The Secrets of Good Writing

Edited and Compiled By

Dr. Mona Elnamoury

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 Contents

Chapter One

Chapter Two

Chapter Three

Chapter Four

Chapter Five

Chapter Six

Chapter Seven

Chapter Eight

Chapter Nine

Chapter Ten

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 Introduction

Dr. Mona Elnamoury

The writing process, as we will learn it in this

course, is divided into three stages. The first stage is how
to gather information both from external and internal
sources. The external sources are your different readings,
T.V., friends, teachers, internet and other sources of
information. As an ESL student learning writing for
college purposes, you should indulge yourself in knowing
more about the world you live in especially in English
because this will help your language develop. For this
purpose, many essays are found in the course with the
goal of teaching the students how to read effectively to be
better thinkers and collectors of information. This is called
"fostering reading organizational skills." The internal
sources, on the other hand, are the tremendous wealth of
information; information that lies there undiscovered
inside of you and which you need to learn to find/see and
organize.

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 The second stage is the writing process itself. In
college, you learn to write essays of five paragraphs at
least and you learn to organize them in a logical coherent
clear way to form introduction, body and conclusion
without forgetting the title.

The third stage is editing. Editing takes two satges:

on the level of ideas and on the level of language. Ideas
are edited to be more logical and coherent. You will learn
to edit your own writing as well as your colleagues’
writing. As for language, ESL students tend to make
almost the same mistakes. So, in this course, a section for
the commonest mistakes found in ESL college writing is
provided.

As a way to help ESL students, a section of the

most important vocabulary is inserted. The students still
need to look them up in a dictionary and turn them into
active vocabulary by using them. That is followed by a
section of English idioms and prepositional phrases.
These supplementary materials should enrich the students'
verbal wealth and enable them to express their ideas in a
foreign language.

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 The final section of this book has to do with
enabling the students to write the academic essay. As
most of their other syllabi will be answered in the form of
essay questions, students need to know this all-important
topic. The skills of taking notes, paraphrasing and
summarizing are introduced. The procedures of
documenting the sources the students use are handled in
an easy and simple way.
Hopefully, students are to present the instructor
with their term work in portfolios. During the whole
course, students are to write at least one paragraph and
three essays as assignments in addition to at least two
essays to analyze, one summary and one paraphrasing
assignments. Pair work is encouraged.

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 Chapter Two

Getting Started: Gathering Information

The first step of becoming a good writer is to

become aware of the world around you. Not only should
you be knowledgeable about current affairs (local,
national, international) but you should be a good observer
as well. Writers must be aware of the world they live in.
Think of your daily routine: you get up, wash, dress, go to
college, sit in classes, study, and finally sleep, but what of
the world that you pass while doing those things? Did you
notice the new flowers, the changing of the sun's position,
or your classmates and teachers' various moods? The
aware observer notes those changes and discovers new
ideas to write about out of them. Because good writers can
communicate to the reader what they really see and know,
they should be aware of the new ideas in every day
occurrences. In the following paragraphs you will be
introduced to tools to help you gather information.

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1- The Personal Journal

One useful way of becoming a good observer is to

keep a journal in which you discover your feelings and
record your thoughts about the different aspects of life.
Your journal is your tool to understand the events that
occur around you and your personal reactions to them.
Your journal is also your record, for we tend to forget the
new ideas as we get involved in everyday life activities.
As an ESL student, I am advising you to have your
journal in English. You will increase your fluency in
writing English when you start to have a personal English
journal. Your journal should also include the new
sentences that you come across in a post card, book, on a
street sign, a quote, a meme, a post on social media that
you like to keep and remember. By accumulating those
sentences, short literary pieces, new words, new sentence
structures, you are creating your own repertoire of the
English language.

So, your English journal may be divided into two

sections: section one is a personal part where you discuss
your own feelings and thoughts, and record your daily

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happenings. Section two is where you accumulate all the
new words and structures you come across in English in
order to be used later and tuned into active structures.

In your journal, you should not be occupied with

the rules of grammar as much you should be occupied
with being an accurate observer and a keen collector. This
little journal, which you might find very hard to start, will
be your best friend and such a fun to use and read. Go for
it and pick a nice notebook to be your journal. Personalize
it as much as you want by your favorite stickers, colors,
drawings and personal touch. It is a place where you can
really learn more about yourself and language.

