Energies - Free Full-Text - Current Trends in Electric Vehicle Charging Infllenges in Wireless Charging Integration

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Open Access Review
Current Trends in Electric Vehicle Charging

Infrastructure; Opportunities and Challenges in Wireless
Charging Integration
by
Konstantina Dimitriadou (https://sciprofiles.com/profile/author/NEtHdCt6ajFQeG1lNW
1,
Nick Rigogiannis (https://sciprofiles.com/profile/466971) 1 (https://orcid.org/0000-

0002-3056-5606),
Symeon Fountoukidis (https://sciprofiles.com/profile/author/RnVoZFJsWWxDSlIzYm1
1,
Faidra Kotarela (https://sciprofiles.com/profile/984987) 1,

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Anastasios Kyritsis (https://sciprofiles.com/profile/432335) 2,3
(https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1348-1395) and
Nick Papanikolaou (https://sciprofiles.com/profile/487603) 1,*  (mailto:please_login)
(https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8546-1196) Back to TopTop
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1 Abstract
Electrical(/)Machines
Democritus
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Laboratory, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
University of Thrace, Kimmeria-Xanthi, 67132 Xanthi, Greece
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Environmental Conductive
Physics, Energy
and Environmental Biology Laboratory, Department of
Environment, Ionian University, Panagoula-Zakynthos, 29100 Zakynthos, Greece
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3 Integration
Department of EVs and the
of Photovoltaic Systems and Distributed Generation, Centre for Renewable
Energy Sources and Saving (C.R.E.S.), 19th km Marathonos Av., Pikermi, 19009 Athens,
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Greece
* Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
of EV Charging
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lensEnergies 2023, 16(4), 2057; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16042057
(https://sciprofiles.com/discussion-
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groups/public/10.3390/en16042057)
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2023 / Revised: 9 February 2023 / Accepted: 16 February 2023 /
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Abbreviations
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Power Electronic Applications to All-Electric and
References
Hybrid
CommentTransportation Systems, Renewable Energy Sources, Energy Harvesters and
Energy Saving (
/journal/energies/special_issues/power_electronic_applications_transportation_syste
ms_renewable_energy_sources ))
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Versions Notes (/1996-1073/16/4/2057/notes)
Abbreviations
References
Comment
Abstract
Nowadays, the imperative need for the reduction of Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions leads
to the wider adoption of environmentally friendly transportation means. As a result, various
policies underpinning the Electric Vehicle (EV) deployment are legislated globally, and several
technical advances contributing to the electrification of the transportation sector are pursued.
In this paper, a comprehensive overview of the current status of the infrastructure utilized for
the realization of both conductive and contactless (wireless) charging of an EV battery is
conducted. Furthermore, the issue of EV integration in conventional distribution networks, as
well as in future power system architectures, is discussed in detail. Particular focus is given to
wireless (i.e., inductive) charging. A detailed presentation of the respective standards and
charging levels, as well as the magnetic couplers and the compensation network
configurations, is carried out. Moreover, innovative concepts such as dynamic and quasi-
dynamic wireless charging, as well as future challenges and opportunities, are presented and
discussed. Finally, smart control and communication techniques applicable to EV charging
are presented in the context of the future Internet of Energy (IoE) concept.
Keywords: electric vehicle (EV) (/search?q=electric+vehicle+%28EV%29); EV charging
(/search?q=EV+charging); conductive EV charging (/search?
q=conductive+EV+charging); wireless EV charging (/search?q=wireless+EV+charging);
smart EV charging
Read more about our(/search?q=smart+EV+charging);
cookies here (/about/privacy). charging infrastructure (/search?
q=charging+infrastructure); vehicle-to-grid (V2G) (/search?q=vehicle-to-
grid+%28V2G%29)
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lens1.
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Introduction
Abstract (/) Order Article Reprints (/1996-1073/16/4/2057/reprints
lens
The adverse environmental effects caused by Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions and
Introduction
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lens
theState
ever-increasing public awareness regarding the impact of GHGs on the climate have
of the Art for Conductive
and Wireless
stimulated Charging changes in the transportation sector. Conventional transportation
significant
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lens
Integration
means of EVs with
equipped and the
Internal Combustion Engines (ICEs) constitute one of the most
Internet ofair
significant Energy (IoE) sources. Indeed, according to the European Commission findings,
pollution
Framework
transportation
Cite
represents almost a quarter of Europe’s GHG emissions [1,2]. Therefore, many
question_answer
lens
EUDiscussion
countries,and
inFuture
order Outlook
to meet low-emission targets, intensified their policy regarding the
of EV Charging
electrification
Discuss in of road transportation by adopting key measures that promote the deployment
lens SciProfiles
Conclusions
of Electric Vehicles (EVs) and their corresponding charging infrastructure.
According to the data provided by the Global EV Policy Explorer of the International
lens  
thumb_up
EnergyFunding
Agency (IEA) [3], China, the leading EV market, announced in 2022 its ambition to
lens
Data Availability
deploy adequate Statement
charging infrastructure to accommodate 20 million Non-Emission Vehicles
lens Endorse
Conflicts
by of Interest
textsms
(NEVs) 2025. NEVs include Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs), i.e., vehicles powered solely
lens
byAbbreviations
the on-board battery; Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs), i.e., vehicles that are
lens
References
propelled
Comment by an ICE along with an electric engine and a small battery [4]; and Fuel Cell
Electric Vehicles (FCEVs), i.e., vehicles that convert hydrogen stored on board, using a fuel
cell to power an electric motor [4]. Additionally, China aims to support the management of its
lithium-ion battery industry, as this battery technology is dominant in the automotive industry.
Furthermore, in 2022 the federal government of the United States announced its targets
regarding the promotion of EV penetration in the transportation sector. These targets include
a 50% EV sales share, as well as the development of 500,000 public chargers by 2030, by
introducing new incentives and subsidies. In 2021, Canada pushed forward the federal
government target for achieving 100% zero-emission light-duty vehicle sales from 2035 to
2040. Moreover, the “Fit-for-55” package in the European Union features a list of stimulus
measures to expedite the shift from ICEs to zero-emission vehicles. Within this list, an
initiative for 100% zero-emission vehicles by 2035 and charging infrastructure deployment
targets are included.
The above positive measures and policies, the continuous improvement of electric
battery technologies, the increase in the available EV models, the expansion of publicly
accessible charging stations and the enhancement of charging infrastructure capabilities
have led to the boom of EV sales worldwide. Indeed, in 2021, more than 16.5 million NEVs
(mainly BEVs and PHEVs, as registrations for FCEVs remain quite low worldwide) were
being driven globally, marking a tripling in EV stock in just three years [5]. Nevertheless, the
major increase in EV penetration rates does not come without its challenges. EV prices
We useconsiderably
remain cookies on our website
high to ensure
compared you get the ICE
to conventional best vehicle
experience.
prices [5,6]. In more detail,
the electric battery is the most expensive component of an EV [7], and therefore battery
packs with relatively small capacities are preferred in order to limit the total cost. On the other
hand, EV battery lifespan is also critical [8,9]. Accept (/accept_cookies)
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first_pageshare
lens Additionally, the EV sales growth does not always match the deployment of new public
lenscharging infrastructure [5,10]. EVs can be charged either by the mains or by the fast-charging
Introduction
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lenspoints to reduce the charging time. Without a doubt, charge points should be close to an
electrical supply.
and Wireless Therefore, finding charging stations can be challenging on routes in
Charging
lensmountains,
Integrationthe countryside,
and the or coastal and rural areas. Apparently, things are much easier
Help
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of EVs
when youofmove
Internet around
Energy (IoE) a city center, where EV owners have access to private or public
charging
Framework
Cite networks. Furthermore, considering that the vast majority of people in urban centers
question_answer
lenslive
in flats, and
theFuture
above is the only feasible option, whilst domestic charge points look
Discussion Outlook
impossible. In addition, uncontrolled charging of EVs constitutes a burden for the power
of EV Charging
Discuss in
lenssystem
SciProfiles[6,11,12,13,14,15,16,17].
Moreover, two major concerns of a potential EV user are the
Conclusions
lenssignificant waiting time required for a full recharge [6,18], which is disproportionately higher
lensthangroups/public/10.3390/en16042057)
the time needed to fill up the tank of a conventional vehicle, and the available driving
 Funding 
thumb_up
lensrange,
Data which
lensauthors
mayStatement
Availability have improved in recent years but still remains restricted [5,6,19,20]. The
of of[7]Interest
Conflicts
Endorse investigate the required energy density of an EV and the importance of its
textsms
lensmaximization
Abbreviations(by utilizing a lightweight EV body design, advanced battery technologies and
lensimproved
Comment
powertrain architecture) for the relief of the range anxiety issue.
References
Over the last few years, a significant effort has been carried out, according to recent
scientific literature [21,22], in order to obtain a comprehensive overview of EV charging
technology, including the integration of renewables in charging infrastructure, charging levels
and the respective international standards, as well as the smart charging concept and the role
of aggregators. However, limited investigation has been conducted regarding innovative
wireless charging technologies and their classification, as well as the smart charging and
control/communication infrastructure, in order to end up with a broad review. Hence, in this
work, we aim to present a thorough overview of current EV charging schemes, with a special
focus on inductive charging concepts, which are distinguished into static, dynamic and quasi-
dynamic and are described in detail. In addition, as EV charging increasingly incorporates
smart charging features (modern communication protocols, Internet of Things (IoT), cloud
services, etc.), those concepts are broadly reviewed, along with the interactions and benefits
of the mass integration of EVs into the electricity network.
In more detail, first, the current status of the infrastructure utilized for both conductive
and wireless charging of an EV battery is presented. In particular, the operation, the related
charging standards, and the power converter topologies as well as the techniques used to
control them in conductive EV charging are thoroughly elaborated. Subsequently, the
possible ways to wirelessly transfer power are briefly mentioned, with the focus being
directed towards the most popular wireless charging method, i.e., the inductive method. The
operating principle,
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on our chargingto standards/modes, and experience.
ensure you get the best the associated energy conversion
system components
Read more about ourand their control
cookies schemes are described in detail. Next, the issue of the
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mass integration of EVs is discussed. Various strategies that can be implemented for the
mass integration of EVs and their corresponding impact on Accept
the utility grid are examined.
(/accept_cookies)
Moreover, the procedure followed and the communication protocols utilizedBack to TopTop
during an EV
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lensbattery recharge are presented. Finally, an introduction to EV integration into the future power
lenssystem framework is performed.
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2. and
State of theCharging
Wireless Art for Conductive and Wireless Charging
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Integration
2.1. of EVs
Conductive and the
Charging
Conductive charging is the most commonly used charging method for BEVs. Generally,
Framework
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question_answer
lensto charge an EV, AC power from the utility grid is fed to the EV via the charger socket outlet,
using the
of EV charging cable and the vehicle inlet. Depending on the power delivered to the EV,
Charging
Discuss in
lensconductive charging is categorized into AC and DC. When an AC conductive charger is
Conclusions
SciProfiles
lensutilized, the EV is supplied with AC power. The charger is located inside the vehicle, and its
lenssize groups/public/10.3390/en16042057)
and weight define the maximum power that can be delivered to the EV. Thus, electric
 Funding 
lenspower
lensorder thumb_up
from the mains is converted on board to the optimal DC voltage and current levels in
for the battery pack to be charged. On the contrary, when the latter method is applied,
Conflicts of Interest
Endorse
lensthe
textsms
EV is fed with DC power via an off-board charger, which enables the transfer of increased
Abbreviations
lenspower levels and thus shorter charging times.
References
Comment
Figure 1a,b illustrate the general schemes for DC and AC charging, respectively. In the
first stage of DC charging, the AC power provided by the grid is rectified, inside the DC
charging station. Subsequently, the control unit regulates the DC/DC converter voltage and
current, according to the information signal, transmitted by the charge controller, in order to
adjust the variable DC power delivered to the battery. The Battery Management System
(BMS) communicates the State of Charge (SoC) to the charge controller and, in the case of
an emergency situation, triggers the protection circuits. The main responsibility of the BMS
unit is to assess the battery condition by monitoring the voltage and current of each cell and
to appropriately regulate them, ensuring that the charge/discharge process is accomplished
in compliance with the respective safety requirements [4,23,24]. There are also safety
interlock and protection circuits to stop the charging process whenever there is a fault
condition or an improper connection between the EV and the charger.
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lens
lens textsms
Abbreviations
References
Comment
Figure 1. General schemes for (a) DC charging and (b) AC charging [25,26,27].
In AC charging, the power converters are located inside the EV. Nonetheless, the
operation of each of the aforementioned components remains the same. The only exception
is the charge controller, which exclusively communicates with the BMS so that the protection
circuits are triggered in case the battery voltage and/or current limits are exceeded or the
connection between the EV and the charger is unsuccessful.
Concurrently, an alternative implementation of DC charging is being examined in
Germany. Within the ELISA field trial, overhead lines were built on 10 km of the A5 motorway
between the Langen/Mörfelden and Weiterstadt junctions. Hybrid heavy commercial vehicles
traveling along this route can draw power using the built-in pantograph, while on the move.
The trial seeks to evaluate the feasibility of such a practice, whose main goal is the reduction
of the CO2 emissions of Heavy Goods Vehicles (HGVs) [28].
2.1.1. Charging Levels and Connector Types of DC and AC Charging
AC and DC chargers are classified by the output power provided to the EV. In Table 1,
the charging power levels according to the Society of Automotive Engineering (SAE), the
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and the Charge de Move (CHAdeMo)
standards are summarized. The charging infrastructure in the USA complies with the SAE
standard regulations,
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website toIEC policies
ensure you getare
the legislated mainly in Europe [4]. The
best experience.
CHAdeMO
Read morestandard
about ourwas developed
cookies by the Tokyo Electric Power Company, in cooperation
with Japanese automakers, and is applied worldwide. Specifically, in Table 1, the output
voltage and power level of the charger, as well as the current supplied
Accept to the battery, are
(/accept_cookies)
described [4,16,24,29]. Moreover, the charger location (on-board/off-board) isBack to TopTop
defined. The
first_pageshare
lensTable 1 data verify the fact that without size and weight restrictions, the maximum DC
lenscharging power can reach notably higher levels compared to those of AC charging.
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Table 1. Charge ratings of IEC 62196, SAE J1772 and CHAdeMO standards
[4,16,24,29].
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lens  In particular, according to the IEC 62196 standard, Level 1 AC chargers (Mode 1) provide

