Wolaita Sodo University

School of Engineering
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
MSc in Communication Engineering First Year /First Semester Weekend Program
Course Title: Advanced Digital Communication System
Course Code: ECEG-6221
Assignment II
Prepared by: ID Number
1.Firew Belete Beyene PGW/81439/15
2. Fikadu worku PGW/81438/15
3. Aklilu Bekele PGW/81442/15
4. Matusal Tessema PGW/81437/15
5. Filmon Oloba PGW/81449/15
6. Haile Seba

Submitted to DR. Degefe

Wolaita Sodo, Ethiopia
Submission Date: -March 13, 2023

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1.(A) Verify that the minimum distance for M-PSK is 2 sin ()
π
2 √
and that of M-QAM
6
M −1

 Minimum distance of M-PSK is 2 sin ( π2 )

Euclidean distance between any pair of signal points in PSK is

d min = √‖S −S ‖
m n
2

√[
d m = ε g 1−cos ( 2Mπ ( m−n ))]
The minimum distance corresponding to |m − n| = 1 is

√[
d m = ε g 1−cos ( 2Mπ )]
√ M ) from trigonometric function cos (2 x )= 1−2 sin ( x )
( π
d m = 2 ε g sin2 2

√ M for 2 ε =ε from signal energy of MPSK

dm=2 ε sin ( )
π
avg
2
avg g

dm=2 sin ( ) assuming signal energy ε the same for all and 1.
π
avg
M

 Minimum distance of M-QAM

√ 6
M −1
Euclidean distance between any pair of signal points in QAM is

d min = √‖S −S ‖
m n
2

d min =
√ εg
2
[ ( Ami −A ¿ )2 + ( A mq− A nq) 2 ]

M −1 εg
d min =√ 2 ε g where ε g =ε avg which is ε g=3
3 M −1

d min= 2 3
√( εg
M −1 )
d min = 6
√ εg
M −1
and Assuming ε g the same and 1

d min =
√ 6
M −1

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 (B) Draw 8-PSK and 16-QAM constellations and indicate the distance between nearest
neighbors within each
It is sometimes analytically convenient to approximate discrete constellations by means of
continuous distributions over a suitable region on the complex plane. These continuous
distributions can be interpreted as limits of dense M-ary constellations for M → ∞. For
equiprobable M -PSK and M -QAM, the appropriate unit-variance continuous distributions
are: ∞-PSK, where s = e jφ with φ uniform on [0, 2π).
∞-QAM, where s is uniform over the square [ − √3/2, √3/2] × [ − √3/2, √3/2] on the
complex plane

2. The error comparison of three modulation schemes is given below. Compare them in detail

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It is seen that the system performs better as the Eb/No increases across all modulation techniques
over the AWGN channel. It can also be seen that increasing the number of FFT points does not
really affect the performance as they showed similar patterns. For example, from the figure
above, BPSK and QPSK achieves an Eb/No of 10dB with BER of 0.1 and 0.6 respectively While
8PSK achieves an Eb/No of 14dB with BER of 0.8, 16PSK achieves an Eb/No of 19dB with
BER of 0.9, 32PSK achieves an Eb/No of 24dB with BER of 1. Finally, from the above we can
conclude that lower order modulations have higher performance than higher order modulations.

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2-PAM achieves an Eb/No of 11dB with BER of 0.4, 4-PAM achieves an Eb/No of 14dB with
BER of 0.6 While 8-PAM achieves an Eb/No of 19dB with BER of 0.8, 16-PAM achieves an
Eb/No of 24dB with BER of 0.9. Finally from the above we can conclude that lower order
modulations have higher performance than higher order modulations.

