sutta (MN1:2:18),
Mahānidāna Sutta (DN 2:2), Metta Sutta (AN 4.125), Sabbāsava Sutta (MN1:1:2),
Sāmagāma (Sāmagrāma) Sutta (MN3:1:4), Upaṇiṣa Sutta (SN12:23), Vivādamūla Sutta
(AN10:42), Vyāgghapajja (Dīghajānu) Sutta (AN 8.54), Cakkavattisiṃhanāda Sutta (DN
3:3), Sakka Pañhā Sutta(DN 2:8) and so on.
These Suttas collectively focus on four aspects of conflict - roots of conflict, nature
and types, conflict transformation and finally resolution processes. From this point of view
they are very important texts aiming peaceful society.
Buddhist Theory of Conflict Resolution: the Sāmagāma Sutta
‘Buddhist Theory of Conflict Resolution is considered in this section contained in the
Sāmagāma Sutta. Although a number of Suttas in Pālī Nikāyas highlight the subject in one
way or another, this Sutta is referred as the theoretical model to overcome conflicts.
Before discussing the principles contained in the Sāmagāma Sutta, let us give a look
on couple of other Suttas. They too lead to establish harmony, peace etc. resolving conflicts.
 Kuṭadanta Sutta :21
 Recounts Buddha’s good qualities that are desirable.
 Ideal sacrifice is the best act.
 Eradication of poverty.
 Removing the root of corruption, theft and evils.
 Faithfully observing five precepts.
 Acquire spiritual profit.
 Mahānidāna Sutta:22
 Craving is the root of conflict. Mental stages occurred in connection with
craving lead to conflict.
 Kalaha Vivāda Sutta: 23

21
Kuṭadanta Sutta: Dīgha Nikāya 1:5
22
Mahānidāna Sutta: Dīgha Nikāya2:3

6
  Analyses root of disputes, quarrels, pride and selfishness.
 Desire leads to attachment.
 Love (or dear) leads to disputes etc.
 Roots of all kinds of disputes and quarrels etc. too are dependant.
 Knowing this (and being free from theories), wise men do not get into
disputes.
 They do not get into any existence
 Kinti Sutta:24
 Whenever there is a dispute, it should be resolved strictly in accordance
with the Dhamma.
To eliminate violence and conflict, it is necessary to resolve the underlying causes and
conditions of conflict.
To overcome social conflicts, one needs to overcome three mental states of Rāga
(passion), Moha (delusion) and Doṣa (hatred). Mindfulness is the key to Buddhist practices.
Therefore, avoidance of the three poisons (three unwholesome roots / Akuśalamūla) as
specified for Buddhist practitioners such as ignorance, aversion and attachment lead to
peaceful life overcoming all kinds of conflicts in the contemporary society.
Dhammapada says: 25
Nahivereṇa verāṇī sammantidha Kudācanaṃ
Avereṇa ca sammanti yesa Dhammo sanantano II
[Hatred is never appeased by hatred. Hatred is appeased by love. This is an
eternal law]
This has been the best teaching to create social harmony resolving all kinds of
conflicts.
Buddhism believes that no action is created without a cause. We can take references
from basic Buddhism such as the noble truths and the theory of Dependent Origination.
Conflict as an action originates due to the cause. Cessation of an action lies in the cessation of
its cause. This is the Buddhist notion of resolution. Craving is behind origin of conflicts
peace in the society. To overcome all kinds of conflicts one need to address the root cause. Its
resolution is facilitated only if we know the ways to overcome craving and attachment. To be
sure, defilements lead to unwholesome acts.
Sāmagāma Sutta and the Conflict Resolution Model

23
Kalaha Vivāda Sutta: Sutta Nipāta4:11; Ravindra L. W. Koggalage, and Udaya Meddegama,
‘Buddhist Response to Social Conflict: A Study of Kalaha Vivāda Sutta,’ International Journal of
Humanities and Management Sciences, Vol. 3, No. 4, 2015, pp. 188-191.
24
Kinti Sutta: Majjhima Nikāya 3:1: 3.
25
Dhammapada: 5

7
 Buddha has delivered a teaching on conflict and its resolution at Sāmagāma village in
Kapilvastu to mitigate Ven. Ānanda’s worries about possible schism in the Saṃgha after the
Parinirvāṇa of ‘the Great Sage.’ Ven. Ānanda was worried of possible event because he saw
schism in the Jaina Saṃgha after the Parinirvāṇa of its Master Nighaṇṭha Nāthaputtu. But the
Buddha assured that there would not be like that in the Buddhist Saṃgha. Schism in the
Saṃgha was not likely. In this context, Buddha delivered the teaching addressing conflict and
conflict resolution contained in the Sāmagāma Sutta.
Sāmagāma Sutta permits monks that they might follow their own methods of conflict
resolution. However, Buddha has discussed conflict in the Sutta with greater details providing
option for conflict resolution.
In relation with conflict, this Sutta focuses on three important aspects of conflict -
1. Roots of conflict [Jarā/ Mūla],
2. Principles of Cordiality [Sārāṇīya Dharma], and
3. Seven Methods of Conflict Resolution [Adhikaraṇa Samatha].
The working relationship between the ideas and stages that the Buddha has put
forward in the Sāmagāma Sutta is better illustrated in the following diagram. This constitutes
the Buddhist theoretical model to resolve conflict of all kinds, magnitudes or intensity.
Diagram: 2
Structure and Working of Theoretical
Model of Conflict Resolution Depicted from the Sāmagāma Sutta