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lensthe lowest power level and are mostly utilized for charging light EVs, such as electric scooters
lensand bicycles, since charging large-capacity batteries would be a rather slow process,
Endorse
textsms
inadequate for daily use. They are connected to a single-phase or three-phase 230 V/480 V
lens
Abbreviations
domestic
lens
outlet and can supply the vehicle with up to 7.6 kW/16 A. The Level 2 AC chargers
References
Comment
(Mode 2) are suitable for both domestic networks and publicly accessible areas. They are
connected to a single-phase or three-phase supply and their output power reaches 15.3
kW/32 A. It is noted that for Level 2 chargers, as well as for those classified at higher levels
(Modes 3 and 4), a control pilot conductor is built into the charging cable, which is responsible
for communication, control and protection.
As for the Mode 3 AC chargers (Mode 3, Fast On-Board AC chargers), they feature the
highest levels of AC output power. They are suitable for public facilities since they feed
electrical power of up to 120 kW/250 A. It should be highlighted that, in some cases, the AC
power conversion to DC can be achieved using the power unit that is used to provide
propulsion (in reverse mode). Thus, high power density and weight reduction are achieved. A
prime example of this practice is the Caméléon Charger on the Renault Zoe model, which is
able of AC charging in the range of 2.3 kW to 22 kW [25].
DC chargers (Mode 4) are the fastest possible way to charge an electric vehicle.
According to the IEC 62196 standard, they are capable of supplying up to 400 kW to the EV.
They are used for commercial purposes in publicly accessible charging stations and they are
rarely employed in residential areas [24].
However, there are several limitations to the power of DC fast chargers. The rising
charging current values cause the generation of significant amounts of heat, which contribute
to the degradation of the battery and the inevitable reduction of its lifespan [8,9]. Furthermore,
higher charging power implies heavier and bulkier cables, which prevent a user-friendly
charging procedure.
In addition to power levels, AC and DC charging are supported by different types of
connectors. The three standards that integrate DC fast charging are Combo Charging System
(CCS), CHAdeMO and Tesla Supercharger. The CCS standard was established bytothe
Back SAE
TopTop
lensand
first_pageshare
uses the Combo 1 and Combo 2 connectors, which can supply up to 350 kW, enabling
lensAC charging as well [24]. The revised CHAdeMO specification uses 1000 VDC and 400 A to
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lensfeed the vehicle with power up to 400 kW [22]. Additionally, Tesla developed its own
proprietary fast-charging
and Wireless Charging system that supports both AC and DC charging and delivers 250 kW
lensto the
Help vehicle [24]. China established its own GB/T fast-charging standard, and a port based
format_quote
onInternet
GB/T 20234-3
of Energywith a rated voltage of 750 VDC and rated current of 250 A is used [30].
(IoE)
For the realization of AC charging, a port that conforms to the SAE J1772 [24] is
Framework
Cite
question_answer
lensdeployed
in USA and Japan [4], while in Europe it is based on the IEC 62196-2 standard. The
latter has
of EV a current rating of 32 A [30]. In China, a port almost identical to the one that
Charging
Discuss in
lenscomplies with the IEC 62196-2 is used.
Conclusions
SciProfiles
Table
Author 2 illustrates the SAE J1772, IEC 62196 Type 2, GB/T20234-3, SAE/IEC DC
Contributions
lensCombos,
 FundingCHAdeMO, and Tesla plugs. Their connection ports (i.e., for AC charging: R, S, T
thumb_up
lenscorrespond
lensProtected
to the
Data Availability
ConflictsEarth,
Endorse
three Phases, N to the Neutral, GND to the Ground and PE to the
Statement
or for DC fast charging: +DC and -DC correspond to the two poles of the DC
of Interest
lensare textsms
lenssource), their electrical specification, their communication protocol, the countries where they
Abbreviations
mainly used their charging mode are included [4,25,30]. Additional ports such as the
References
Comment
Connection Switch, the Control Pilot, the Proximity Pilot and the Proximity Detection
(represented as CS, CP, PP and PD correspondingly), the Controller Area Network (CAN-
H/L), and the Auxiliary Power Supply (aux±) are mentioned too. The CP terminal allows the
charging current regulation, while the PP detects the unsuccessful connection between the
EV and the charger and terminates the procedure for safety reasons [4]. These terminals
enable the communication between the charger controller and the BMS when chargers of
Mode 2 or higher are used [4,26,27]. Finally, CS and PD terminals execute a similar function
to that of PP, whilst Not Connected ports are mentioned as NC.
Table 2. Standards of charging connectors [4,25,30].
Moreover, the chargers that comply with the CHAdeMO and GB/T 20234-3 standards
incorporate a CAN bus port, utilized for the communication between the vehicle and the off-
board charger. The charging system developed by Tesla uses this communication protocol as
well. The remaining chargers employ the Power Line Communication (PLC) protocol. In
addition, the capabilities of charging the EV auxiliary battery and implementing both types of
charging from the same port are unique attributes of the GB/T 20234-3-based port and the
Tesla Supercharger, respectively. Finally, it is worth noting that Tesla deploys a separate
Back to TopTop
first_pageshare
lensconnector
Abstract for DC charging across Europe. This connector complies with the regulations of the
(/) Order Article Reprints (/1996-1073/16/4/2057/reprints
lensIEC 62196 standard and can provide up to 56 kW to the EV [25].
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lens2.1.2.
StatePower
of the Converters
Art for Conductive
Power converters constitute an integral part of an EV charging system since their
Help
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lens
Integration of are
specifications EVsrelated
and the to the two main challenges encountered in designing an efficient
charging system, i.e., the time required to fully charge the vehicle battery and the issues that
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may arise from the thermal stress the battery will undergo. Thus, the development of low-
lens
cost, highly efficient, reliable and compact power converters is necessary for the
of EV Charging
establishment
Discuss in
lens SciProfiles of reliable and efficient charging infrastructure.
Conclusions
lens
It is possible to use topologies for AC-to-AC, AC-to-DC and DC-to-DC power conversion,
lensdepending on the requirements of each specific application. The block diagram of a
 Funding 
lens
thumb_up
conductive unidirectional EV
are the following:
lens
Conflicts
Endorse of Interest
charging system is depicted in Figure 2. Its main components
lens
lens textsms
Abbreviations
References
Comment
Figure 2. Block diagram of a conductive unidirectional EV charging system.
1. Single-phase or three-phase back-end AC/DC converter;