4QAM achieves an Eb/No of 11dB over AWGN when FFT point of 256 and 1024 are employed.
It is also observed that the lower order modulation techniques perform better than the higher
order counterparts. BPSK and QPSK have similar performance while 4QAM performs better
than 64 QAM, 256 QAM and 16QAM. At FFT point of 1024, 4QAM achieves a BER of 0.6 at
an Eb/No of around 11dB While 16 QAM achieves a BER of 0.8 at an Eb/No of around 15dB
while it takes 64 QAM around 19dB and 256 QAM around 24dB to achieve the same level of
BER. Similar patterns are obtained at other FFT points whilst employing a 25% of the FFT
points as virtual carriers in each case.

3. Compare zero-forcing (ZF) equalizer with other linear Equalizers

The zero-forcing equalizer is a form of linear equalization algorithm used in communication

systems which applies the inverse of the frequency response of the channel. However, when the
channel is noisy, the zero-forcing equalizer will amplify the noise greatly at frequencies f where
the channel response H (j2πf) has a small magnitude (i.e. near zeroes of the channel) in the
attempt to invert the channel completely. The ZFE is a solution for mitigating the ISI that tries to
restore the Nyquist Criterion for a free ISI transmission by inverting the channel matrix, While

The Minimum Mean Square Error (MMSE) approach tries to find a coefficient which minimizes
the criterion. When comparing to the equation in Zero Forcing equalizer, apart from the term
both the equations are comparable. In fact, when the noise term is zero, the MMSE equalizer
reduces to Zero Forcing equalizer. The MMSE is complex but does not enhance noise. It does

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not usually eliminate ISI completely but instead minimizes the total power of the noise and ISI
components in the output.

4. Consider the four signal waveforms as shown in Figure 2 shown below

(a) Determine the dimensionality of the waveforms and a set of basis functions.

(b) Use the basis functions to represent the four waveforms by vectors.

(c) Determine the minimum distance between all the vector pairs.

Solution

In matrix notation, the four wave forms can be represented as

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 [ ]
S1 (t) 2 2 −1 −1 f 1(t)
S2 (t) 1 −1 1 −1 f 2(t)
=
S3 (t) −2 1 1 0 f 3(t)
S4 (t ) 1 −2 −2 2 f 4(t )

Note that the rank of transformation matrix is 4 and therefore, the dimensionality of the wave
form is 4.

(b) The representation vectors are: -

S1=¿

S2=[1¿−1¿1¿−1]

S3=¿

S4 =¿

(c) The distance between the first and the second vector is: -

d 1,2=√ ¿ S 1−S 2¿ 2=√ ¿ 13−2 0 ¿2=√ 14

d 1,3=¿ ¿ √ ¿ S 1−S 3¿ 2 =√ ¿ 4 1−2−1 ¿2 = √ 22

d 1,4 = √ ¿ S 1−S 4 ¿ 2 = √ ¿ 1 4 1−3 ¿2 = √ 27

d 2,3 = √ ¿ S 2−S 3 ¿2 = √ ¿ 3−2 0−1¿ 2 = √ 14

d 2,4 = √ ¿ S 2−S 4 ¿ 2 = √ ¿ 0 13−3 ¿2 = √ 19

d 3,4 = √ ¿ S 3−S 4 ¿2 = √ ¿−33 3−2¿ 2 = √ 31

Thus, the minimum distance between any pair of vectors is d minimum =√ 14

5. Consider the M=2, 4, 8 PSK signal constellations. All have the same transmitted signal
energy £ s. A, Determine the minimum distance between adjacent signal points B, For M=8,
determine by how many dB the transmitted signal energy £ smust be increased to achieve the
same as M =4

Solution

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 π
d minimum=√ 2 £ s ¿ ¿=2√ £ s sin( ¿) ¿
M

180 180
d minimum for the M=2,is √ £ s sin 2
=2 √ £ s , Dmin for M =4 , 2 √ £ s sin
4 √ s
= 2£

π
d min for M =8,2 √ £ s sin = √ ¿ ¿
8

B) For M=8, determine by how many dB the transmitted signal energy £ s must be increased to
achieve the same as M =4, To achieve the same dmin, let energy at M=8 is prime of the signal
transmitted.