The Merits of keeping a journal

1- When you use an English personal journal, your

perceptions of the world increase; in a new
language. When you are in the habit of writing
daily, eventually you will run out of the
commonplace, everyday topics that you are most
likely to start with. At this point, your progress
begins: you start to search for ideas in the world

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 around you. For those who will open their eyes, the
world is a place full of details and information.

2- Your writing improves. Many aspects of your

handwriting will improve by keeping a journal
(handwriting, spelling, even grammar.)

Overcoming Writer's Block

For most people, the most difficult part of the writing

process is the very beginning, when they're sitting at
the kitchen table staring at a blank sheet of paper or in
front of that unblinking and perfectly empty computer
monitor. "I have nothing to say," is the only thing that
comes to mind. "I am XX years old and I have done
nothing, discovered nothing, seen nothing, and there
are absolutely no thoughts in my head that anyone
would ever want to read about." This is the Censor in
your brain, your Self-Critic, and sometimes that
Censor is bigger than you. No one knows what causes
the terrible Censor to be there: a bad experience?
Something your mother said once during potty-
training? Your laziness in reading? It doesn't matter.

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 The Censor is there for all of us, building and
rebuilding this thing called Writer's Block.

American poet William Stafford offers this advice to

poets who suffer from Writer's Block: "There is no such
thing as writer's block for writers whose standards are low
enough." This sounds terrible at first. "What? I'm
supposed to write junk? I need a good grade! I'm better
than that!" No, Stafford is not encouraging writers to
produce garbage. It is easy to discourage yourself by
aspiring too high and wanting to write the greatest essay
ever. Go ahead and write whatever comes to your mind
first as long as you write. Out of your nonsense and
ramblings, however, believe that something good will
come, some idea will catch fire right there on the page,
and patterns will emerge. Be willing to throw stuff out. It's
all right. Do you think Shakespeare didn't litter his kitchen
floor with balled-up pieces of paper? One nice thing about
the word-processor is that you're not wasting paper and
trees; you're just exercising the delete key. But this is no
time to worry about the environment. Fill that wastebasket
with paper and trust that something will come of all this
scribbling. It will.

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 Carry with you a pocket-sized notebook in which you
can scribble ideas for writing as they come to you. (Again,
this is the journal, your best friend!) How often have you
been stopped at a red-light and a great idea has come into
your head? It's so wonderful that you know you'll
remember it when you get home, but when you sit down
at the table, pen in hand, all you remember is the fact that
you had a good idea an hour ago. Part of the writing
experience is learning that good ideas do not always come
to us when we need them. We must learn to catch ideas as
they come to us, unexpectedly, even as we're about to fall
asleep at night.

People who tell you that physical exercise is

important for mental activity are telling the truth. If
nothing's happening on the computer screen or paper, take
a walk around the block. Hit the treadmill or tennis courts
or drive to the gym. Go to the kitchen and make a snack
for yourself and the family. But take your notebook with
you. Fresh blood will be flowing through your brain and
moving might just move something loose in your head. It
happens.

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 Another trick is to start in the middle of your
writing project. Avoid that problem of getting started by
starting on a part of the essay that interests you more and
then come back to the introductory matter later. This
sounds a bit like starting to earn your second million
dollars before you've earned your first, but it's really not a
bad idea in any case. One final maneuver around the old
Writer's Block: talk over your paper with a friend, or just
blab away into a tape recorder (even better). Play the tape
back and write down what you hear in clusters of ideas or
free-write about them.

2-Freewriting
Free writing is an exercise done at the beginning of
each class. It's a way of getting the brain in gear, and it's
an exercise you can do on your own. Write down a topic
at the top of that empty page. It can be either a one-word
topic — like "Dentists," for example — or a brief
statement of the topic you've chosen or been given to
write about. Set the clock for five to ten minutes and put
pen to paper or fingers to keyboard and go at it. Write as
fast as you can; the faster the better. You are not allowed
to stop writing! If you can't think of anything to say, write

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down that you can't think of anything to say, something
like: "I'm stuck but I'll think of something soon." Don't
stop. Don't worry about transitions or connecting the ideas
or paragraphing or subject-verb agreement or even
commas. And form absolutely no judgment about what
you write. Your Censor is on vacation. Your writing may
take you in some really weird directions, but don't stop
and never think that what you are doing is stupid. If you
get off the subject, that's all right. Your navigation may
end up somewhere wonderful. Just keep writing. Do not
criticize yourself and do not cut or scratch out or revise in
any way. Many instructors suggest that at the end of the
timed period, you should write one sentence that takes
you back to where you started — something to do with
dentists.