Six Roots of
Conflict

Cessation of Roots
Origin of Conflicts

SĀMAGĀMA Seven
SUTTA Methods
MN 3:1:4.
Six Principles of
Cordiality
Conflict
`
Resolution
.

Peaceful & Conflict

Resolved Society

This diagram is developed by the author of this paper. It depicts the relationship
between origin of conflicts, theoretical components of conflict resolution, methodological

8
procedures and consequences as evolved in the Sāmagāma Sutta. It helps to understand how
the Sutta is structured to deal with conflicts. It provides a perfect theoretical model for
conflict resolution. The result is this model is creation of a peaceful society, where all kinds
of conflicts have been resolved. In turn, its ultimate consequence is happiness. This
theoretical model consists of roots, cordiality and methods. The root leads to origin of
conflict which could have grave consequences. Since everything is impermanent, it then has
to lead to cessation. To overcome the consequences of conflicts, the Principles of Cordiality
provides positive basis for resolution processes. The Seven Methods of Conflict Resolution is
the methodological procedure of resolving conflicts offered by the Sutta. If everything moves
accordingly, the consequence is the conflict resolved peaceful society destined to create
happiness for entire sentient beings.
Theories structured in the Sāmagāma Sutta are described as follows:
A. The Six roots of Conflict
The Sāmagāma Sutta highlights six psychological roots of conflict.26 This is the
emergence of conflicts that demand proper methods of resolution.
1. One who is angry and resentful lives with a root of conflict,
2. One who is contemptuous and insolent lives with a root of dispute
3. One who is envious and avaricious lives with a root of dispute,
4. One who is deceitful and fraudulent lives with a root of dispute,
5. One who is with evil wishes and wrong views lives with a root of dispute,
6. One who adheres to one’s own views, holds on to them tenaciously, and
relinquishes them with difficulty lives with a root of dispute.
B. The Six Principles of Cordiality:
This Sutta also focuses on the Principles of Cordiality [Sārāṇīya Dharma] – 27
1. Bodily acts of loving-kindness both in public and in private
2. Verbal acts of loving-kindness both in public and in private
3. Mental acts of loving-kindness both in public and in private
4. To enjoy things in common without making reservations and share righteous
gain with virtuous companions.
5. Dwells both in public and in private possessing in common those virtues that
are unbroken, un torn, unblemished, un mottled, freeing, praised by the wise,
un grasped leading to concentration.

26
Sāmagāma Sutta, Majjima Nikāya 3:1:4.
Also see: G. A. Somaratne, ‘Modernity in the Ancient Methods of Resolving Monastic Conflicts:
A Study of the Sāmagāma Sutta,’ Sri Lanka International Journal of Buddhist Studies, Vol. 2,
2012, p. 39.
27
Sāmagāma Sutta, Majjima Nikāya 3:1:4

9
 6. Dwells in public and in private possessing in common the view that is noble
and emancipating, and leads the one who practices in accordance with it to the
complete destruction of sufferings.
The Principles of Cordiality leads to welfare and happiness. Its focus is on practicing
loving kindness (Maitrī), share righteous gain, possess virtues, and noble views. Conflict will
not occur in an ideal Buddhist society,28In this case, conflict resolution methods will not be
required.
C. The Seven Methods of Conflict Resolution:
In the Sāmagāma Sutta, anticipating conflicts to take place in his absence, the
Buddha has presented ‘Seven Methods of Conflict Resolution. It has universal
characteristic. It is practical, applicable and also compatible with the modern methods
of conflict resolution. The Seven Methods of Conflict Resolution, which is known as
AdhikaraṇaSamathain Pālī literatureinclude: 29
1. SammukhaVinaya > Conflict resolution by confrontation
2. SmṛtiVinaya > Conflict resolution on account of memory
3. AmuḍhaVinaya > Conflict resolution on account of past insanity
4. Pratijñātakaraṇa > Conflict resolution by the effecting of acknowledgement
of an offence
5. Yadbhuyasika > Conflict resolution by the opinion of the majority
6. Tatpāpīyasika > Conflict resolution by the pronouncement of bad character
against someone
7. Tṛsṇavastāraka > Conflict resolution by covering over with grass
These seven methods are the guidelines aimed at resolving conflicts. Although it is a
Buddhist model developed out of Buddhas teachings contained in the Sāmagāma Sutta, its
applicability is universal. It can be applied to resolve all kinds of conflicts any time
everywhere.
The ‘Seven Methods of Conflict resolution’ provides methodology of conflict
resolution. Its main procedure is the guidelines on how to resolve the problem. Each method
is a tool. To resolve conflicts, any one of the tool can be applied. Its focus is on resolution of

