Trace Element Chromium Copper

Introduction - Greek (chroma) : color - Relatively soft yet tough metal with excellent electrical and
- Rubies : red ; emeralds : green heat conducting properties
- Two main valencies - Widely distributed in nature both elemental and compounds
o Trivalent - Copper form alloys with : zinc (brass)
o Hexavalent – better absorbed and o Tin (bronze)
carcinogenic (lung cancer) o Nickel (cupronickel – widely used in coins)
Health Effects - Essential dietary element - Normal human adult : 50 – 120 mg
- Plays a role in maintaining normal metabolism of - Highest concentrations: liver, brain, heart and kidneys
o Glucose - Ceruloplasmin – best known yet least understood copper
o Fat protein. It is an alpha 2 – globulin and 123,000 MW
o Cholesterol - Contain six atoms of copper and Influenced by hormones
Absorption, Transport and - Once absorbed, Chromium in blood is bound to - Disease associated in
Excretion transferrin (exclusively on the B-site) o Diet
- Transferrin – binds the newly absorbed Chromium o Genetic disposition
- Albumin – acceptor and transporter of Chromium if
transferrin sites are saturated.
- Other plasma proteins that binds to Chromium
o Beta and gamma globulins
o Lipoproteins

Deficiency - Is reactively uncommon - Observed in premature infants

- Total parenteral nutrition, diabetes, or malnutrition - Is related to malnutrition, malabsorption, chronic diarrhea,
- Characterized by: hyperalimentation, prolonged feeding with low copper,
o Glucose intolerance total milk diets
o Glysuria - Menkes disease – invariably fatal, progressive brain disease
o Hypercholesterolemia o Peculiar hair (kinky or steely)
o Decreased longetivity Clinical forms – progressive mental deterioration,
o Decrease sperm counts and impaired fertility coarse feces, disturbance of muscle tones &
seizures and episodes of severe hypothermia
Toxicity - Severe dermatitis and skin ulcers (inhalation of salts) - Wilson’s disease : genetically determined copper
- Respiratory irritant  result in the airway irritation  accumulation disease that usually presents between ages of
airway obstruction and cancer 6 years old and 40 years old.
- Target organ when inhaled : lungs, kidneys, liver, skin - Manifestations : neurologic disorders, liver dysfunction and
- Immune system may also be affected Kayser – Fleischer rings (Green brown discoloration) in the
cornea caused by copper deposition.
Lab Evaluation - GFAAS (AAS) | NAA | ICPMS - Flame AAS | ICPMS | ICP-AES | ASV
Normal Ranges - Whole blood : 0.7 – 28.0 ug/dL - In serum : 700-1500 ug/L mean levels for copper serum in
 - Serum : <0.05 – 0.5 ug/dl women and children are slightly higher | Blacks: 8-12% higher
Trace Element Fluorine Iodine
Introduction - May be substitute for hydroxyl ion in the - The sea is the major source of iodine with concentration
hydroxyapatite crystal structure in calcified tissues, approximately 50ug/L which is similar to that in human
bone and teeth. serum
- Used therapeutically along with Vitamin D in treatment - Constituent of the thyroid gland hormone thyroxine and
of osteoporosis thyronine which are synthesized by iodination of tyrosine
- Daily requirement : 2-4 mg/day
Health Effects
Absorption, Transport and
Excretion
Deficiency - During pregnancy may result in spontaneous abortions,
stillbirths, congenital abnormalities or neurological
cretinism, fetal hypoparathyroidism and psychomotor
defects
Toxicity - High intake : Dental Fluorosis - Prolonged excessive intake (>2 mg/day) :
o Discoloured and mottled teeth o Iodide goiter
- Increase bone density and calcification of muscle o Myxedema
evident by radiography where 10-45mg/L of fluoride is
present in water.
Lab Evaluation - ISE : preferred method of analysis - IA for thyroid hormone
- ISE methods for iodide
Normal Ranges
 Trace Element Manganese
Introduction - Twelfth most abundant trace element in the earth’s
crust. Manganese is found in over 250 minerals of
which 15 are of commercial importance
- Nearly all elemental manganese  ferromanganese
- Ferromanganese contains 80% of manganese, is used
as a scavenger during steel production.
- It also affects the hardness of steel
Health Effects - Metalloenzymes and Enzyme activator
o Arginase, pyruvate carboxylase, and
manganese superoxide dismutase in
mitochondria (oxidant properties)
- Magnesium activated enzymes are:
o Hydrolase, kinase, decarboxylase, transferase