It's probably a good idea to read your free writing out

loud when you're done with it. Often the ear will pick up
some pattern or neat idea that you hadn't noticed even as
you wrote it. Read your free writing to a friend or have
your friend read it out to you. Your friend might think
you're insane, but that's all right. Then it's time to spend
just a couple of minutes going through the free writing

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with an aim toward casual rewriting. The word-processor
is a big advantage here. Delete the "I can't think of
anything to say" lines and the pure nonsense. Are any
ideas or patterns emerging?

Do not give up on free writing after one exercise.

Many students think that it's boring or stupid at first and
come to love it after a week or so of exercises. Free
writing is like any other kind of mental activity: you will
get better at it. The first couple of times you try it, perhaps
nothing will come of it. After a few efforts, though, the
exercise will become liberating. Just as you would never
start to play tennis or jog without stretching a bit first, you
will never try to write again without doing a bit of free
writing first. Sometimes, even in the middle of an essay,
when stuck for the next idea, you can do a bit of free
writing to get you going again.

Here's a five-minute example of free-writing on the

subject of dentists.

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"DENTISTS
“I hate going to the dentist. I'm always afraid that they're
going to hurt me, and I'm not very good at pain, at
tolerating pain, I mean. I remember the first time, when I
was a kid, going to the dentists, it seemed I never went to
the dentist when I was a kid until I had a toothache, that's
my parents fault, isn't it, I guess. They should have taken
better care of my teeth when I was little, and then I
wouldn't have so much grief now with my teeth. But back
then I would go to the dentists and he would have this god
awful drill that would make this awful noise and it seemed
like it always hurt. I remember there was this sign in his
office that said PAINLESS DENTIST, UPSTAIRS, but
there was no upstairs in his building. Some joke, huh? I
can't think of anything to say, and I can't think of anything
more to say. Oh, I wonder how come anyone in his right
might mind would ever want to become a dentist, putting
his fingers into other people's mouths all day, all that spit
and blood and not there's the fear of getting AIDS from
your clients that they have to wear those rubber gloves
and I hate the feel of those things in my mouth, too, and
the sound of that thing that draws the spit out of your

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mouth. I wonder why my folks didn't take me to the
dentist BEFORE i had trouble. Probably because when
they were growing up it was bad times and they didn't
have any money for things like the dentist and it was just
taken for granted that you were going to get cavities and
lose a lot of teeth before you were even an adult. I can't
think of anything more to say. I can't think of anything
more to say. all I know is that when I have kids, they're
going to the dentist every six months whether they want to
or not and maybe by then they'll have invented some way
to absolutely prevent cavities and maybe there won't even
be any dentists or if there are it'll just be to clean your
teeth and make sure they're straight and pearly white and
we won't worry about cavities and stuff like that that
causes pain anymore.
DENTISTS, MY ATTITUDE HAS CHANGED AS I
GOT OLDER."

Looking back over this paragraph, do you see any

ideas that might lend themselves toward an essay on
dentists or at least the beginnings of one? Why would one
want to become a dentist? Or some other "unpleasant" line
of medical work (even worse than dentistry)? How have

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attitudes toward going to the dentist changed over the
years? Will better toothpastes, eventually make dentists
obsolete? How do dentists cope with the threat of AIDS?
Is it a real threat?

2- Clustering/Brainstorming

CLUSTERING IS SIMILAR to another process called

Brainstorming. Clustering is something that you can do on
your own or with friends or classmates to try to find
inspiration in the connection between ideas. The process
is similar to free writing in that as you jot down ideas on a
piece of paper or on the blackboard, you mustn't allow
that ugly self-censor to intrude and say that your idea (or
anyone else's) is dumb or useless. Write it down anyway.
In Clustering, you jot down only words or very short
phrases. Use different colored pens as ideas seem to
suggest themselves in groups. Use printing or longhand
script to suggest that ideas are main thoughts or
supportive ideas. Don't bother to organize too neatly,
though, because that can impede the flow of ideas. Don't
cross anything out because you can't tell where an idea
will lead you. When you get a few ideas written down,

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you can start to group them, using colored circles or
whatever. Draw linking lines as connections suggest
themselves.
3-The Branching Egg
This is another technique for gathering information and
assessing the material you have on a certain topic before
you start writing. It is a very simple technique. This
activity is slightly more structured than free writing but
the effects are almost the same. Suppose that you are told
to write about the topic “celebrations.” You write the
word and draw an oval around it thus forming the egg.
With the next word that comes to your mind, you draw a
branch extending from it. With the next word that comes
to your mind you have to ask yourself whether it is related
to the egg or the branch. If it is related to the egg, extend
it from the egg. If it has to do with the branch, extend it
from the branch and so on and so forth. You continue
doing this till you run out of ideas or associations. The
branching egg has several advantages:
1- It provides a basic framework from which you can
later develop an outline.