2. Front-end DC/DC power converter.
The first component rectifies the grid power, whereas the second one adjusts the rectifier
output voltage and current to the optimal DC voltage and current levels in order for the battery
pack to be charged. The inherent non-linear behavior of the power converters results in the
generation of harmonic distortion. Consequently, in order to eliminate these higher harmonic
components and comply with the respective power quality standards, Power Factor
Correction (PFC) control techniques are implemented in the front-end rectifier. A Phase-
Locked Loop (PLL) structure is utilized for the realization of these techniques. Additional
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control cookies on
areour website
applied, to ensure
aiming at theyou
DCget
linkthe best experience.
voltage regulation or the compensation of
the reactive power drawn from the utility grid. Apparently, such control strategies require
active rectifier topologies [27,31,32,33].
Back to TopTop
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lens A variety of topologies are considered appropriate for the front-end DC/DC converter of a
lensconductive EV charging system [26,27,31,32,33]. Isolated and non-isolated converters are
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lensincluded, whilst the selection among them is a matter of each application. In [27,32,33,34], an
extensive analysis
and Wireless of both front-end (AC/DC) and back-end (DC/DC) topologies is performed
Charging
lensandHelp
a detailed comparison
and the of available converter configurations is conducted. Bidirectional
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Integration of EVs
topologies, which (IoE)
Internet of Energy allow EV batteries to inject energy into the electricity grid, are also
highlighted.
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Regarding
and the back-end
Outlook converters, they include various passive elements (i.e.,
lens
Discussion Future
inductors, capacitors) for power conversion. The increase in switching frequency allows a
of EV Charging
Discuss in
lensreduction in the size and weight of the aforementioned passive elements. However, this also
Conclusions
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lensleads to higher switching losses. Thus, resonant circuits and soft-switching methods are
lensutilized. Two soft-switching techniques that are most widely adopted are Zero Current
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lensSwitching
lenstheEndorse
(ZCS) and
Data Availability
converter
Zero Voltage Switching (ZVS). Finally, the control strategies applied to
Statement
aim at the fulfillment of the required battery charging strategy (i.e., constant
lensmode textsms
lenscurrent, constant voltage or a combination of both), being either current mode or voltage
Abbreviations
control.
References
Comment
2.2. Wireless Charging

Wireless charging is achieved with the presence of galvanic isolation between the input
side and the output circuitry [35,36]. Nowadays, wireless charging is widely used in low-
power applications such as the charging of home electronic appliances and several portable
and wearable devices. The rapid development of power electronics, along with the expanded
capabilities provided by improved semiconductor materials [37], lead to the increase in power
levels that a wireless power transfer system can supply. As a result, this technology can be
applied to EV charging. This charging method introduces certain advantages:
1. It offers an easy, safe and user-friendly charging process with low maintenance costs
because of the absence of mechanical parts.
2. It eliminates any potential risk arising from the use of cables (e.g., use of worn cables in
rainy or snowy weather conditions) by offering galvanic isolation between the vehicle and
the power source.
3. There is the option to install the charging transmitter underground, which prevents
exposure to inauspicious environmental conditions, thereby significantly increasing the
charging infrastructure lifespan and avoiding the possibility of vandalism (charging cable
theft, removing of other components, etc.).
The methods that enable Wireless Power Transfer (WPT) can be divided into two broad
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capable of transferring energy to
considerable distances away from the transmitter, unlike the near-field technologies, the
range of which is quite small. In Figure 3, all WPT technologies are listed. One of the far-field
Accept
wireless charging techniques is Microwave Power Transfer (MPT), (/accept_cookies)
which utilizes frequencies
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lensin
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the microwave spectrum to transfer energy to the receiver. The microwave is generated by
lensa magnetron (a vacuum tube that acts as an oscillator), passes through a waveguide and
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lensfinally is radiated via a transmitting antenna. The receiver uses a rectenna (antenna and
rectifier in the same
and Wireless device) to convert the microwave signal into a DC signal, which charges
Charging
lensthe EV battery
of [38,39].
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lens
lens
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lens
lens textsms
Abbreviations
References
Comment
Figure 3. Categorization of WPT technologies.
Moreover, the optical WPT operates using waves in the terahertz range. A light beam is
generated by a laser diode and is guided to the receiver. The receiver comprises photovoltaic
cells, which convert the delivered electromagnetic energy into DC power [38,39]. The
photovoltaic cell bandgap should be close to the light beam wavelength in order to minimize
losses. Nevertheless, both of these technologies suffer from poor efficiency and low power
levels. Furthermore, increasing the transferred power would entail bulky antennas and
hazardous human exposure to radio frequencies in the first case, whilst in the second one,
the high intensity of the light source may cause optical disturbances, or in extreme cases
even blindness. In addition, optical WPT and MPT exclusively allow unidirectional power flow.
Finally, the last far-field wireless charging method presented in this paper is the acoustic-
based power transfer that uses frequency in the kilohertz range. As in the previous cases, a
poor efficiency performance is achieved [24].
Among the near-field methods is the capacitive WPT. The capacitive method exploits a
high-frequency electric field in the kilohertz or megahertz range, which is generated in the
area between two capacitors. These capacitors are constructed between the transmitter and
the receiver with two parallel plates, placed close to each other. Consequently, an induced
current appears in the receiver, and the power is rectified and then delivered to the EV battery
[38,39,40]. This on
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several kilowatts and gaps up to 300 mm [38]. However, the
efficiency of the developed prototypes ranges between 50% and 80% [24], making it the
second most efficient way to wirelessly transfer power. In parallel,
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system requires very
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lenshigh
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operating voltages and can transfer power within smaller air gaps compared to those of
lensinductive systems, and its efficiency is negatively affected by the parasitic capacitances of the
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lensvehicle.
Wireless
and Wireless charging
Charging via a magnetic gear system uses the interaction between two
lenssynchronized
Integration of remote
EVs and magnets as the main coupling mechanism [36]. Its operation is
Help
format_quote
the
summarized as follows:
Internet of Energy (IoE) A rotating base magnet driven by electricity from the grid causes the
permanent
Framework
Cite magnet rotor of the transmitter to rotate. A voltage is induced to the winding of the
question_answer
lensreceiver
permanent magnet rotor, which now rotates synchronized with the transmitter. As a
result,
of EVthe receiver acts as a generator, feeding the vehicle battery, with the aid of a rectifier
Charging
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[41]. There are
Conclusions several issues that arise from the mechanical system components, the two
lensmajor being
Author the high maintenance needs and the noise produced. Additionally, the efficiency
Contributions
lensof groups/public/10.3390/en16042057)
this charging method is highly dependent on the alignment conditions.
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2.2.1.
lens thumb_up
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AvailabilityPower
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Transfer
of Interest
textsms
lens
The last and most commonly used near-field WPT method is the inductive, i.e., energy
Abbreviations
transfer between loosely coupled coils, via magnetic induction. This technology is the most
lens
References
Comment
popular among the WPT methods and has reached commercial status for EV charging
applications [24]. It can transfer significant amounts of power (up to 100 kW) over distances
of a few tens of centimeters (i.e., distances comparable to the physical size of the coils) with
high efficiency (90–95%) [39].
The operating principle of this WPT system is fairly straightforward. The primary circuit is
powered with a time-varying current. According to Ampere’s law, an alternating
electromagnetic field is generated in the primary coil, which results in the induction of a
voltage at the secondary coil, according to Faraday’s law, and thus the flow of AC current in
the receiver circuit [35]. In order to increase the system efficiency and compensate the
magnetic flux leakage, the system is designed to operate under resonance conditions.
Hence, circuits of passive elements are included in the overall system [39,42]. In this case,
this method is also known as Coupled Magnetic Resonance (CMR)-based WPT [39,41,42].
Moreover, high switching frequencies are employed so as to increase the transferred power
level. Consequently, its operation is similar to that of the typical transformer, with the
important difference being the large air gap separating the two coils (loosely coupled coils).
The coupling coefficient k of such a topology does not exceed the value of 0.6. As a matter of
fact, typical values of k range from 0.1 (or even lower) to 0.4 [35].
The block diagram of a unidirectional inductive power transfer system is depicted in
Figure 4 [43]. Its main components are the following:
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lens
Abstract (/)
Introduction
Figure 4. Block diagram of a unidirectional inductive charger.
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1.
lens Input single-phase or three-phase AC/DC converter;
2. DC/AC inverter;
3.
lens Compensation
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4. Magnetic
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Energy (IoE)
5. Output AC/DC converter.
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lens
Discussion and Future
The AC power drawnOutlook
from the utility grid is rectified, and subsequently, with the aid of the
of EV Charging
inverter and the compensation network, a sinusoidal high-frequency current is supplied to the
Discuss in
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Conclusions
primary coil. PFC control schemes can be applied to the input rectifier for the mitigation of
current harmonics. Furthermore, the high operating frequency leads to the employment of

