@eacr Tcrîs`
@eacre Tkitfr Cinkjj` Incrj`s Tcrîs`, tclgkëh `sirktf @eacr Tcrîs`3 (_crìs, 77 e` ekik`lgr` e`
3>>9 - Hu`vc [frb, 4 e` hfvk`lgr` e` 3;40) du` uh iflpfsktfr drchiës, qu` vkvkù uhc jcrac `tcpc
e`ikskvc `h @stcefs Phkefs.
Jc lýskic e` Tcrîs
Tcrîs`
` s` icrcit`rkzc
icrcit`rkzc pfr `hdctkzcr tchtf tklgr` iflf rktlf, y `h `jjc s` ciuóù `j
tërl
tërlkh
khf
f e` "sfh
"sfhke
kef
f fr
frac
achk
hkzc
zcef
ef"" pcrc
pcrc nc
nci`
i`rr r`
r`d`
d`r`
r`hi
hikc
kc c su prfp
prfpkc
kc `s
`stë
tëtki
tkic
c lu
lusk
skic
icj.j.7
7 Yu
ifhi`pikùh e` jc lýskic r`dj`mc uhc vkskùh e`j "sfhkef iflf lct`rkc vkvc" y e`j "`spcikf luskicj
cgk`rtf `h juacr e` jklktcef".9 Tcrîs` ifhi`gìc jfs `j`l`htfs e` su lýskic `h tërlkhfs e`
"sfhkef e` lcscs", iflpcrchef jc frachkzcikùh e` jfs lkslfs ifh `j d`hùl`hf e` irkstcjkzcikùh.
Tcrîs` e`iìc qu` pcrc tfefs cqu`jjfs fìefs pfif `xp`rkl`htcefs y e` gcmc ifhekikùh, tfef
cqu`jjf qu` r`sujtcgc hu`vf `h jc lýskic `rc e`hflkhcef rukef, pfr jf qu` pjcht`ù jc pr`auhtc=
¶Suë `s jc lýskic skhf uhc sui`skùh e` rukefs frachkzcefs6
 C p`scr e` qu` tfec su fgrc hf eurc lãs e` tr`s nfrcs, `st` cutfr nc skef r`ifhfikef iflf uhc
arch khdju`hikc `h jc lýskic pfr pcrt` e` arche`s iflpfsktfr`s e` dkhcj`s e`j skajf ^^. Tcrîs`
vksjulgrù uh arch pft`hikcj `h jc utkjkzcikùh e` l`ekfs `j`itrùhkifs pcrc jc prfeuiikùh sfhfrc, y
su usf e` `stfs hu`vfs l`ekfs `j`itrùhkifs sulcef cj e` hu`vfs khstrul`htfs jf jj`vù c s`r 
ifhfikef iflf `j "pcer` e` jc lýskic `j`itrùhkic", lk`htrcs qu` N`hry Lkjj`r j` e`sirkgkù iflf
"@j Ifjfsf `strctfsdërkif e`j sfhkef".4
@stuekù ifh Tkhi`ht e'Khey `h jc Yinfjc Ichtfrul e` _crìs (3;?;-?0) y ifh Incrj`s-Lcrk` Qkefr 
`h `j Ifhs`rvctfrkf e` _crìs (3;?0-3;?0), ju`af vkcmù c Ych _`t`rsguraf efhe` ifhfikù c
Wkincre Ytrcuss y D`rruiikf Gusfhk. @h 3;39 r`ar`sù c _crìs, p`rf `h 3;30 `lkarù c Icjkdfrhkc2
tfecs sus iflpfskikfh`s e` `stc ëpfic e`scpcr`ik`rfh, ifh `xi`pikùh e` uhc sfjc ichikùh
pugjkicec y uhc pcrtkturc frqu`stcj, Gfurafah` (3;?>), qu` jj`vù ifh ëj p`rf e`struyù ncikc `j
dkhcj e` su vkec. Yu fgrc ir`ctkvc pfr jf tchtf iflk`hzc `d`itkvcl`ht` ifh Clërkqu`s pcrc arch
frqu`stc (3;73), jc iucj, pfr tfefs jfs `ifs e` Ijcue` E`gussy y e` jfs gcjj`ts t`lprchfs e` Ìafr 
Ytrcvkhsb
Ytrcvkhsbk,k, `st
`stcg
cgj`i
j`i`
` hu`vfs
hu`vfs luh
luhefs
efs e` sfhkef
sfhkef== cifre`
cifre`ss dk`
dk`rcl
rcl`ht
`ht`
` eks
eksfhc
fhcht`
ht`s,
s, pfj
pfjkdf
kdfhìc
hìcss
rìtlkicl`ht` iflpj`mcs pcrc p`riuskfh`s f vk`htfs, dfrlcs `h ifhtkhuc `vfjuikùh skh r`p`tkikfh`s
c arch `sicjc.1
@h 3;73, ëj y Icrjfs
Icrjfs Ycjz`ef
Ycjz`ef duhecrfh
duhecrfh jc Kht`rh
Kht`rhctkfh
ctkfhcj
cj Iflpfs`rs
Iflpfs`rs'' Arfup
Arfup,, qu` ekf jcs prkl`rcs
kht`rpr`tcikfh`s e` cjauhcs e` sus fgrcs pcrc ifhmuhtfs p`qu`ófs, prflkh`ht`l`ht` vk`htfs y
p`riuskfh
p`riuskfh`s,
`s, y pr`s`
pr`s`htcrfh
htcrfh jcs khhfvcikf
khhfvcikfh`s
h`s e` Clër
Clërkqu`s
kqu`s `h dfrlc iflpcitc=
iflpcitc= Nyp`
Nyp`rprksl
rprksl
(3;79), Fitcher` (3;79) y Khtëarcj`s (3;70). Crichc (3;71), qu` r`ar`sc c jc arch frqu`stc y
dfrlc `xt`hekec ifh tëihkic p`rd`itc, jj`vù su p`rkfef lãs prfeuitkvf c su dkh.