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 2- It stimulates new ideas, which you discover while
seeing new branches grow.
3- It allows you space to insert or add new ideas that
come to you.
4- It allows you, in a very short time, to generate a
quantity of information.
5-Topic Questions
Artful questioning can lead to a wealth of
information. As a writer, you need to develop the skill
of questioning until it becomes an automatic part of
your writing. Sometimes when you have a great
amount of information, you cannot know what to do
with it but if you ask yourself a set of organized
skillful questions, you can open a locked door to
ideas that you were never aware of before.
1- What are the precise physical characteristics (shape,
dimension, composition)?
2-How does it differ from things that resemble it?
3- Does it call to mid other objects that we have seen
earlier in life?
4-From what point of view could d it be examined?
5-What sort of structure does it have/

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6- How do its parts work together?
7- Who or hat produced it in this form?
8-Who needs it?
9- Who uses it? For what reason is it used?
10- What purposes might it serve?
In talking about events,
1-Exactly what happened? Who, when, how, what did
what to what?
2-What were the circumstances in which the event
occurred?
3- What were its causes?
4-what were the circumstances?
5-What/who were influenced by it, directly or indirectly?
Talking about abstract concepts like religion, home....
1-To what specific items, groups of items, events, groups
of events does the word of phrase connect to in your
imagination?
2- How has the term been used by writers whom you have
read for?
3- How do you understand the concept?
And so on and so forth. Another way of gathering and
organizing information is by having a particular

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perspective from which you begin to see your writing
topic. This technique opens you up to new viewpoints on
a subject—viewpoints that you might not have been aware
of before.
1- As an isolated, static entity. Ask yourself, what
features characterize it?
2- 2- As one among many of a class. Ask yourself,
how does it differ from others in its class?
3- As a part of larger system. Ask yourself, how does
it fit into the larger system of which it is a part?
4- As a process rather than a static entity. Ask
yourself, how is it changing?
5- As a system rather then entity. Ask yourself, what
are the parts, and how do they work together?
If we apply those questions on a coin for example, as a
topic to write on, we might be surprised to see the
amount of information collected.
1- It is about 2mm in diameter, 2 decimeter thick.
Dark brown color, weighs less than an ounce.
Round, smooth edges, inscriptions on one face
side, a picture on the other side....etc

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 2- Some other US coins are smaller, other larger.
Images and inscriptions vary, age vary...
3- It relates to the US coin system of four common
coins. It relates to the US monetary system and the
world economic system.
4- This coin is about three years old, has grown dirty
and probably thinner in use, started out as a mineral
in the ground and emerged into the world as a coin
in the USA
5- It is composed of many parts. Using it is easy, I
either give it to someone or take it from someone or
simply keep it in my pocket or bank.

6-Outlining

IT MIGHT PROVE USEFUL to organize the ideas that

suggest themselves during the freewriting and clustering
exercises into a preliminary outline form. It is possible to
write a paper without an outline, but it might suggest that
your paper lacks organization if it proves impossible to
write an outline that describes the thinking process behind
your paper. Outlining never hurt; how helpful it is
depends on what kind of thinker you are. At the least, a

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tentative outline can suggest areas in which your paper
needs additional work or supporting details to bolster
main ideas or, on the other hand, areas which have too
much emphasis and need to be pruned down to avoid an
imbalance. It might also help you to see how ideas are
related and where connections or transitions are necessary
between sections of your paper. Furthermore, the outline
will help you visualize how ideas fit within the thesis
statement that is taking shape in your mind. Remember
that your outline is only a tentative skeleton to hang ideas
on; limbs can be lopped off or added as the writing
proceeds. Your instructor might require you to submit a
formal outline for approval before you write your paper or
to go along with your final draft. If that is so, this tentative
outlining process will serve you well later on.