thumb_up
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soft-switching methods, thereby reducing inverter switching losses. The conversion of the
lens
Data Availability
induced voltage atStatement
the secondary coil to a constant DC value, in order to charge the EV
lens Endorse
Conflicts
battery, of Interest via the output rectifier. An additional compensation network is placed on
is achieved
lens
lens textsms
theAbbreviations
secondary circuit to achieve the same operating frequency on both sides. It should be
References
noted that the secondary side is installed inside the EV and constitutes the on-board charger.
Comment
The techniques used to adjust the system power flow can be applied on either the
transmitter or the on-board charger. In the first case, power regulation is achieved by
controlling the primary side converters. The most commonly adopted control schemes for the
inverter are the frequency control strategy and the phase-shift modulation. The frequency
control strategy is accomplished by varying the switching frequency above the resonance, in
the inductive region of operation, so as to increase the inverter output impedance and
decrease the injected power [44]. In phase-shift modulation, the phase difference between
the pulses driving each converter leg is controlled at a constant switching frequency. In this
way, the voltage across the coupling coil is regulated along with the power delivered to the
vehicle. Alternatively, an additional DC/DC converter is connected to the PFC rectifier output,
allowing the inverter input DC voltage to be adjusted. The applied control scheme of this
converter could focus on impedance matching in order to improve the system efficiency [45].
Apparently, information on factors such as the charging current, the voltage across the EV
battery and the SoC of the EV battery needs to be transmitted to the primary side controller
for an effective charging process. Other key pieces of information are as follows: the power
requirements (appropriate voltage and current values), the misalignment conditions (when the
transmitter and receiver coils are not perfectly aligned with each other), ground clearance and
foreign object detection [24]. This can be implemented using wireless near-field
communication mechanisms based on various protocols such as Qi, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, cellular
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[24,45,46,47]. When to the
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control the beston
is applied experience.
the on-board charger, either an
active rectifier or a DC/DC converter connected to the rectifier output is utilized [48].
Moreover, various control strategies can be implemented for the converters of both sides.
2.2.2. Compensation Networks
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lens The compensation circuits of the primary and secondary sides are an integral part of an
lensinductive power transfer system. Their goal is to compensate for the effect of leakage
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lensinductances and thus maximize the efficiency and the system power transfer capability.
These circuits Charging
and Wireless are composed of passive elements (capacitors and/or inductors). In order to
lensincrease theofenergy
EVs andtransferred through the air gap, they must operate under resonant
Help
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Integration the
conditions.
Internet ofIn particular,
Energy (IoE) the purpose of the compensation circuit on the secondary side is to
improve the system power transfer capability by matching the load impedance, reflected to
Framework
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lensthe
primary side, with the source impedance. The compensation network of the primary circuit
is of
used to reduce the amount of reactive power that fluctuates in the system and thus to
EV Charging
Discuss in
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ensure power
Conclusions transfer under the unit power factor. Figure 5 illustrates the various topologies
lensof compensation
Author circuits used in WPT systems. Specifically, the Series–Series (SS), Series–
Contributions
lensParallel
 Funding(SP), Parallel–Series (PS) and Parallel–Parallel (PP) topologies, as well as 
lens thumb_up
lenstopologies that contain
Data Availability
Conflicts
Endorse
more than one passive element, are depicted [24,49].
Statement
of Interest
lens
lens textsms
Abbreviations
References
Comment
Figure 5. Compensation network topologies: (a) SS; (b) SP; (c) PS; (d) PP; (e) LCL; (f)
CLCL [24].
The design of the compensation topologies aims to attain specific objectives. These
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reactive power in the resonant circuits;
(b) a wide operating range under zero-current or zero-voltage conditions, for the reduction of
switching losses [50]; (c) system stability, independent of load and coupling factor variations;
(d) the design of a simple device with high efficiency, lowAccept (/accept_cookies)
cost and small size/weight.
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lensApparently,
Abstract (/)a number of compromises and limitations must be considered when selecting the
lensright
Introduction
configuration. For instance, in compensation topologies with multiple passive
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lenscomponents, in order to lower the nominal voltage and current values of the capacitors as
well
andasWireless
their corresponding
Charging stress, additional inductors are required. Furthermore, since the
lenshigh-frequency
Help inverter acts as a voltage source, parallel compensation in the primary circuit
format_quote
requires
Internetan additional
of Energy (IoE)series-connected coil for the inverter output current regulation [51].
This increases the size, overall cost and complexity of the topology. It may also lead to
Framework
Cite
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lensreduced
efficiency due Outlook
to the power losses of each additional element [50]. Moreover, when
theofparallel configuration is utilized, the capacitance value depends on the coupling factor, as
EV Charging
Discuss in
lenswell as the load type [39,42]. In contrast, series compensation in the primary circuit does not
Conclusions
SciProfiles
lensrequire any additional components, and the value of the primary capacitance does not
lensdepend on the variation of the coupling coefficient [52]. Additionally, when parallel
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lenscompensation
lensprimary side,
Conflicts
Endorse
is connected
Data Availability Statement in the secondary circuit, a capacitive reactance is reflected on the
which also depends on the load value and type [35,39,42,50]. Particularly, the
of Interest
lensSP
textsms
compensation topology requires higher capacitances to achieve better coupling, and
Abbreviations
lenstherefore
its maximum efficiency is reduced compared to that of the SS topology. In [51,52],
References
Comment
the advantages, drawbacks and equations governing the operation of the various
compensation schemes are thoroughly elaborated upon. In conclusion, the selection of the
appropriate topology depends on the requirements of each application.
2.2.3. Magnetic Couplers
The magnetic coupler is a component of major importance in a WPT system. It consists
of the primary and secondary coils, which exchange power through an air gap. The desirable
characteristics of a magnetic coupler are a high coupling coefficient and a high quality factor
Q, since its efficiency is a function of these parameters, as well as relatively high tolerance to
misalignment conditions [52]. The quality factor is the ratio between the frequency-dependent
inductance and the resistance coil components. The higher the Q value at the operating
frequency, the lower the copper losses. To increase the coupling factor, ferrite bars or plates
are usually utilized. Indeed, ferrite components can improve the inductance value, as well as
both the quality factor and the mutual inductance of magnetic couplers [49,52]. However, their
excessive use can lead to an increase in system losses due to the modification of the
magnetic field spatial distribution in the conductors. Furthermore, magnetic couplers are
usually constructed using Litz wire (in order to reduce the skin effect losses and improve the
quality factor) and include aluminum shielding to minimize the leakage field and avoid human
exposure to high-frequency electromagnetic fields [53]. The misalignment (i.e., the
displacement of the two coils) causes a decrease in the coupling coefficient k. As a result, the
resonant operating frequency and power factor of the circuit, the voltage induced on the
receiver and the overall power transfer capability are affected. In order to abate the impact
that misalignment has on the charging procedure, certain coil structures are utilized.
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lens A plethora of magnetic coupling topologies is documented in scientific literature. Based
lenson the coil winding strategy, two types of lumped charge pads can be distinguished: (a)
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lenssolenoid or double-sided flux couplers and (b) planar or single-sided flux couplers [54]. Planar
couplers can be
and Wireless classified into two categories based on the flux path: (a) non-polarized
Charging
lenscouplers such as circular
and the and rectangular geometries and (b) multi-coil polarized couplers
Help
format_quote
Integration of EVs
such as Double
Internet of EnergyD(IoE)
(DD), Bipolar Pad (BPP), Double D Quadrature (DDQ) and Quad D
Quadrature
Framework
Cite (QDQ) [24,54]. Non-polarized couplers produce vertical components of flux using
question_answer
lensa
single coil,and
whereas PPs use multiple coils to produce vertical as well as horizontal
Discussion Future Outlook
components of flux [24]. In [54], a comparative analysis of the circular, rectangular, Double D
of EV Charging
Discuss in
lens SciProfiles
Transmitter
Conclusions with Double D Receiver (DD-DD) and the Double D Transmitter with Double D
lensQuadrature
Author Receiver (DD-DDQ) topologies is carried out, with respect to their efficiencies,
Contributions
lenstheir tolerance to misalignment and their performance regarding stray field exposure. In [55],
 Funding 
lensthe
thumb_up
coupling
Data coefficients
Availability
lenstransformer
Conflicts ofare
Endorse
and the self and mutual inductances of a circular and rectangular coil
Statement
compared. It is proved that polarized couplers such as DD-DD and DD-DDQ
Interest
lenspresent
lenswhich textsms
more tolerance towards misalignment compared to circular and rectangular couplers,
Abbreviations
perform better regarding the stray fields. Furthermore, couplers with sharp edges are
References
Comment
not preferred due to increased eddy currents [24]. The assessment of both polarized and
non-polarized charge pads conducted in [52] yields similar conclusions regarding the coupling
coefficient, the misalignment tolerance and human exposure to high-frequency
electromagnetic fields. Indeed, the selection of a suitable topology is subject to the
application. In Figure 6, the most common magnetic coupler configurations are listed [24].
Figure 6. Magnetic coupler configurations: (a) circular; (b) square; (c) rectangular; (d)
DD; (e) bipolar; (f) DDQ; (g) QDQ [24].
2.2.4. Inductive Charging Modes