Ykaukù uhc jcrac `stchikc `h _crìs (3;7>-3;5>), eurcht` jc iucj `sirkgkù Kfhksctkfh pcrc frqu`stc
e` p`riuskùh (3;93). Y` kht`r`sù tclgkëh pfr jfs khstrul`htfs `j`itrùhkifs y `sirkgkù pcrc efs
tn`r`l
tn`r`lkh`
kh`s,
s, gcmf,
gcmf, l`tcj`
l`tcj`s,
s, t`ijce
t`ijcefs
fs y p`r
p`rius
iuskùh
kùh `h @iu
@iuctf
ctfrkc
rkcjj (3;95)
(3;95).. @j sfj
sfjf
f e` djc
djcutc
utc e`
E`hskece 73.0 (3;94) du` su ýjtklc fgrc t`rlkhcec `h jcs skauk`ht`s efs eëicecs. Eurcht` `s`
 

hu`vf tk`lpf ncgjù `spfrãekicl`ht` ` nkzf pjch`s pcrc @spci`, fgrc qu` ncrìc usf sklujtãh`f
e` trchslkskfh`s e` rcekf e` tfef `j luhef2 uh Ëtue` pfur @spci` pcrc ifrf, pkchfs y p`riuskùh
s` `m`iutù `h 3;51. _fr `htfhi`s, ifh jc lýskic `j`itrùhkic pfr dkh sk`hef uhc pfskgkjkece r`cj
arcikcs cj e`scrrfjjf e` jc arcgcikùh `h ikhtc, prfeumf Eës`rts pcrc vk`htfs, p`riuskùh y ikhtc
(3;05)) y uh _fîl
(3;05 _fîl`
` ëj`itrfhk
ëj`itrfhkqu`
qu` (3;01-3;0>
(3;01-3;0>).
). Yus ýjtklfs cófs jfs e`ekiù c prfy`
prfy`itfs
itfs sfgr`
t`lcs e` jc hfin` y jc lu`rt`, iflf `j Hfiturhcj, fgrc khifhijusc, pcrc vfi`s y frqu`stc e`
iãlcrc (3;43).
Jc lýskic e` Tcrîs` nc khdjukef `h crtkstcs e` vchaucrekc ` khijusf nc trcsi`hekef `j ãlgktf e` jc
jjclcec lýskic ijãskic y nc jj`acef c ftrfs iflf Drchb ]cppc.

Khdju`hikcs luskicj`s
@h su
suss cófs
cófs e` df
dfrl
rlci
cikù
kùh,
h, Tc
Tcrî
rîs`
s` du
du`
` `h
`hfr
frl`
l`l`
l`ht
ht`
` ic
icut
utkv
kvce
cef
f pf
pfrr jc lý
lýsk
skic
ic l`ek
l`ek`v
`vcj
cj y
r`hci`htkstc (e` n`inf, c jf jcraf e` su icrr`rc duheù y ekrkakù vcrkfs ifrfs e`ekicefs c jc
r`cjkzcikùh
r`cjkzcikùh e` `stcs lýskics),
lýskics), cuhqu` tclgkëh du`rfh arch
arche`s
e`s khdju`hi
khdju`hikcs
kcs `h ëj jcs lýskics e`
 Cj`bscher Ybrkcgkh, @rkb Yctk`, Ijcue` E`gussy, N`itfr G`rjkfz y Wkincre Ytrcuss.
Ytrcuss . @j cutfr 
cs`aurù t`h`r ik`rtcs r`lkhksi`hikcs e` jcs prkl`rcs fgrcs e` Ìafr Ytrcvkhsbk, ifhir`tcl`ht` e`
_`trusnbc y e` Jc ifhscarcikùh e` jc prklcv`rc, `h fgrcs iflf Crichc.

Tcrîs` cdkrlù ncg`r skef khspkrcef pfr jfs `sirktfs sfgr` lýskic e` Mùz`d Lcrkc Nf`h`-QrfŅsbk,
y r`lcric jc e`ijcrcikùh qu` nkzf `st` `h jc qu` e`iìc qu` `j fgm`tkvf e` jc lýskic `s `j e` jc
ifrpfr`kzcikùh e` jc kht`jka`hikc qu` `j sfhkef yc ifhtk`h`. Uclgkëh du` icutkvcef pfr jcs ke`cs
e` D`rruiikf Gusfhk.

Cjulhfs ` khdju`hikcs
@h pcjcgrcs e` A`fra` _`rj`, Tcrîs`, ifh su ekvkskùh e` jc fitcvc, s` ifjfic `h `j iìriujf e`
iflp
iflpfs
fsktktfr
fr`s
`s Ybrk
Ybrkcg
cgkh
kh-Y
-Yin
inôh
ôhg`
g`ra
ra iflf
iflf uh
uhf
f e` jf
jfss cu
cutf
tfr`
r`ss lã
lãss r`vf
r`vfju
juik
ikfh
fhcr
crkf
kfss e` jc
lfe`rhkece, iuyf trcgcmf dfrlc pcrt` e`j iflk`hzf e` jc hu`vc trcekikùh prkhikpcj `h jc lýskic
e` hu`strf skajf.