Absorption, Transport and - Poorly absorbed (2-15%), mainly from small intestines
Excretion - Dietary factors that affect the manganese absorption
include: iron, calcium, phosphates and fiber
Deficiency - blood clotting defects
- hypocholesterolemia
- dermatitis
- elevated serum calcium, phosphorus, ALP
Toxicity - Nausea, vomiting, headache, disorientation, memory
loss, anxiety, compulsive laughing or crying.
- Locura manganica (manganese madness) :
o Chilean miners (acute manganese aerosol
intoxication)
Lab Evaluation - GFAAS (AAS) | ICPMS | NAA
- Urine manganese is used in conjunction with serum
manganese to evaluate possible toxicity or deficiency
- It has been suggested that whole blood manganese
may best reflect manganese stored in tissues
Normal Ranges - Serum : <0.43-0.76 ug/L
Molybdenum
- Silvery white metal that is very hard
- It does not occur in elemental form
- Occurs as
o Molybdenite
o Wulfenite
o Powelite
- Is vital to human health through its inclusion in at least three
enzymes: xanthine oxidase, aldehyde oxidase, and sulphide
oxidase.
- The active site of these enzymes binds molybdenum in the
form of a cofactor: molydbopterin
- Between 25 and 80% of ingested molybdenum is absorbed
- Mainly in the stomach and small intestines, via mechanisms
that are not clear.
- Molybdenum is mostly retained in the liver, skeleton&
kidneys
- Molybdenum cofactor deficiency is a recessively inherited
error of metabolism
- seizures, anterior lens discoloration, decrease brain weight,
and usually death prior to age 1 year
- Highly dietary and occupational exposures to molybdenum
- Elevated uric acid in blood
- Increased incidence of gout
- ICP-MS | GFAAS | NAA
- Serum: 0.1-3.0 ug/L
 Trace Element Selenium Zinc
Introduction - Used in electronic industry - Bluish, white lustrous metal
- Plays part in immunity - Zinc is stable in dry air and becomes covered with a white
- Maintains in male fertility coating when exposed to moisture
- Similar to the property of sulphur - Treatment for Wilson’s disease
- Mainly used in electronic industry but it is also used as - Many over the counter (OTC) medications
nutritional supplement. - Essential for male fertility because a lack of zinc lowers
- In the glass industry testosterone
Health Effects - 1930: toxic element - Second only to iron in importance
- 1940: carcinogen - Main biochemical role of zinc is its influence on the activity
- 1950: declared as an essential trace element of more than 300 enzymes (from the classes of
- 1960-1970 : viewed as anti-carcinogen oxidoreductase, transferase, hydrolase, lyases, isomerase,
- Glutathione peroxidase (selenocysteine) is part of the and ligase)
cellular antioxidant defense mechanism against free
radicals.
- Diet in low selenium : male infertility
Absorption, Transport and - Is well absorbed in the GIT (>50%) - Normal content in the body: 2.5 g
Excretion - 60% in muscle
- 30% skeleton
- 10% distributed in all tissues with highest concentration in
eyes, prostate and hair
Deficiency - Rare - Growth retardation, slows skeletal maturation, testicular
- Cardiomyopathy, skeletal muscle weakness, atrophy, reduce taste perception
osteoarthritis - Old age, pregnancy, lactation and chronic alcoholism are
- Keshan Disease and Kashin-Beak disease also associated with poor zinc nutrition
o Discovered in the lower region of China
because there is low selenium in the soil
Toxicity - Selenium sulphide : human carcinogen - Relative non toxic
Lab Evaluation - ICPMS | AAS (HGAAS or GFAAS) - ICPMS | AAS | ICP-AES
- Low urine zinc levels in presence of serum zinc levels
confirms deficiency
Normal Ranges - In serum : 95 – 165 ug/L - In serum: 70-120 ug/dL
Selenium Zinc
- Component of pigments in plastic, paints, enamels, ink and rubber - Fourth most use metal after iron, aluminium, and copper
- In the preparation of pharmaceuticals, as a nutritional feed additive in - Zinc and its compounds are used in production of alloys, especially brass,
poultry and livestrocks in galvanizing steel, in die casting, in paints, in skin lotions
 - Pesticide formulations, rubber production - Nevertheless, high doses (1g) or repetitive doses of 100 mg/day for several
- Ingredient in anti-dandruff shampoos, and constituent in fungicides months may lead to disorders, especially in GIT symptoms, decrease in
- Radioactive selenium is used in diagnostic medicine heme synthesis due to an induced copper deficiency and hyperglycemia.