There are three possible ways to implement wireless inductive charging of an EV. When
Static Wireless Charging (SWC) mode is used, the vehicle is parked at a fixed place and
remains stationary with its engine turned off until the charging process is completed. This is
the most widely adopted method of wireless charging, whether in public or private stations. In
terms of charging infrastructure and the required time for a full battery refill, this method is
similar to the conventional conductive charging methods. Accept (/accept_cookies)
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lens In recent years, a new concept called Quasi-Dynamic Wireless Charging (QDWC) has
lensalso emerged. Quasi-dynamic wireless charging occurs when the vehicle is stationary for a
Introduction
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lensrelatively long period of time but its engine is still running. For instance, public transport
vehicles or private
and Wireless EVs can draw energy at stops while picking up passengers or at traffic
Charging
lenslights,
Help respectively [36,39,41]. An initiative already utilizing this way of wireless charging can
format_quote
beInternet
found in of Mannheim,
Energy (IoE)Germany, where electric public buses of the “63 route” are charged at
stopsCitealong the route. This project is part of Bombardier’s trial of their PRIMOVE inductive
Framework
question_answer
lenscharging
technology and aims to validate that a demanding passenger route can be operated
byofan
EVelectric
Chargingbus without the need for scheduled recharges [56]. Last but not least, the
Discuss in
lensDynamic Wireless Charging (DWC) mode might be the most interesting yet challenging of the
Conclusions
SciProfiles
lenscharging methods. It takes place while the vehicle is moving on the roadway [36,39,41].
The required infrastructure resembles the one of a static inductive power transfer 
thumb_up
Funding
lenssystem. The transmitter coil is embedded in the roadway, along with the required components
lensthat compose the primary circuit of a static inductive system. Τhe secondary circuit is located
Endorse
lensinside
textsms
lenssystems
the vehicle. Based on the transmitter coil configuration, dynamic wireless charging
Abbreviations
are distinguished into track-based and segmented transmitter array types [57]. In
References
Comment
Figure 7, the two configurations are presented. Track-based applications use longer
transmitter coils compared to the ones in the receiver and offer continuous power transfer to
the moving vehicle. However, this leads to low efficiency due to the reduced coupling
coefficient. On the other hand, segmented-based solutions utilize multiple transmitter coils of
a size similar to that of the receiver. Even though the feature of individual control can increase
system efficiency, challenges are still present. Specifically, the transmitters will not be equally
loaded, as their currents depend on the corresponding receiver position. To address this
issue, more complex control strategies have to be applied. Furthermore, the LCC resonant
network is connected since the current in the primary side coil is independent of the load
[58,59].
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lens
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lens
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lens
of EV Charging
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
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lens
lens
Conflicts
Endorse of Interest
lens
lens textsms
Abbreviations
References
Comment
Figure 7. Transmitter coil configuration: (a) track-based; (b) segmented-based.
One additional challenge when implementing this configuration is the power supply
scheme that needs to be used. It can be centralized, i.e., a central utility supplies all the
segments simultaneously, or distributed, i.e., the utility supplies one coil at a time using
switches [24]. Each technique has its advantages and corresponding drawbacks. The fact
that the entire infrastructure must tolerate harsh weather conditions should also be
considered during the design process. Finally, the rapid dynamics of this application must be
taken into account when selecting the communication protocol used for data exchange
between the transmitter and the receiver [24,45]. It has to provide low latency, increased
communication range and the ability to communicate with multiple receivers simultaneously.
Studies indicate that Dedicated Short-Range (DSRC) and cellular communications are the
most suitable options [24]. Another alternative could be 5G due to its capability to transfer
data at fast rates across multiple receivers.
There is no doubt that the DWC constitutes a challenging concept to implement.
Undeniably, the significant capital investment required for the extensive roadway
modifications is an additional burden [60]. Nevertheless, this charging method might be the
most competent
We use cookies solution to the rise
on our website of EV penetration
to ensure in theexperience.
you get the best transportation sector. Since users
can
Readcharge
more their
aboutEV
ourcontinuously,
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cruising range and thereby contributing to the reduction of the EV battery size and weight.
Some countries are already testing the feasibility of DWC. Two prime
Acceptexamples are the OLEV
(/accept_cookies)
project in South Korea, which was initiated by the Korea Advanced Institute of Science
Back and
to TopTop
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lensTechnology
Abstract (/)(KAIST) [50,61], and the Victoria project in Spain [62]. Moreover, Electreon has
lenslaunched two projects in Brescia, Italy, and Tel Aviv, Israel, employing dynamic EV charging.
Introduction
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lensIn Italy, a 1 km test trial was constructed, and both passenger EVs and electric buses are
utilized in order
and Wireless to investigate the energy transmission from the roadway [63]. In Israel, a
Charging
lenscombination
Help of EVs
quasi-dynamic and dynamic charging is applied [64]. Electric buses traveling
format_quote
Integration of and the
along a 5 of
Internet kmEnergy
route (IoE)
can charge while on the move via the 700 m power transmitter embedded
in the
Citeroadway and whenever passengers are boarding the vehicle.
Framework
question_answer
Indeed, wireless EVOutlook
charging, even the simplest implementation of it (i.e., SWC), has not
lens
yetofbeen accompanied by mature and widely accepted products. The challenges related to
EV Charging
Discuss in
lensthe
Conclusions deployment of wireless chargers are definitely not negligible. Apart from the
large-scale
SciProfiles
lenstechnical
Author difficulties that have been previously discussed in this work (i.e., dependency of the
Contributions
lenscharger efficiency on misalignment conditions and air gap, the necessity of an on-board coil
 Funding 
lensachievethumb_up
lensstructure resultingStatement
Data Availability in increased EV weight and possible modifications of its chassis in order to
electromagnetic
Conflicts
Endorse of Interest immunity), there is additional burden regarding the significant cost of
lensthe
textsms
required infrastructure, the interoperability between multiple automakers and EV charger
Abbreviations
lensmanufacturers
and the consolidation of universal guidelines [65]. Furthermore, the higher EV
References
Comment
penetration level entails adverse consequences for the distribution grid stability, which will
inevitably lead to the need for its reinforcement. The existing standards for wireless EV
charging along with the impact that its establishment will have on the power system are
analyzed in the next sections of this paper.
2.2.5. Charging Levels of Inductive WPT
In terms of power levels, wireless electric vehicle chargers are classified, according to
SAE J2954 and IEC 61980, into four categories: Wireless Power Transfer 1 (WPT1) features
the lowest power transfer level. The maximum input power of systems that fall under this
category is equal to 3.7 kVA. According to SAE J2954, the minimum allowed efficiency is 85%
and may be reduced to 80% when the primary and secondary sides are not perfectly aligned.
WPT2 inductive charging systems can supply higher amounts of energy to the EV, with a
maximum input power of 7.7 kVA, whereas WPT3 inductive chargers can draw 11.1 kVA from
the utility grid. The restrictions on the minimum permitted efficiency, according to SAE J2954,
are similar to those of WPT1. Finally, the WPT4 chargers feature a maximum input power of
22 kVA but are not fully defined by the established standards. The abovementioned
categories refer exclusively to static inductive chargers and apply to both light-duty and
heavy-duty EVs. There are still no developed standards for DWC.
The compatibility requirements between systems of different power levels are defined by
SAE J2954 [42]. A WPT2 on-board charger must be compatible with WPT1 primary circuits
and vice-versa. In addition, compatibility of WPT3 and WPT4 wireless power transfer systems
with systems of lower power levels is considered desirable. The permitted operating
frequency range of commercially available chargers is 79–90 kHz, with a central operating
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lensfrequency
Abstract of 85 kHz. Moreover, the distance between the primary and secondary coil, i.e., the
(/) Order Article Reprints (/1996-1073/16/4/2057/reprints
lensair gap, is classified into three classes (“Z” classes), as shown in Table 3.
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Table 3. Summary of the SAE J2954 standard recommendations [35,42].
Help
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lens
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lens
of EV Charging
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Conclusions
lens Finally, it is worth noting that there is a third, alternative way to charge an EV, known as
battery
lens  swapping. It is based on switching out the depleted battery with a similar, fully

thumb_up
Funding
lenscharged one [4,25,66]. By employing this method, the need for long holdups in charging
lensstations
is limited, and thereby the range anxiety is eased. Additionally, the bulky power
Endorse
textsms
converters deployed for EV charging are no longer necessary, since the battery is charged
lens
Abbreviations
outside
lens
the vehicle. Nevertheless, there are some obstacles that restrict the application of this
References
Comment
charging technique. Its deployment demands a universal battery interface between the
different EV manufacturers. This means that battery manufacturers would have to share any
new revelation regarding the battery design. The aforementioned, along with the fact that the
EV owners’ acceptance of not owning a battery and having to switch to a battery of unsure
state is required, are the main drawbacks of this method [67].
3. Integration of EVs and the Internet of Energy (IoE) Framework