Khdju`hikcs sfgr` jc lýskic ijãskic

Jfs prkhikpcj`s iflpfsktfr`s qu` nch skef khdju`hikcefs pfr jc lýskic e` Tcrîs` sfh, `htr` ftrfs,
Lkjtfh Gcggktt, Ncrrksfh Gkrtwkstj`, _k`rr` Gfuj`z, Mfnh Ica`, Lfrtfh D`jelch, Wfg`rtf A`rncre,
Fjkvk`r L`sskc`h, Jukak Hfhf, Mfnh _cjl`r, Brzysztfd _`he`r`ibk, Ykjv`str` W`vu`jtcs, Qfjdacha
Wknl, J`ùh Yinkejfwsby, Cjdr`e Yinhkttb`, Qkjjkcl Archt Ytkjj, Bcrjn`khz Ytfibncus`h, ^`hcbks,
Drchb ]cppc y Mfnh ]frh.

Khdju`hikcs sfgr` jc lýskic pfpujcr 

Jc dkmcikùh e` Tcrîs` `h iuchtf c csp`itfs iflf `j tklgr`, `j rktlf y jcs hu`vcs t`ihfjfaìcs
du`rfh uhc arch khspkrcikùh pcrc uhc hu`vc a`h`rcikùh e` lýskifs qu` cpcr`ikù `h jfs cófs
3;4?-3;1?.
 

J`acef y pr`ekiikfh`s
@h vcrkcs ficskfh`s Tcrîs` `sp`iujù sfgr` iùlf jc t`ihfjfaìc kgc c iclgkcr jc lýskic `h `j
duturf. @h 3;94, pr`ekmf qu` ncgrìc lãqukhcs icpci`s e` r`prfeuikr f kht`rpr`tcr jc lýskic s`aýh
`j iflpfsktfr khtrfeuiìc jc pcrtkturc. E` `stc lch`rc, `stcs lãqukhcs pferìch tficr tfecs jcs
dr`iu`hikcs pfskgj`s, pfr jf qu` `stcs pcrtkturcs e`j duturf t`herìch qu` s`r skslfarãdkics pcrc
pfe`r `xpjftcr tfef `s` pft`hikcj dr`iu`hikcj. @h 3;9;, cócekù c `stc t`frìc qu` `stcs lãqukhcs
e`j duturf s`rìch icpci`s e` a`h`rcr jc lýskic `xcitcl`ht` iùlf jc ifhikgkù `j cutfr, iflf cj
cgrkr uh jkgrf. Tcrîs` hf iflprfgcrìc `stcs pr`ekiikfh`s ncstc sus `xp`rkl`htfs ifh ikhtc `h jfs
0? y jfs 4?.3? Tcrîs` e`scrrfjjù tclgkëh jc lýskic ifhir`tc ir`cec pfr _k`rr` Yinc`dd`r
Yinc`dd`r..

@eacr Tcrîs`
(_crìs, 3>>9 - Hu`vc [frb, 3;40) Iflpfsktfr drchiës hcikfhcjkzcef `stcefuhke`hs`. Iursù sus
prkl`rfs `stuekfs luskicj`s `h Uurìh. C pcrtkr e` 3;?9 r`skekù `h _crìs, `h efhe` du` cjulhf e`
 C. Wfuss`j y e` T. E'Khey `h
`h jc Yinfjc Ichtfrul, y e` In
In.. L. Qkefr `h `j Ifhs`rvctfrkf. @h 3
3;?1
;?1
s` trcsjceù c G`rjìh, efhe` duheù `j Yklpnfhksin`r Infr. @h 3;34 s` trcsjceù e`dkhktkvcl`ht` c
Hu`vc [frb, efhe` r`skekrìc ncstc su lu`rt`.

Tcrîs` `jcgfrù sus fgrcs c pcrtkr e`j ifhi`ptf e` "sfhkef frachkzcef", ifh `j qu` s` cpcrtc e`
jcs
jcs hfi
fikf
kfh
h`s trce
trceki
kikf
kfhc
hcj`
j`ss e` crcrl
lfh
fhìc
ìc y l` l`jf
jfe
eìc.
ìc. Yu
Yuss fgrcs
grcs `stã
`stãhh fra
frach
chkz
kzce
ceccs,
duhecl`htcjl`ht`, ifh jc yuxtcpfskikùh, jc r`p`tkikùh y jc vcrkcikùh e` ke`cs luskicj`s gcscecs,
sfgr` tfef, `h `j tklgr` y jfs vfjýl`h`s sfhfrfs, ifhvkrtkëhefs` e` `st` lfef `h uh pr`iursfr 
e` jc lýskic `j`itrfciýstkic y jc lýskic ifhir`tc.

@h 3;7
3;79,
9, e`s
e`spuë
puëss e` r`p
r`puek
uekcr
cr tfecs
tfecs jcs fgrcs
fgrcs iflpu`
iflpu`stc
stcss eur
eurcht
cht`
` su p`rìf
p`rìfef
ef muv
muv`hk
`hkj,j, `j
iflpfs
iflpfsktf
ktfrr ekf c ifhfi`
ifhfi`rr Clërki
Clërkics
cs (3;
(3;7?-
7?-3;7
3;73),
3), Fdr
Fdr`he
`hecs
cs (Fdd
(Fddrch
rche`s
e`s,, 3;7
3;73),
3), pcr
pcrc
c vfz
vfz,, `
Nyp`rprksl (3;77-3;79), pcrc efs clpjkfs ifhmuhtfs e` khstrul`htfs e` vk`htf y e` p`riuskùh.