Trace Element Arsenic Cadmium

Introduction - A toxic trace element - Toxic trace element
- Used as wood preservative - Soft, bluish-white metal, which is easily cut with a knife
- Both have metallic and non-metallic properties - Principle industrial uses include manufacture of pigments
and baterries, as well as metal plating and plastic
industries
Health Effects - FDA approved for the use of arsenic trioxide - Primary affected organs : liver and kidneys
- Arsenic trioxide - Newborn babies are practically free from cadmium
o Treatment for APL (acute promyelocytic - Concentration in organs increase with age
leukemia)
Absorption, Transport and - Forms in a gas - Only small amounts (<5%) are absorbed from the gut, but
Excretion - Three routes of exposure readily absorbed by the lungs
o Inhalation - The levels in the blood is <5%ug/L
o Ingestion - Is increased about 50% is smokers
o Skin absorption
- Commonly found in fish and seafoods : relatively
nontoxic
- Intoxication is rare : suicides or accidents
Deficiency
Toxicity - Inorganic species : highly toxic (occur naturally in rocks, - Renal dysfunction often resulting to slow onset
soil and groundwater) proteinuria
- Methylated species : intermediate in toxicity and arise - Breathing the vapors cause nasal epithelial damage and
primarily from metabolism of inorganic species but small lung damage similar to emphysema
amounts may arise directly from food. - Cadmium exposures can also affect the liver, bone,
- Organic species : relatively non-toxic and primarily in fish, immune, blood and nervous system
seaweed and shellfish consume as food
- White powder of arsenic trioxide : best known poisons in
human history. It is odourless and tasteless.
- Doses of 0.01 to 0.05 grams produce toxic symptoms
- Lethal dose: 0.12 – 0.3 grams
- Best detected by urine due to the short half-life in blood
Lab Evaluation - ICPMS | AAS (GFAAS or HGAAS) ICPMS | GFAAS | CPAES
Normal Ranges
Arsenic
 - Ubiquitous, its content in earth’s crust : 1.5-2.0 mg/kg
- Predominant natural resources are volcanoes and weathering minerals
- Currently, the main use for inorganic arsenic is as wood preservatives
- Other current or past uses are : pesticides, pigments, poison gases, ammunition manufacturing, semiconductor processing and medicines.

Trace Element Lead Mercury

Introduction - A toxic trace element - Toxic trace element
- Metallic lead is soft, bluish white, highly malleable and - Also called as quicksilver
ductile. - One of the two elements that are liquid at room temp.
- Poor conductor of electricity and heart - Oxidation states of mercury are :
- Resistant to corrosion o Hg (0) , Hg (I), Hg (II)
- When exposed to moist air, a protective film is formed on - Mercury (I) chloride – diuretic, topical disinfectant and
its surface laxative.
- Lead exposure  mental dysfunction - Mercury containing organohalide : Mercurochrome
- Mercurochrome: widely used but banned in the US
- Production of mascara
Health Effects
Absorption, Transport and
Excretion
Deficiency
Toxicity - Overt symptoms are usually seen at blood levels of 60 - Toxicity is primarily through the reaction with sulfhydryl
ug/dL or higher, but they may occur at much lower levels groups, primarily inactivating proteins by bonding to
- IQ declines are seen in children with blood lead levels of cysteine groups in protein.
10 ug/dL or higher - Liquid elemental Mercury : nontoxic
- Elemental mercury vapour is toxic
- Inorganic, ionized forms : toxic
- Further bioconversion to alkyl mercury, such as methyl
mercury, yields a very toxic species of mercury that is
highly selective for lipid reach mediums such as the
neuron.
Lab Evaluation - ICPMS : preferred method of analysis - ICPMS | AAS (CVAAS)
- ICP AES - Determined as total mercury levels in blood and urine
- AAS without regard to chemical form
Normal Ranges - In blood: - In blood: 0-60 ug/L
o Current CDC guideline consider levels of 10 ug/dL - People with high seafood consumption may have urine
or higher to be excessively for children and levels up to 50ug/L without clinical signs of toxicity
childbearing females
Mercury
- Is released to atmosphere as a product of the natural out gassing of rock (30,000 tons per year)
- Fungicide (6,000 tons per year)
- Dental amalgams (90 tons per year)
- Used in electrical switches