3.1. Charging Techniques
The charging of EVs can be implemented in either a controlled or an uncontrolled way
[11,12,14,15,16]. When uncontrolled charging is used, EV batteries either start charging
immediately when plugged in or start after a user-defined delay and continue charging until
they are fully charged or disconnected. No integration strategy is performed. This charging
method, although simple, constitutes a potential problem for the utility grid since it leads to an
increase in the peak power demand and causes voltage deviations and overloads to the
distribution transformers and lines. Consequently, the higher the EV penetration level is, the
lower the grid reliability becomes, and inevitably grid reinforcement will be mandatory.
On the other hand, controlled charging enables the scheduling of charging profiles. The
goal of this method is the mitigation of the negative impact of EV integration into the electrical
grids (i.e., the increase in load demand, the potential overloading of system component
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harmonic distortion and power losses)
in order to ensure the stability of the distribution grid and retard the need for its reinforcement
[11,12,14,15,16]. Undeniably, important parameters in establishing this charging method are
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lensthe
first_pageshare
EV users’ convenience and the economic benefits that should be provided for their
lenscooperation.
Introduction
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lens Probably the simplest indirectly controlled charging method is the off-peak charging that
economically
and Wirelessencourages
Charging the charging of EVs during a specific time of the day when the grid
lensloadHelp
is minimal. This
andpassive technique contributes to the flattening of the overall demand
format_quote
Integration of EVs the
profile,
Internetbutof Energy
it may (IoE)
produce a sudden load increase at specific grid areas if there is not
sufficient
Framework
Cite spatial dispersion of the charging points. Moreover, the willingness of customers is
question_answer
lensassumed.
of When active load control strategies are employed, i.e., scheduling to draw power at
EV Charging
Discuss in
lenstimes of
low grid demand (“valley filling”), reducing peak energy demand (“peak shaving”),
Conclusions
SciProfiles
lensproviding ancillary services (primary or secondary frequency control, voltage regulation,
lensreactive power compensation, spinning reserve services) or facilitating the integration of
 Funding 
thumb_up
lensRenewable
lensaccommodating
Energy
Data Availability Sources (RESs), the intermittent behavior of which prevents them from
Statement
the base load, this charging type is considered smart [14,15,25]. When the
Endorse
lensfirst
textsms
two operations are implemented, the network operator communicates with the EV
Abbreviations
lens(directlyor through aggregators) so that its charging rate is throttled or maintained. In this
References
Comment
case, the EV battery is exclusively handled as a flexible electric load from the grid, and
unidirectional power flow between them is sufficient.
However, the application of the latter operation entails bidirectional power flow. The
bidirectional Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) concept serves as an extension to smart charging, and
even though it is complicated to implement, it constitutes the most competent offset method
of the aforementioned drawbacks of EV integration [14,15,25]. This technology enables
energy injection from the EV to the utility grid. In parallel, it introduces challenges regarding
EV battery degradation due to the more frequent charging/discharging cycles and the higher
investment costs needed for the hardware (installation of bidirectional power converters) and
software (utilization of advanced communication mechanisms and control algorithms)
infrastructure upgrade. In addition, the adoption of this technology requires the offer of
appealing benefits to EV users in order to address their potential hesitation to exchange
energy with the grid.
In [17], a review of simulation-based case studies performed in various regions (where
an increase in peak load is observed due to the uncontrolled EV integration at different
penetration levels) is summarized. Additionally, the model used for grid impact assessment
and the results obtained by utilizing smart charging strategies are also reviewed.
Smart charging can be implemented using several control algorithms to fulfill different
objectives. For their realization, an entity capable of decision making is needed. This entity is
called
We use thecookies
aggregator,
on ourand it acts
website to as an interface
ensure between
you get the the grid and the EVs. Depending
best experience.
on the more
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our cookies hereaggregator, the smart charging control architectures can be
(/about/privacy).
categorized into centralized and decentralized [14,15,16].
Τhe decision-making procedure in the centralized controlAcceptscheme relies on the
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aggregator. It is responsible for both the technical and market operation ofBack
thetocharging
TopTop
first_pageshare
lensinfrastructure,
Abstract (/) i.e., regulating the charging profiles of the EVs under its region and managing
lenstheir participation in the electricity market. Hence, it has to perform daily demand forecasts
Introduction
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lensbased on historical data, user preferences, etc., to be accepted or denied by the distribution
grid operator
and WirelessasCharging
well as power purchase bids directly in the intraday market or through a utility
lens[15].Help
Subsequently, thethetransmission system operator evaluates the demand profile, and
format_quote
Integration of EVs and
charging
Internetsetpoints
of Energy are
(IoE)issued for each aggregated charging station according to the operator
assessment
Framework
Cite and the commitments made with the electricity market. Furthermore, the
question_answer
lensaggregator
Discussioncan
andbenefit from the energy provided by the EV batteries by participating in the
Future Outlook
ancillary services market. To achieve the abovementioned purposes, the aggregator collects
of EV Charging
Discuss in
lensdata from each EV (battery SoC, charging preferences, EV identification, etc.) and executes
Conclusions
SciProfiles
lensan algorithm that aims to fulfill a certain goal while not compromising the EV user’s needs.
lensThisgroups/public/10.3390/en16042057)
goal could be the maximization of aggregator profits, the minimization of deviations
 Funding 
lensEVs, thumb_up
lensbetween
or
the demand
Data Availability
theofreduction
Conflicts
Endorse
profile expected by the aggregator and the real-time power demand of
Statement
Interest of generation costs or power losses in the grid. In Figure 8, the block
lens textsms
lensdiagram of a generic centralized control architecture is depicted.
Abbreviations
References
Comment
Figure 8. Centralized control architecture of EV charging [15].
On the contrary, in the decentralized control scheme, the EV owner is actively involved in
the decision-making process. Specifically, each EV aims to minimize the cost of charge,
considering user preferences without the obligatory sending of sensitive private information to
external entities [15]. The only way that the aggregator influences the on-going charging is by
providing real-time information on the electricity prices. This technique features less
computational burden and is more focused on user convenience. Nevertheless, it should be
noted
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cookies information
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to ensure is get
required
the bestand the EVs must acquire some
experience.
intelligence [15] inour
Read more about order to perform
cookies the needed instructions. The block diagram of the
decentralized control architecture is illustrated in Figure 9.
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Abstract (/)
Introduction
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lens
Help
format_quote
lens
Framework
Cite
question_answer
lens
of EV Charging
Discuss in
lens SciProfiles
Conclusions
thumb_up
Funding Figure 9. Decentralized control architecture of EV charging [15].
lens
lens In [14,16],
Conflicts
Endorse full summaries of the control algorithms applied in both schemes are featured.
of Interest
lensThe
textsms
objective and the constraints that define each computational method are presented.
Abbreviations
lensMoreover, in [68], the main optimization techniques to achieve different V2G services are
References
Comment
elaborated upon.
In [69], a hierarchical control system design that is not fully centralized or fully
decentralized is discussed. In Figure 10, its block diagram is presented. The decision-making
process, along with the computational load, is distributed to multiple aggregators through a
tree-like communication structure. Each aggregator decides the charge schedule and set-
point of each vehicle connected under its region or sends information signals to moderate the
charging profiles of a wider EV group, while influencing the decisions of the other
aggregators. Similar to the decentralized control scheme, this architecture divides an
optimization problem into a set of subproblems of a much smaller scale that is locally solved
by several EVs and/or aggregators. However, both of these techniques are still in the early
stages of research and are not widely implemented.
Back to TopTop
lens
Abstract (/) Figure 10. Hierarchical control architecture of EV charging [13,69].
Introduction
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lens Nowadays, the strategy employed by most utilities is the uncontrolled charging method.
Alternatively, a passive strategy, mainly the dual tariff strategy or ‘‘Time of Use’’ (TOU) pricing,
lensis
implemented.
Help EV users are motivated by financial incentives to shift their consumption to
format_quote
low-demand hours,(IoE)
Internet of Energy when the price of electricity is low, e.g., during the night [5,28,70].
Nevertheless,
Framework
Cite
the desirable results, i.e., the smoothing of the demand profile, may not be
question_answer
lensobtained via dual tariff charging schemes, since the peak load will simply appear at a different
hour of EVof Charging
the day. Moreover, EVs mostly constitute an electric load for the distribution grid,
Discuss in
lenssince theV2G concept is not yet extensively adopted [5]. In the next section, the current
Conclusions
SciProfiles
lensprocess
Author followed during the charging transaction and the communication protocols used are
Contributions
lensdescribed.
 Funding 
lens
Data
3.2.
lens thumb_up
Availability
Charging Statement
Procedure
Conflicts
Endorse
and Communication Protocols
of Interest
textsms
The charging process of an EV involves various interrelated actors, such as charge point
lens
Abbreviations
operators, e-mobility service providers and roaming hubs [71]. The charging point operator is
lens
References
a party
Comment that operates the charging infrastructure from an operational and technical point of
view, i.e., access control, management, data collection, repair, etc. Concurrently, it might be
engaged in commercial activities, since it is capable of purchasing electricity on the supply
market and selling charging services [72]. The e-mobility service provider is a party that sells
e-mobility services to e-mobility customers. Its main obligation is to enable access to charging
stations controlled by different Charging Station Operators (CSOs). It may also provide other
services (charging station location, monitoring of availability of charging slots, charging
reservation, etc.). These services are usually accessible by the EV driver via smart mobile
applications developed by the e-mobility provider. Lastly, the roaming hub (or clearing house)
is a global platform responsible for the organization and processing of data exchanged
between the CSOs and e-mobility operators so that flexible access to charging stations of
different CSOs is permitted to e-mobility customers of any e-mobility service provider. The
successful operation of the charging process requires communication between all these
entities. Depending on the business model adopted by a given country for the deployment of
publicly accessible charging infrastructure, one party could play multiple roles [72,73]. For
instance, an e-mobility service provider could also own and operate a charging station.
The EV communicates with the charging station through the pilot terminals discussed
previously in this work, using the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)/IEC
15118 standard [25,71,74,75]. The ISO/IEC 15118 is the most recommended communication
standard for this purpose [76]. The data exchanged relate to the EV battery SoC, the allowed
charging power, customer identification, etc.
Charging Station Management Software (CSMS), i.e., the back-end system of a charge
station operator, often uses the Open Charge Point Protocol (OCPP) to control the charging
process remotely, via the internet [75,77]. OCPP is an open standard based on the
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lensWebSocket
Abstract (/) communication protocol. It is the industry-supported de facto standard for
lenscommunication between the charging station and the CSMS and accommodates both
Introduction
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lenscharging techniques (AC and DC) [75]. Via OCPP, the charging stations can communicate
with
andthe CSMS,
Wireless thereby enabling the management of charging points. Simultaneously, the
Charging
lensCSMS communicates
of EVs andwith
the the mobile application in order to reserve or cancel charging slots
Help
format_quote
Integration
and informofEV
Internet users
Energy about the status of their vehicle during the charging process.
(IoE)
Specifically, when the EV is connected to the charging point, the user interacts with the
Framework
Cite
question_answer
lenscharger
usingand
various
Discussion Futurecustomer
Outlook authorization options (RFID (Radio Frequency Identification)
card/token, ISO 15118-1 Plug and Charge, payment terminals, local mechanical key, smart
of EV Charging
Discuss in
lensphones, etc.). The CSMS sends messages to the charging station to be displayed to the user,
Conclusions
SciProfiles
lensregarding the transaction, the language to be used, the applicable tariff before the EV driver
lensstarts charging, the running cost and the estimated end-time of a charging transaction [75].
 Funding 
thumb_up
lensWhen
Data the
lensspecific
authorization
Availability
charging
Conflicts
Endorse
stage is completed, the CSMS proceeds with the unlocking of the
Statement
point connector. The central system can fully control the charging process
of Interest
lensand
textsms
monitor the recharge status of each EV. It also enables the payment procedure [74]. To
Abbreviations
lensachieve the aforementioned functions, it utilizes a database that contains information
References
Comment
regarding the available charging points, the registered users and the billing process. The
revised version of the OCPP protocol allows the CSMS to provide different schedules with
their corresponding tariffs to the user. Thus, end users can choose the desired service
according to their preferences (TOU pricing).
The smart mobile applications deployed by the e-mobility service providers act as an
interface between the EV users and the CSMS. In this way, the user is informed about the
charging power injected into their EV, the estimated end-time and the cost for a full charge,
not only through the charging slot screen but also remotely through their mobile device.
Moreover, they are capable of fully controlling the payment process. In parallel, since the
CSMS enables the charge point reservation or cancellation using user identification tags and
the availability verification of the charging slots, the user can monitor the free chargers in their
region in real time and reserve them [74]. Additionally, some applications feature navigation
services. Consequently, they truly contribute to an efficient and user-friendly experience.
Furthermore, in order for an EV driver to have access to public charging stations that are
not operated by the e-mobility service provider with whom they have a contract, the Open
Charge Point Interface Protocol (OCPI) roaming protocol is primarily used [78]. Via OCPI, the
needed information is exchanged between the two service providers who either have a
contractual agreement or use a roaming hub for the accommodation of all EV users. For
users without contracts, most charging point operators allow a direct payment procedure at
their stations.
We use cookiesInonFigure 11, the
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Introduction
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lens
Help
format_quote
lens
Framework
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lens
of EV Charging
Discuss in
lens SciProfiles
Conclusions
Funding Figure 11. Communication protocols used during the charging procedure. 
lens
lens thumb_up
3.3. IoE Framework
Conflicts
Endorse of Interest
lens
textsms
lensdiffer
In the future, the power system structure and its communication network will drastically
Abbreviations
from its current framework. A decentralized configuration, known as a smart grid or
References
Comment
Internet of Energy (IoE), will replace the conventional centralized power generation, thereby
modifying the way that electric energy and information are transferred and distributed
between the power system and the end users. Additionally, small and large dispersed
renewable energy plants will constitute the primary energy source [16], whilst industrial and
domestic consumers will be able to not only draw but also provide power to the grid
(prosumers) [14,16]. Concurrently, IoE seeks to unify the power, transportation, gas and
thermal networks into one entity. In this entity, energy exchange will occur between a wide
variety of sources and loads, including renewable energy sources, distributed energy storage,
thermal systems, EVs and prosumers [16,79,80]. In other words, in the IoE framework, the
number of large-scale power plants is reduced, the power generation from renewable sources
is considerably increased, each participant (energy device/storage) can either sell or
consume energy and is connected to the physical power system in a plug-and-play manner
(just like how a computer detects and starts communicating with a USB device) without the
need of any reengineering [14,16]. Whether the participant will source or absorb power
depends on the current condition of the grid, the equilibrium between local power generation
and electricity consumption and individual benefit/profit.
Therefore, a power system of such infrastructure requires the deployment of a robust
and efficient Energy Management System (EMS), whose primary goal is to monitor and
control the power interactions between the multiple components/participants so as to ensure
the reliability and system flexibility and to optimize the profit of producers and customers
[14,16]. In particular,
Read more in the here
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framework, all power generators, prosumers, storage
systems, etc., of a certain region coordinate with neighboring devices along with a local
controller, thereby enabling a decentralized control scheme. All the involved participants
exchange energy with each other utilizing bidirectional power converters. Moreover, for the
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lensmanagement
Abstract (/) and coordination of the energy flow, data need to be transferred between the
lensadjacent entities and the controller via the internet.
Introduction
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lens The communication network of the IoE is based on an internet-like information flow also
known as IoTCharging
and Wireless [14,81,82] which allows two-way data exchange between devices. The
lenscommunication
Help infrastructure can be wireline, wireless or a combination of both.
format_quote
Consequently, each
Internet of Energy IoE entity acquires some intelligence accompanying the needed
(IoE)
equipment
Framework
Cite (sensors, smart meters, actuators, processing units, communication modules,
question_answer
lensetc.)
in orderand
toFuture
receive, process and broadcast information. The main aim is for each
Discussion Outlook
component connected to the IoE to attain decision-making capabilities and communicate with
of EV Charging
Discuss in
lensother
Conclusions It is worth noting that the communication systems used should be reliable and
devices.
SciProfiles
lensenhance
Author the connectivity between devices. In [76,81,83], a comprehensive review of the
Contributions
lenscommunication
 Funding systems that could be used in a future smart grid is performed. Moreover, in