@htr` sus fgrcs pfst`

pfst`rkfr`
rkfr`s,
s, jcs lãs hftcgj`s
hftcgj`s sfh Kht`a
Kht`arcj`s
rcj`s (3;75)
(3;75),, Cric
Crichc
hc (3;7
(3;71),
1), Kfhks
Kfhksctkfh
ctkfh
(3;99, fgrc `h jc qu` uh hul`rfsf arupf e` p`riuskùh y `j sfhkef e` skr`hcs s` frachkzch
l`ekcht` `j `squ`lc e` jc sfhctc2 @iuctfrkcj (@quctfrkcj, 3;95), E`hskece 73,0 (E`hskty 73,0,
3;94)2 E`sk`rtfs (Eës`rts, 3;00), iflpfskikùh pcrc khstrul`htfs e` vk`htf y e` p`riuskùh, c jfs
qu` `j lýskif cóce` `j sfhkef e` uhc ikhtc lcah`tfdùhkic, ifhvkrtkëhefs` csì `h uhf e` jfs
pkfh`rfs e` su utkjkzcikùh iflpfsktkvc. E` sus ýjtklcs prfeuiikfh`s e`stcich _f`lc `j`itrùhkif
(3;0>) y Hfiturhcj (3;43).

@eacre Tcrîs` (3>>9-3;40) vkvkù tfec su vkec ifh y `h jc lýskic. Jf e`iìc= «…quk`rf `stcr `h `j

lct`rkcj, iflf pcrt` e` jc vkgrcikùh ciýstkic…². Yu clfr e`sgfrecht` pfr `j tklgr` y `j rktlf hf
iflpjciìc, c p`scr e` qu` jc irìtkic j` `rc dcvfrcgj`, cj pýgjkif e` jfs ifhik`rtfs.
 

@st` lcahìdkif `stuekf sfgr` jc fgrc Nyp`rprksl e` @eacre Tcrîs` hfs pfh` sfgr` uhc hu`vc
p`rsp`itkvc e` jc lýskic, e` jc lct`rkc sfhfrc y e`j rukef.

Tcrîs` iflpusf tr`s fgrcs qu` pfh`h e` r`jk`v` sus r`dj`xkfh`s iflpfsktkvcs r`d`r`ht`s cj
tklgr`, `j rktlf y jfs r`akstrfs e` sfhkefs= Nyp`rprksl (3;79), fgrc pcrc ifhmuhtf e` vk`htf y
p`riuskùh r`jcikfhcec ifh `j tklgr`2 Kfhksctkfh (3;9?), ifh `j rktlf e` jc p`riuskùh, y jc fgrc
_fîl` Ëj`itrfhkqu` (3;0>) `jcgfrcec ifh sfhkefs pr`arcgcefs.

@htuskcslcef pfr jcs ke`cs y jc lýskic e` D`rruiikf Gusfhk, `j iflpfsktfr drchiës e`ikekù
lcrincr c G`rjìh pcrc e`scrrfjjcr sus ke`cs luskicj`s ifh jkg`rtce. Tcrîs`, cj kaucj qu` G`rjkfz,
E`gussy y Ytrcuss, gusiù `h `j tklgr` e` jc frqu`stc `j iclkhf pcrc ekrkakrs`, skauk`hef dk`jl`ht`
su khtukikùh, ncikc `j pcrcìsf e`j sfhkef. Y`aurf qu` `xkst`.

Nyp`rprksl, `s uhc fgrc ifrtc iflpu`stc `h uh ýhkif lfvklk`htf e` >> iflpcs`s, `sirktc pcrc
3> khstrul`htfs, utkjkzchef jc hftc Ef# iflf hftc pìvft. Eurcht` 31 iflpcs`s, `st` Ef# s` vc
trchsdfrlcef cj kr pcschef pfr ekstkhtfs khstrul`htfs, `jcgfrchef uhc trchsdfrlcikùh qu` s`
prfeui` c trcvës e`j tklgr`, e` jfs ekd`r`ht`s tkpfs e` ctcqu`, e` crtkiujcikùh y e` jcs ekv`rscs
ekhãlkics `h jc kht`hskece e`j sfhkef.

Tcrî
Tcrîs`
s` e`iì
e`iìc=
c= «Hf
«Hf l` v`
v`ch
ch if
iflf
lf uh if
iflp
lpfs
fsktf
ktfr.
r. Yf
Yfyy uh crt`
crt`sc
schf
hf qu
qu`
` `s
`sp`
p`iu
iujc
jc ifh
ifh jc
jcss
dr`iu`hikcs.²

U`sks `h cii`sf cgk`rtf `h= U@Y@F

W`sul`h

L`ekcht` jc `jcgfrcikùh e`j pr`s`ht` trcgcmf s` nc kht`htcef r`cjkzcr uhc cprfxklcikùh ncikc `j
luhef sfhfrf e` @eacre Tcrîs` e`se` uhc efgj` p`rsp`itkvc qu` hf sùjf ifht`lpjc `j `stuekf
e` su fgrc skhf tclgkëh su p`hsclk`htf luskicj, ifh jc dkhcjkece e` r`pr`s`htcr e` jc l`mfr 
dfrlc jcs kht`hikfh`s `stëtkics e` Tcrîs`.

@h `s` s`htkef, iflf r`sujtcef e` jc ifhdrfhtcikùh e` jfs `m`lpjfs luskicj`s ifh jcs iktcs
t`xtucj`s, s` pu`e` iflprfgcr arceucjl`ht` c jf jcraf e`j e`scrrfjjf e`j trcgcmf qu` `h Tcrîs`
`xkst` uhc ifn`r`hikc `htr` jf qu` s` e`spr`he` e` jc j`iturc e` jfs `sirktfs efhe` `j iflpfsktfr 
lchkdk`stc sus ke`cs `stëtkics y sus fpkhkfh`s ci`ric e` jc lýskic, y jf qu` s` e`spr`he` e` jc
khv`stkacikùh e` su prãitkic luskicj.

Jcs fgrcs e` Tcrîs` qu` s` nc `sifakef pcrc jc r`cjkzcikùh e`j pr`s`ht` trcgcmf sfh= Clërkqu`s
` Nyp`rprksl.
 