180
d min for M =4 , 2 √ £ s sin
4 √ s
= 2£

π
,d min for M =8,2 √ £ s sin = √ ¿ ¿ ,
8

̋ ̍
£ s 2
= =3.4142 ,∈dB=10 log 10(3.4142)=5.33 dB , Is the transmitted signal energy
£s 2− √2
that must be increased to achieve the same as M=4.

6.In digital modulation one of the performance measurement parameters is the peak-toaverage
power ratio (PAPR), which quantifies the maximum excursion of the squared magnitude over the
average power, i.e.,

Discuss its effect on power efficiency issues related to OFDM

Solution

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Peak-to-Average Power Ratio (PAPR) is defined as the ratio of peak power to the
average power of a signal and is expressed in decibels (dB). It is typically measured for a
transmitted signal in an Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing (OFDM) system. A lower
PAPR is desired for efficient performance of a system. Signals transmitted through an OFDM
system typically possess high peak values in the time domain and all the sub-carriers are out of
phase with each other in an OFDM system.

At each phase value, the signals are different from each other, however, if at a given instance all
data points simultaneously achieve the maximum value, it causes the output to suddenly shoot
up. This causes a ‘peak’ in the output envelope. Since in an OFDM system, there are
independently modulated subcarriers, the peak value of the system can be very high compared to
the average of the whole system. This ratio of the peak to average power value is termed as
Peak-to-Average Power Ratio.

7. Comparatively explain channel Estimation and symbol detection algorithms in digital

communication with block diagrams, mathematical formulations, performance metrics.

Channel Estimation

Channel estimation is a technique used in the transmission that aims to predict or estimate the
channel impulse response (CIR) or the impulse response of a channel to the signal sent. Effect
changes to the sent signal generated by the channel estimation must be done so that the detection
signal becomes more accurate information. In general, channel estimation can be grouped into
three types, the pilot assisted channel estimation, blind channel estimation, and decision directed
channel estimation. Pilot assisted channel estimation works by sending a pilot symbol which is a
sequence of bits that we have previously seen, along with the information to be sent. The pilot
symbol is used to determine the pattern changes. Furthermore, with the pattern of these changes
we can know the impulse response of channels. Hereinafter, with the interpolation method then
information signal before passing through channel can we expect, so the error that occurred can
be minimized. Unlike the pilot assisted channel estimation, blind channel estimation on the pilot
symbols are not used to estimate the channel. Because we do not have to allocate specific
bandwidth to transmit the pilot symbols, become more efficient use of bandwidth when
compared with the the pilot assisted channel estimation techniques. Although the accuracy of

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estimating, the pilot assisted channel estimation techniques are still superior. Furthermore, the
final estimation technique is the decision directed channel estimation.

MMSE estimators

If the channel vector g is Gaussian and uncorrelated with the channel noise n, the MMSE
estimate of g becomes

are the cross covariance matrix between g and y and the auto covariance matrix of y which are assumed to
be known. MMSE generates the frequency domain MMSE estimate MMSE by

LS estimators

The Least square (LS) estimator used in the channel to estimate the impulse response g

minimizes the factor and generates

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Detection Algorithms; is the identification of a specific signal in the received signal. Extraction
of the modulating signals form the carrier is called detection or demodulation.

Signal detection in the presence of interference and noise is one of the most demanding task in
the communication systems. In fact, one receives the symbols, detect them which means
determine their magnitude and phase. and then decode them in a bi nary form in a process called
damping. Correlators and matched filters are two devices used to detect the symbols from the
received signals.

Performance

The algorithm of LS estimator is very simple, As LS algorithm does not require correlation
function calculation nor does it require matrix inversion. MMSE estimator is complex; As
MMSE algorithm requires both correlation function calculation and matrix inversion. From the
results it is clear that MMSE estimator provides better performance than LS estimator in terms of
mean square error (MSE) and symbol error rate(SER) whereas implementation of LS algorithm
is much easier than MMSE algorithm.

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