lens[79],
thumb_up
a Availability
Data comparison
lenspresent-day
between the structure and functionalities of the IoE concept and the
Statement
distributed computing and internet infrastructure is conducted, and the
Endorse
textsms
lenssimilarities
lensframework
of their overall operation are highlighted. In Figure 12, the architecture of the IoE
Abbreviations
is presented.
References
Comment
Figure 12. Architecture of the IoE framework [13,15,77].
In this context, the improved real-time monitoring and control of the grid that defines the
IoE framework facilitates flexible EV integration. The active load control strategies discussed
previously in this paper can be implemented with the aid of the advanced communication
network. The scheduling of the charging profiles and the real-time regulation of the charging
rate according to the regulatory and operational grid limitations are technically feasible.
Hence, demand profile flattening is enabled. Furthermore, EVs constitute an integral part of
this decentralized power system structure due to their ability to stabilize the intermittent
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ensure you get dual
their the best
roleexperience.
as flexible electrical loads and
dispatchable power sources and their capability to abruptly connect and disconnect (plug-
and-play interface). In summary, the grid handles the EV battery as an essential energy
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lenssource that can provide ancillary services and contribute to the balancing between generation
lensand consumption. Thus, the V2G technology truly resonates with the IoE framework.
Introduction
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lens Additionally, the concept of Connected Mobility (CM) can evolve further in the future
smart grid. CMCharging
and Wireless deals with the communication between an EV and a roadside base station,
lenspassenger,
Integration traffic
of EVs signal,
and the another EV, etc. [16]. In an IoT-based network, the improved
Help
format_quote
connectivity of devices
Internet of Energy
embedded
Framework
Cite
(IoE)and the increased utilization of smart equipment (advanced sensors,
processing and communication modules, etc.) especially in EVs facilitate their
question_answer
lensability
to process and exchange
Discussion and Future Outlook data with their surroundings. Consequently, information such
asofspeed, position, temperature and SoC of the battery and status of the different EV
EV Charging
Discuss in
lenscompartments/systems can be collected. These data could be applied to traffic management
Conclusions
SciProfiles
lensfor the reduction of traffic congestion and holdups. Furthermore, the EV user can be informed
lensabout their vehicle’s condition and whether it requires charging and/or maintenance [8]. As a
 Funding
thumb_up
lensresult,
Data CM
lensvehicle
can improve
Availability
development
Conflicts
Endorse
the driving experience, safety and comfort. In addition, it promotes
Statement
of Interest towards autonomous vehicles and their corresponding advantages
lens(lower
lenscan textsms
accident rates, passenger comfort, etc.) [16]. An autonomous or self-driving vehicle
Abbreviations
drive itself without any human interaction, employing sophisticated sensors (ultrasonic,
References
Comment
GPS, radar, LiDAR, cameras, etc.) and control schemes [84]. It can decide the traveling
route, identify environmental changes and adapt the speed and position of the vehicle in
order to maintain lane control and safe following distance on the road and to reach the
desired destination. The expanded deployment of such vehicles will also facilitate the
establishment of wireless charging (a fully autonomous EV should also charge without any
human interference). In fact, at the 2022 Beijing Winter Olympics, autonomous vehicles
including shuttle buses, freight trucks and road sweepers were tested, proving that the
advancement of the communication infrastructure enables the utilization of self-driving EVs
[85,86].
4. Discussion and Future Outlook of EV Charging
Τhe continuous increase in EV sales provides strong evidence of the constant