Y` trctc e` efs fgrcs qu`, `h `j ifht`xtf e` jc prfeuiikùh luskicj e` @eacre Tcrîs`, sfh e`
ekl`
ekl`hs
hskf
kfh`
h`ss luy
luy e`
e`sk
skau
aucj
cj`s
`s== Cl
Clër
ërkq
kqu`
u`ss `s uh
uhc
c fg
fgrc
rc pcrc
pcrc arch
arch frqu
frqu`s
`stc
tc sk
skhd
hdùh
ùhki
kic
c e`
cprfxklcecl`ht` v`khtktrës lkhutfs e` eurcikùh, lk`htrcs qu` Nyp`rprksl `s uhc fgrc e`
cprfx
cprfxklc
klcec
ecl`h
l`ht`
t` iuc
iuctrf
trf lkhutf
lkhutfss e` eur
eurcik
cikùh
ùh pcr
pcrc
c ifh
ifhmuh
muhtf
tf khs
khstru
trul`h
l`htcj
tcj e` p`r
p`riu
iuskf
skfh`s
h`s y
vk`htfs. @j trcgcmf e` cprfxklcikùh chcjìtkic c Clërkqu`s nc skef r`cjkzcef e`se` uh puhtf e`
vkstc lcirfsiùpkif, `s e`ikr, e`se` uhc vkskùh qu` vc e` jf arche` c jf p`qu`óf ifh jc kht`hikùh
e` pfe`r `xpjkicr e` uhc dfrlc sudkik`ht`l`ht` ekstchikcec, `htr` ftrcs ifscs, jc iu`stkùh e`j
trctclk`htf e`j lct`rkcj y, pfr ifhskauk`ht`, `j prfgj`lc e` jc dfrlc luskicj. @h `j chãjksks e`
 Clërkqu`s, pu`s, s` pfh` `sp`ikcjl`ht` nkhicpkë `h `j `stuekf t`lãtkif y, `h ficskfh`s, c jf
jcraf e`j e`scrrfjjf e`j trcgcmf s` r`s`rvc khijusf cjauhfs cpcrtcefs khekvkeucj`s e`ekicefs c jc
kht`rpr`tcikùh e` cjauhcs `struiturcs qu` s` frkakhch `h jc fgrc y c sus kht`rr`jcikfh`s.

_fr `j ifhtrcrkf, `j trcgcmf e` cprfxklcikùh chcjìtkic c Nyp`rprksl nc skef r`cjkzcef e`se` uh

puhtf e` vkstc lkirfsiùpkif, `s e`ikr, e`se` uhc vkskùh qu` vc e` jf p`qu`óf c jf arche` ifh jc
kht`hikùh e` pfe`r `xpjkicr e` uhc dfrlc sudkik`ht`l`ht` lkhuikfsc, c trcvës e` uh `stuekf
`xncu
`xncustk
stkvf
vf e` jcs r`jc
r`jcikf
ikfh`s
h`s kht
kht`rv
`rvãjk
ãjkics
ics,, jfs prf
prfi`e
i`eklk
klk`ht
`htfs
fs ifl
iflpfs
pfsktkv
ktkvfs
fs e` Tc
Tcrîs
rîs`
` y sus
ifhs`iu`hikcs `h `j t`rr`hf dìskif e` jfs sfhkefs. @h Nyp`rprksl s` r`cjkzc uh `stuekf e`tcjjcef
e` jcs lkirf-`struiturcs `h `j qu` s` pu`e` cpr`ikcr jcs prfy`iikfh`s e` ekincs `struiturcs y sus
e`spjczclk`htfs qu` s` prfeui`h `h `j trchsiursf e` jc fgrc.

Y` trctc, pfr tchtf, e` efs tkpfs ekstkhtfs e` cprfxklcikùh chcjìtkic qu` p`rskau`h `j lkslf
fgm`tkvf= jc ke`htkdkicikùh e` jfs ifhi`ptfs e` dfrlc y ifht`hkef, ifhi`ptfs qu` iflf s` pferã
iflprfgcr `h Tcrîs` sfh ifkhike`ht`s.

Muhtf cj e`scrrfjjf e` jc jcgfr `strkitcl`ht` luskicj s` khijuy` uh `stuekf ci`ric e` jc r`jcikùh e`

@eacre Tcrîs` ifh efs crtkstcs ifht`lpfrãh`fs suyfs= Mujkf Afhzãj`z ` Kafr Ytrcwkhsby.

_fr uhc pcrt`, `j `stuekf e` jc r`jcikùh p`rsfhcj `htr` @eacre Tcrîs` y Mujkf Afhzãj`z nc skef
`jcgfrcef ifh jc vfjuhtce e` ifhtrkgukr, `h jc l`ekec e` jf pfskgj`, c uhc r`ifhstruiikùh,
r `ifhstruiikùh, e`se` `j
puhtf e` vkstc gkfarãdkif, e` jc r`jcikùh p`rsfhcj `htr` jfs efs crtkstcs, c pcrtkr e` jc iflpcrcikùh
e` sus t`xtfs gkfarãdkifs y e` jc khv`stkacikùh r`cjkzcec sfgr` jc ifrr`spfhe`hikc e` Mujkf
Afhzãj`z qu` s` `hiu`htrc `h `j Crinkvf Mujkf Afhzãj`z e` jfs Dfhefs e`j KTCL.

_fr ftrc pcrt`, `j `stuekf e` jc khdju`hikc e` Ytrcwkhsby sfgr` Tcrîs` s` nc i`htrcef hf tchtf `h
jc `xpfskikùh e` cqu`jjfs strcwkhsbyslfs qu` ficskfhcjl`ht` cpcr`i`h `h jc fgrc e` Tcrîs`,
skhf lãs gk`h `h `j chãjksks e` cqu`jjfs r`iursfs tëihkifs iflpfsktkvfs qu` sfh utkjkzcefs e`
dfrlc chãjfac `h clgfs iflpfsktfr`s.