28
An ideal Buddhist society is a -Moral society, Rational society, Cultural society, Just society,
Equal society, Humanitarian society, Harmonious society, and Balanced society. Ven. Thich
Nhat Tu, ‘Buddhist Ideal Society Ven,’ www.vesakday.mcu.ac.th/vesak49/article/pdf/.
29
G. A. Somaratne, loc cit,. The modern methods of conflict resolution also focus on the process. It
uses dual concern mode to resolve conflicts. It is individual preferred method based on the ideas
of concern for self (assertiveness) and concern for others (empathy).
It has five strategies - Avoidance conflict style, Yielding conflict style, Competitive conflict style,
cooperation conflict style and conciliation conflict style. A number of tools are also used in
modern conflict resolution techniques. Those include negotiation, mediation, arbitration, and
litigation.

10
conflicts by confrontation, memory, insanity, acknowledgement, opinion of the majority,
pronouncement of bad character and covering over with grass.
This method can be applied in resolving modern conflicts as well. The method that
the Buddha taught in a different context in ancient times is very much relevant today as well.
It has capacity to resolve conflicts in contemporary times.
Model 1: Conflict Resolution by Confrontation
A conflict takes place between two parties. Conflicting parties meet together in
concord. They draw out the guidelines of the Dhamma. They settle the conflict in
accordance with the guidelines. Peace/ conflict resolution is achieved.
Model 2: Conflict Resolution by Majority Opinion
A conflict takes place between two parties. The Conflicting parties go to a larger third
party. All meet together in concord. All draw out guidelines of the Dhamma. All settle
the conflict in accordance with the guidelines. Peace / conflict resolution is achieved.
Model 3: Conflict Resolution on Account of Memory
A conflict takes place between two individuals. One accuses another of wrong doing.
The accused cannot recall any wrong doing due to loss of memory. Peace / conflict
resolution is achieved.
Model 4: Conflict Resolution on Account of Past Insanity
A conflict takes place between two individuals. One accuses another of wrong doing.
The accused cannot recall. The accuser presses on. The accused confesses his wrong
doing is due to his being mad. Peace / conflict resolution is arrived at.
Model 5: Conflict Resolution by effecting acknowledgement of an offence
A conflict takes place within an individual. The individual confesses committing an
offence to a senior and promises not to commit such offence in future. Peace / conflict
resolution is achieved.
Model 6: Conflict Resolution by the Pronouncement of Bad Character against someone
A conflict takes place between two individuals. One accuses another for committing
an offence. The accused first denies; but when pressed he accepts his committing a
minor offence. When pressed further he accepts having committed a major offence.
Peace / Conflict resolution is achieved.
Model 7: Conflict Resolution by covering over with Grass
Conflicting parties meet together in concord. A wise person from one party formally
requests for the well-being of both parties to forget and forgive all wrong doings done

11
 by the members of that party during the conflict. Similar request comes from the other
party. Peace / conflict resolution is achieved.
Conclusion
In relation with conflict which has been a serious problem having grave consequences
in the contemporary society, Buddhism can provide effective methodological tools to
understand roots and intensity of conflict and resolve them. This can be very effective as well
as sustainable because it reaches up to the root and resolve the problem.
Buddha’s teachings contained in the Buddhist texts such as the Pālī Nikāyas address
various problems. They aim at liberation of sentient beings. Buddhism provides a well-
structured methodology to train mind, overcome defilements and attain the ultimate bliss.
Peace and happiness have been primary concern of Buddhism. Its lays focus on inner peace
there by attaining the outer peace. The Buddhist view of peace is holistic. Because one of the
prime objectives of Buddhism is peace, Buddha has also addressed various dimensions of
conflict in his teachings couple of times. It was Buddha’s concern as he desired peace and
happiness for entire sentient beings.
Several Suttas in different Nikāyas deal with conflict, conflict transformation and
resolution. Buddhism says that nothing exist without a cause. The Theory of Dependent
Origination is the best tool to understand the conceptual context of cause and condition. All
kinds of conflicts have three types of causes – external, internal and the root cause. Craving is
the root of conflict. It results in the development of mental stages of Rāga, Moha and Doṣa
which in turn produce unwholesome acts.
Although several Pālī Suttas deal with conflict and other related themes, the
Sāmagāma Sutta is foremost that provides a package to deal with conflict for its resolution. It
focuses on the ‘Six Roots of Conflict,’ the ‘Principles of Cordiality’ and the ‘Seven Methods
of Conflict Resolution.’ This model could be a better tool in modern attempts to resolve
conflicts.

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