improvement in charging infrastructure. Over the recent years, the deployment of high-
voltage off-board DC chargers equipped with sophisticated power electronic devices
(characterized by greater power density and efficiency) has allowed higher quantities of
charging power, whilst keeping the current values and the corresponding stress of grid and
charger components confined. Hence, the required holdup time for a full recharge has been
significantly decreased [21], and it will decrease even more, thanks to the forthcoming
advancements in semiconductor and battery technology. Nevertheless, several issues
regarding the impact of EV charging on the power system still remain. For the time being,
there are no globally established standards, so regulations vary depending on the given
country. As for wireless charging, its commercialization is not yet achieved. Its benefits, with
the unplugged charging transaction being the most prominent, are undeniable. Additionally,
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lensthe
first_pageshare
implementation of the QDWC and DWC concepts will facilitate the reduction of the
lensneeded battery capacity, thereby eliminating range anxiety. However, along with its technical
Introduction
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lensobstacles (system efficiency drop due to misalignment conditions, increased EV weight due
to and
on-board coilCharging
Wireless structure, etc.) and the absence of common practices, wireless charging is an
lensadditional burden
of EVsfor
andthe
thedistribution grid; this is due to its uncontrolled integration strategy
Help
format_quote
Integration
that is utilized,
Internet nowadays,
of Energy (IoE) by most utilities. What is more, the first attempts at smart charging
employment
Framework
Cite (i.e., the dual tariff strategy) do not sufficiently mitigate the drawbacks of EV
question_answer
lensintegration.
Discussion Apparently, EV commercialization will eventually lead to an intelligent grid
and Future Outlook
featuring information broadcasting and real-time power flow regulation capabilities. In this
of EV Charging
Discuss in
lensway, the implementation of smart charging techniques and concepts such as V2G, QDWC
Conclusions
SciProfiles
lensand DWC will be enabled. Furthermore, the imminent mass integration of EVs and the
lenscorresponding
 Funding energy demand rise will enforce the further exploitation of RESs, since the

lenscarbon thumb_up
lensdecarbonization
Data Availabilityof
Endorseelectricity
the transportation sector calls for an increase in the production of zero-
Statement
[7].
lens
lens5. textsms
Abbreviations
Conclusions
References
Comment
In this paper, the current status of both the conductive and wireless EV charging
infrastructure has been reviewed. The operation principles governing the conductive and
contactless (wireless) charging of an EV battery, the various components and power
conversion units utilized for their realization and the associated charging standards have
been thoroughly elaborated upon. Furthermore, this work aimed to investigate the mass
integration of EVs into established and future power systems. The burden accompanying the
increase in the EV penetration level and the several integration methods that can be
implemented have been presented in detail. Finally, has been concluded that the shift from
the modern-day grid to a decentralized structure along with an evolved communication
network will facilitate the penetration of EVs, as they will constitute a valuable asset in the
future. The progress of smart charging techniques and the further exploitation of V2G and CM
technologies will showcase the attributes of EVs.
Conceptualization, K.D., N.R., S.F., F.K., A.K. and N.P.; methodology, K.D. and N.R.;
formal analysis, K.D., N.R., S.F. and F.K.; investigation, K.D., N.R., S.F. and F.K.; resources,
K.D., N.R., S.F. and F.K.; data curation, K.D. and N.R.; writing—original draft preparation,
K.D., N.R., S.F. and F.K.; writing—review and editing, N.R, A.K. and N.P.; visualization, K.D.;
supervision, A.K. on
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lensFunding
Abstract (/)
This research has been co-financed by the European Regional Development Fund of the
Introduction
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lens
European
State of theUnion and Greek national funds through the Operational Program
Art for Conductive
Competitiveness, Entrepreneurship and Innovation, under the call RESEARCH–CREATE–
Help
format_quote
lens
Integration(project
INNOVATE of EVs and theT2EDK-00136).
code:
Framework
Cite
question_answer
lens
of EV Charging
Discuss in
lens SciProfiles
Conclusions
lensData Availability Statement
thumb_up
Funding
The data has been obtained from the references listed in the Reference section.
lens
lens
Conflicts
Endorse
of Interest
lens
lens textsms
Abbreviations
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
References
Comment
Abbreviations
AC Alternating Current
BEV(s) Battery Electric Vehicle(s)
BMS Battery Management System
BPP Bipolar Pad
CAN Controller Area Network
CHAdeMO Charge de Move
CM Connected Mobility
CMR Coupled Magnetic Resonance
CP Control Pilot
CS Connection Switch
CSMS Charging Station Management Software
CSO(s) Charging Station Operator(s)
DC Direct Current
DD Double D
DDQ Double D Quadrature
DSRC Dedicated Short-Range Communication

DWC Dynamic Wireless Charging
EMS Energy Management System
EV(s) Electric Vehicle(s)

FCEV(s) Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle(s) Back to TopTop
first_pageshare
lens GHG Greenhouse Gas
Abstract (/)
lens GND Ground
Introduction
searchmenu
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lens HGV(s)
State of theHeavy Goods Vehicle(s)
Art for Conductive
and
IEA Wireless Charging
International Energy Agency
Help
format_quote
lens
Integration
IEC of EVs and
International the
Electrotechnical Commission
Internet
IoE of Energy
Internet of(IoE)
Energy
Framework
Cite
question_answer
IoT Internet of Things
lens
Discussion
ISO
and Future Outlook
International Organization for Standardization
of EV Charging
KAISTin
Discuss Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology
lens SciProfiles
Conclusions
MPT Microwave Power Transfer
N Neutral

thumb_up
Funding
lens NC Not Connected
lens NEV(s) Non-Emission Vehicle(s)
Conflicts
Endorse of Interest
textsms
lens OCPI Open Charge Point Interface Protocol
Abbreviations
lens OCPP Open Charge Point Protocol
References
Comment
PD Proximity Detection
PE Protective Earth
PHEV(s) Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle(s)
PFC Power Factor Correction
PLC Power Line Communication
PLL Phase-Locked Loop
PP Parallel–Parallel
PP Proximity Pilot
PS Parallel–Series
QDQ Quad D Quadrature
QDWC Quasi-Dynamic Wireless Charging
RES Renewable Energy Source
RFID Radio Frequency Identification
SAE Society of Automotive Engineering
SoC State of Charge
SP Series–Parallel
SS Series–Series
SWC Static Wireless Charging
TOU
We Time ofon
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V2G Vehicle-to-Grid
WPT Wireless Power Transfer Accept (/accept_cookies)

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lens ZCS Zero Current Switching
Abstract (/)
lens ZVS Zero Voltage Switching
Introduction
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lens
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Open Access Review

Current Trends in Electric Vehicle Charging

Nick Rigogiannis (https://sciprofiles.com/profile/466971) 1 (https://orcid.org/0000-

Faidra Kotarela (https://sciprofiles.com/profile/984987) 1,

Download Browse Figures (https://pub.mdpi-

Table 2. Standards of charging connectors [4,25,30].

Figure 2. Block diagram of a conductive unidirectional EV charging system.

1. Single-phase or three-phase back-end AC/DC converter;

2.2. Wireless Charging

Figure 3. Categorization of WPT technologies.

2.2.4. Inductive Charging Modes

Figure 7. Transmitter coil configuration: (a) track-based; (b) segmented-based.

3. Integration of EVs and the Internet of Energy (IoE) Framework

Figure 8. Centralized control architecture of EV charging [15].

Figure 12. Architecture of the IoE framework [13,15,77].

4. Discussion and Future Outlook of EV Charging

Τhe continuous increase in EV sales provides strong evidence of the constant

BEV(s) Battery Electric Vehicle(s)

BMS Battery Management System

BPP Bipolar Pad

CAN Controller Area Network

CHAdeMO Charge de Move

CMR Coupled Magnetic Resonance

CSMS Charging Station Management Software

CSO(s) Charging Station Operator(s)

DDQ Double D Quadrature

DSRC Dedicated Short-Range Communication

EV(s) Electric Vehicle(s)

PHEV(s) Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle(s)

PFC Power Factor Correction

PLC Power Line Communication

PLL Phase-Locked Loop

QDQ Quad D Quadrature

QDWC Quasi-Dynamic Wireless Charging

RES Renewable Energy Source

RFID Radio Frequency Identification

SAE Society of Automotive Engineering

SoC State of Charge

SWC Static Wireless Charging

WPT Wireless Power Transfer Accept (/accept_cookies)

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