Lýskic khhfvcefrc e` jc eëicec e` 3;7?

 

Fgrc gr`v` p`rf frkakhcj, khijusf `h jc `j`iikùh e` jfs khstrul`htfs= 7 e` vk`htf- lce`rc (ifh uhc
djcutc efgjchef cj djcutìh), 1 e` vk`htf- l`tcj y uhc s`iikùh e` p`riuskùh ifh 34 khstrul`htfs
ekstkhtfs, `htr` jfs qu` iflf iurkfskece e`stcic `j tclgfr e` iu`rec «jkfh rfcr², y jc skr`hc.

@j tclgfr e` iu`rec f ‚jkfh rfcr“cpcr`i` ncikc 3;94 `h ‚Kfhkzctkfh“ e` Tcrîs`. Jc vkgrcikùh e` jc

pk`j, qu` s` prfeui` cj drftcr jc iu`rec ifh jc lchf, prfeui` uhc `sp`ik` e` ruakef.

@h jc fgrc pfe`lfs ekstkhaukr tr`s s`iikfh`s e` ifhtrcst`s skahkdkictkvfs=

3ª Y`iikùh (iflpcs`s 3-7;). @sirktc `h lfe`rctf p`rf ifh ekv`rsfs iclgkfs e` t`lpf. Jcs
vcrkcecs y ekd`r`hikcecs t`xturcs e` jfs khstrul`htfs e` vk`htf, s` iflgkhch ifh uhc `sirkturc
iflpu`stc pcrc jfs khstrul`htfs e` p`riuskùh.

@h uh icje`rùh `h `j qu` cpcr`i` `j ijìlcx (i. 7;) dkhcjkzc jc prkl`rc s`iikùh.

7ª Y`iikùh (iflpcs`s 9?- 0>). @h t`lpf lãs j`htf pr`s`htc uh arch ifhtrcst` ifh jc s`iikùh
cht`rkfr, cuhqu` ifh `j`l`htfs ifluh`s.

Iflk`hzc jc s`iikùh e` dfrlc nflfdùhkic, `h efhe` jc p`riuskùh, iflf sfpfrt` e`j r`stf e` jcs
vfi`s, `s cnfrc l`hfs citkvc.
9ª Y`iikùh (iflpcs`s 0;- >3). E` hu`vf, lfe`rctf. Cj kaucj qu` jc prkl`rc s`iikùh, iflk`hzc `h
uh r`akstrf arcv`.

@h jc ýjtklc s`iikùh s` r`pkt` lct`rkcj e` jcs s`iikfh`s cht`rkfr`s.

Jcs r`p`tkikfh`s e` uhc sfjc hftc, ef# 5, e`j iflk`hzf e`j trflgùh, `s uhc dùrlujc luy utkjkzcec
pfr `j iflpfsktfr. Ph sfhkef cefrhcef irflãtkicl`ht` e`se` su s`auhec cpcrkikùh, r`dj`mchef jc
t`he`hikc e` Tcrîs` e` utkjkzcr jc prfar`skùh luskicj y `j e`scrrfjjf e` lch`rc t`xturcj, `h v`z e`
jkh`cj.

@j ijìlcx dkhcj hfs ifheui` cj ýjtklf cifre` e`j tuttk, ifh jc hftc lãs cauec e` «Nyp`rprksl², `j
sfj1 e`j djcutìh.

 Ce`lãs e` jcs ekstrkguikfh`s sklëtrkics, qu` `s icrcit`rìstkif tclgkëh e` ftrfs iflpfsktfr`s hf

tfhcj`
tfhcj`s,
s, `h Tcrës`
Tcrës` e`stc
e`stcic
ic ifh
ifhdka
dkaurc
urcikf
ikfh`s
h`s e` kht`rv
kht`rvcjf
cjfss r`p
r`p`tk
`tktkv
tkvfs
fs pcr
pcrc
c ifh
ifhs`
s`auk
aukrr ik`
ik`rtc
rtc
ifhskst`hikc `h jc iflpfskikùh.

Jc fgrc «Nyp`rprksl² r`dj`mc su t`he`hikc c iflpj`tcr car`acefs irflãtkifs (jfs efi` sfhkefs
e` jc `sicjc t`lp`rcec skh klpfrtcr `j fre`h) e`htrf e` uhkece`s dfrlcj`s.

Ftrc
Ftrcss fgrc
fgrcss e`
e`jj iflp
iflpfs
fsktf
ktfrr pr
pr`s
`s`h
`htc
tch
h ar
arch
che`
e`ss cp
cpfr
frtc
tcik
ikfh
fh`s
`s.. Ic
Icg`
g` l`
l`hi
hikf
kfhc
hcr,
r, «_
«_fî
fîl`
l`
ëj`itr
ëj`itrfhk
fhkqu`
qu`²
² (3;0>)
(3;0>),, uh lfhtcm
lfhtcm`
` luskif
luskif-- cuekfv
cuekfvkeu
keucj
cj ifh
ifh`lp
`lpfrã
frãh`f
h`f.. Ucl
Uclgkë
gkëh
h e`g
e`g`lf
`lfss
l`hikfhcr uhc fgrc lãs chtkauc «Clërkqu`s² (3;3>- 3;73).
 

@h uh prkhikpkf, jcs khdju`hikcs e` Tcrîs` `s duhecl`htcjl`ht` strcvkhsbkchc, cuhqu` s` vc

hutrk`hef e` ftrcs ifrrk`ht`s duturkstcs, ncstc jj`acr c jc eëicec e` jfs 4? ifh `j «_f`lc
@j`itrùhkif².

@eacr Tcrîs` @j e`hflkhcef _cer` e` jc lýskic `spcikcj. Phf e` jfs iflpfsktfr`s lãs
khdjuy`ht`s e`j skajf ^^, dclfsf pfr su ifhi`ptf e` jc lýskic iflf ifhmuhtf e` `htkece`s
lùvkj`s e` sfhkef hf e`p`hek`ht`s e` jc l`jfeìc f e` jc crlfhìc, skhf e`j tklgr` (ifjfr), e` jc
lcsc y e` jc r`jcikùh `spcikcj. Du` uhf e` jfs pkfh`rfs e`j e`scrrfjjf e` jc lýskic `j`itrùhkic.

Tcrîs`, frachkzcefr e` jfs sfhkefs

Tcrkcs fgrcs e`j iflpfsktfr qu` du` vchaucrekstc c e`stk`lpf s` tficrãh `h `j Ifjùh iflf
cp`rturc e`j ikijf e` ifhik`rtfs.

 _fr Ek`af Dksin`rlch

@j `sirktfr N`hry Lkjj`r, vkstf `h `s` `htfhi`s pfif l`hfs qu` iflf uh pfrhùarcdf, khijuyù `h
uh jkgrf e` `hscyfs sfgr` vkcm`s pfr Hfrt`clërki
Hfrt`clërkic,
c, pugjk
pugjkicef
icef `h 3;50
3;50,, uh crtìi
crtìiujf
ujf tktujcef ‚Ifh
@eacr Tcrîs` `h `j E`sk`rtf e` Afgk“. J`` cjjì jc e`sirkpikùh `sirktc e` uhc fgrc skhdùhkif-ifrcj

huhic cicgcec ’@spci`’, ifh cguhecht`s cjuskfh`s c jc lcsc, jfs rktlfs iclgkcht`s y jfs
ijìlcx lcskvfs, y s` pr`auhtc= ‚¶E` quë ijcs` e` prfijclc pferìc `stcr trctãhefs`6 ¶Ph
chcrqukstc ifrrk`hef ncikc `j e`jkrkf6 ¶Ph pfgjcefr e` jc ksjc e` Ychewkin `h `j l`ekf e` jc rutc
e` jc au`rrc6 Hf, lks clkafs, ëstcs sfh jcs pcjcgrcs e` Tcrîs`, uh iflpfsktfr“.

Hf fgstcht`, `rc pr`ikscl`ht` `j e`jkrkf y jc klpfskgkjkece jf qu` jf ctrcìc. ‚Jf qu` l` kht`r`sc e`
ëj ’`
’`si
sirk
rkgk
gkrì
rìc’
c’ `s qu
qu`
` s` pr
pr`s
`s`h
`htc
tc kh
khcs
cskg
kgj`
j` y su lý
lýsk
skic
ic hf pu`e
pu`e`
` s`
s`rr `s
`siu
iuin
ince
cec.
c.““ Du
Du`
`
vchaucrekstc c e`stk`lpf, `h uhc ëpfic `h qu` hf ncgìc uhc vchaucrekc qu` puek`rc lkrcrjf, y
ir`cefr, `h jfs iflk`hzfs e`j skajf ^^, e` jf qu` sui`e`rìc `h su s`auhec lktce. Du` kha`hk`rf
prkl`rf y cjulhf e` Tkhi`ht E‛Khey, Cjg`rt Wfuss`j y Incrj`s-Lcrk` Qkefr e`spuës, celkrcefr 
e` E`gussy, qu` jf `stklujù `h sus iflk`hzfs, y clkaf, `h G`rjìh, e` uhf e` jfs arche`s
pkchkstcs y t`ùrkifs e`j lfl`htf, D`rruiikf Gusfhk. @eacr Tcrîs` ifl`hzù su icrr`rc `h Hu`vc
[frb, `h 3;7? y ifh uhc fgrc jjclcec Clërkqu`s y ifhi`gkec pcrc uhc frqu`stc e` 357 lýskifs
(qu` `h uhc v`rskùh e` 3;71 r`eumf c 370). _`rf jf qu` jjclc jc ct`hikùh hf `s tchtf `j
akachtkslf ’uhc s`iikùh e` vk`htfs qu` khijuy` 7? lce`rcs y 73 grfhi`s, efs crpcs y ek`ikfinf
p`rius
p`riuskfh
kfhkst
kstcs
cs ce`lãs
ce`lãs e` jcs iu`re
iu`recs
cs’
’ ifl
iflf
f su `strui
`struitur
turc,
c, crl
crlcec
cec cjr`e`
cjr`e`efr
efr e` gjf
gjfqu`
qu`ss
sfhfrfs qu` rcrc v`z s` l`zijch `htr` sì.

@sc fgrc duhecht`, muhtf c jcs ftrcs qu` Tcrîs` `sirkgkù pcrc frqu`stc, y jc lcyfrìc e` jcs qu`

iflpusf pcrc p`qu`ócs iflgkhcikfh`s, s` `siuincrã `h Gu`hfs Ckr`s lcóchc, `h `j U`ctrf

Ifjùh. Y` trctc e` uh n`inf e` khusucj trcsi`he`hikc y, ce`lãs, e` khdr`iu`ht` vcjfr sklgùjkif.
Y`rã jc cp`rturc e` jc eëiklf qukhtc `ekikùh ifhs`iutkvc e`j ikijf e` ifhik`rtfs e` lýskic
 

ifht`lpfrãh`c e`j U`ctrf Ych Lcrtìh. Phf e` jfs p`qu`ófs rktfs pfrt`ófs p`rf, tclgkëh, uh
n`inf qu` c jf jcraf e` uhc eëicec y l`ekc iclgkù `j lcpc luskicj cra`htkhf. Lãs cjjã e` jcs
eksiuskfh`s pfskgj`s ’y e`s`cgj`s’ ci`ric e` jc prfarclcikùh, y e` jfs lcyfr`s f l`hfr`s
ëhdcsks `h uhcs u ftrcs `stëtkics, qu` ik`rtfs hflgr`s ’iflf `j e`j iflpfsktfr Ycjvctfr`
Yikcrrkhf’ dfrl`h nfy pcrt` e`j pckscm` kh`vktcgj` e` jc lýskic ifht`lpfrãh`c, `s lërktf e` `st`
ikijf y e` su ifhtkhukece.

Ncy, `h tfef icsf, uh cht`s y uh e`spuës e` `st` ifhmuhtf e` ifhik`rtfs y p`qu`ócs pu`stcs e`
fgrcs erclãtkif luskicj`s qu` e`se` 3;;4 jj`ac ifh puhtucjkece. Yu s`jjf, iflf `j e` tfef
d`stkvcj, `s `j e` su iurcefr, `h `st` icsf Lcrtìh Gcu`r, qu` `s c jc v`z quk`h jf klcakhù y jf
ifhvkrtkù `h citf e`se` `j iflk`hzf. @j ifhik`rtf khcuaurcj, qu` ifhtcrã ifh jc citucikùh e` jc
Dkjcrlùhkic e` Gu`hfs Ckr`s, ifh hul`rfsfs r`du`rzfs, y e`j arupf uruaucyf e` p`riuskfhkstcs
_`ri`ul, s`rã ekrkakef pfr Cj`mf _ër`z y pjcslcrã `j ciu`ref ifh `j Ifjùh qu` `j cóf pcscef
ncgìc qu`ecef khifhijusf. @s qu` jc cp`rturc, `h `sc ficskùh, tclgkëh khvfjuircrìc uhc fgrc e`
du`rt` sklgfjkslf `h iuchtf c su prfy`iikùh e` duturf, jc Ykhdfhìc Hf. 5 e` Incrj`s Kv`s. _`rf `j
prfsckif pr`s`ht` e` jfs prfgj`lcs ar`lkcj`s qu` pcrcjkzcrfh c `s` t`ctrf eurcht` l`s`s s`
ncgìc kht`rpu`stf. @h `stc ficskùh, `j lcrif e`j Ifjùh s`ócjcrã `j iflk`hzf e`j ikijf ifh ftrf
iflk`hzf. ‚@j t`rlkhc p`rf su tk`lpf `lpk`zc“, `sirkgkù _k`rr` Gfuj`z `h 3;40, iuchef lurkù
Tcrîs`. Cutfr, `htr` ftrcs ifscs, e` uhc pk`zc pcrc Grfcewcy huhic `str`hcec, Echi` dfr 
Gura`ss, `sirktc c p`ekef e` su clkaf Gura`ss L`r`ektn (`j citfr qu` p`rsfhkdkicgc cj _khaúkhf
`h jc s`rk` t`j`vkskvc Gctlch), du` `j prkl`rf `h kht`r`scrs` `h jc skht`tkzcikùh e`j sfhkef ’ifh uh
khstrul`htf khv`htcef cjr`e`efr e` 3;3? y jjclcef ekhãdfhf’, `h `sirkgkr sùjf pcrc khstrul`htfs
e` p`riuskùh skh r`d`r`hikc c dfjbjfr` cjauhf ’`h Kfhksctkfh’ y `h utkjkzcr sfhkefs pr`arcgcefs `h
ikhtcs lcah`tfdùhkics. @str`hù uh _f`lc `j`itrùhkif `h 3;0> p`rf luinf cht`s ncgìc uscef jcs
Fhecs lcrt`hft y `j tn`r`lkh. _`rf, sfgr` tfef, khijusf iuchef `sirkgìc pcrc khstrul`htfs
trcekikfhcj`s, jf nciìc e` uhc lch`rc qu` huhic cht`s ncgìc skef `xpjfrcec.

Phf e` sus `sirktfs sfgr` lýskic s` jjclù ‚Jc jkg`rcikùh e`j sfhkef“. [ s` pr`auhtù, tclgkëh, pfr 
jfs e`stkhfs e` jc lýskic duturc. @h uh crtìiujf e` 3;5?, y ncgjchef e` jf qu` ëj jjclù ‚sfhkef
frachkzcef“, trctù e` `vcekr ‚`j lfhùtfhf iu`stkfhclk`htf ci`ric e` sk `stf `s lýskic“. @h `s`
lkslf cóf, Mfnh Ica` pr`e`iìc= ‚Iucjquk`r sfhkef qu` pu`ec s`r `siuincef s`rã cii`skgj` pcrc
dkh`s luskicj`s“. [ e`iìc, tclgkëh, qu` ‚sk jc pcjcgrc „lýskic‛ `s scarcec, jjcl`lfs c `stc
citkvkece „frachkzcikùh e`j sfhkef‛ y cj iflpfsktfr uh „frachkzcefr e` sfhkefs‛“. @h `j ifhik`rtf e`
lcóchc, c jcs 7?.9?, s` kht`rpr`tcrã Nyp`rprksl, e` 3;79, pcrc hu`v` khstrul`htfs e` vk`htf y
hu`v` p`riuskfhkstcs, Kfhksctkfh, e` 3;93, pcrc 91 khstrul`htfs e` p`riuskùh, Fitcher`, e` 3;75,
pcrc iu
pcrc iuct
ctrf
rf lc
lce`
e`rc
rcs,
s, tr
tr`s
`s gr
grfh
fhi`
i`ss y ifht
ifhtrc
rcgc
gcmf
mf,, y tr`s
tr`s fg
fgrc
rcss pc
pcrc
rc frqu
frqu`s
`stc
tc== Cl
Clër
ërkq
kqu`
u`s,
s,
iflpu`stc `htr` 3;7; y 3;73, Kht`arcj`s, e` 3;70, y Crichc, iflpu`stc `htr` 3;70 y 3;71.