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28
Exercises on Chapter One
Use the following topics to free-write and draw a
branching egg on. Your aim is to gqther information
on them.
1- Presidential elections in Egypt
2- Life in college
3- English langauge
4- Girls
5- Boys
6- The United States of America
7- Family
8- Mobiles
9- The internet
10- Marriage

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 Chapter Two
The Thesis Statement and the Topic Sentence
Once you have some understanding of what you are
writing about, you have to start thinking about your essay,
your presentation. Any essay consists of an introduction, a
number of body paragraphs and a conclusion. At this
stage, we are concerned with a five-paragraph essay. The
introduction introduces the topic and attracts the attention
of the reader. It contains the thesis statement as well. The
thesis statement is analyzed into three smaller topic
sentences that are handled in detail in the body
paragraphs. The conclusion is a restatement of everything
you said earlier.
The Thesis Statement (TS)
An essential feature of your essay is your thesis
statement. It gives the readers a clear understanding of
your topic and the direction the paper will take. Not only
is it a guide for your reader, but it is also a guide for you,
the writer. The thesis statement (TS) provides you with
the framework of the rest of the paper.

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Your TS is made of two parts: an identification of your
topic and the point you want to make about the topic. For
instance, if we take the following topic as an example
*Understanding among the three main religions....
(Definition)
*Affects the welfare of the whole globe....... (The point
you want to make about the topic or the topic)
Notice these points about the thesis statement
1- The thesis statement contains a single topic-
comment relationship. You should not say for
example," The Admissions policies of big
universities are too tough and the universities
should upgrade their science facilities." Any of
these two relations should function as a TS.
2- The TS makes an assertion which consists of two
parts, the topic and your comment on the topic. For
instance, “University libraries contain facilities
(topic) that make them valuable for research
(comment).”
3- The TS is limited (limit your TS to one single idea
you can develop instead of choosing a broad topic
that you feel confused about.) For instance, if you

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 think that your thesis statement “European
imperialism in Europe manifests severe
ruthlessness" is a good one, you are mistaken for it
is too broad. You should limit it to something like"
The British occupation of Egypt is an example of
the European imperial ruthlessness." This one is
limited and clear.
4- The TS is precise (avoid using vague adjectives)
"Taking the TOEFL is an awful experience" does
not tell your reader what does it really look like.
Instead, write something like "The fear, anxiety,
and nervousness of taking the TOFL may affect the
reader's performance."
5- The TS includes guides that frame the rest of the
essay. "Dominoes Pizza is better than Pizza Hut"
does not tell us in what way you think so. But if
you say "The courteous service, the quality of food,
and the colorful atmosphere of Dominoes Pizza
makes it a better place than Pizza Hut" you are
making yourself clear.
6- TS is not a statement of what you personally like. "I
like PlayStation games" cannot be a thesis

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 statement for it does not need any support. But if
you say PlayStation games are useful for
sharpening one's hand-eye coordination" invites
your reader's interest to read the paper.
7- TS is not an announcement of what you will write
in the paper. Do not say, “In this essay I will
discuss…." Rather say what you want to discuss at
once.
8- It is not a statement of fact or definition. IF you say
"the sun is a star," this is not a TS because the
definition leaves no room for any other expansion.
But if you say that "The New discoveries of
astrology tell us of the existence of other millions
suns” this might lead you to find a good TS.
9- The TS is not a question because as a writer you
should clarify things for your reader instead of
asking them questions.
10-Do not start a TS saying " There is no doubt, or
everybody knows, or without a doubt…. These are
called false generalization because you have not
gone and asked everybody about their opinions nor
have you made sure in every possible way that

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 there is no doubt. You have to be very accurate
when formulating your TS.
The Topic Sentences

You might notice that the topic sentences that are

tackled in the body paragraphs derive directly from the
thesis, and explain, prove, or expand on each of the claims
mentioned in the TS. Once you have an outline at hand,
you can follow three steps to help you write your
paragraphs effectively:

1. Use your thesis to help you organize the rest of

your paper.
2. Write a list of topic sentences, and make sure that
they show how the material in each paragraph is
related to your thesis.
3. Eliminate material that is not related to your thesis
and topic sentences.

A topic sentence encapsulates or organizes an entire

paragraph, and you should be careful to include one in
most of your major paragraphs. Although topic sentences
may appear anywhere in a paragraph, in academic essays

34
they often appear at the beginning or at the end of the
introductory paragraph.

It might be helpful to think of a topic sentence as

working in two directions simultaneously. It relates the
paragraph to the essay's thesis, and thereby acts as a
signpost for the argument of the paper as a whole, but it
also defines the scope of the paragraph itself. For
example, if you are writing an essay on fast food,
consider the following topic sentence in one of the body
paragraphs:
Many fast-food chains make their profits from
adding a special ingredient called "forget sauce" to
their foods.

If this sentence controls the paragraph that follows, then

all sentences in the paragraph must relate in some way to
fast food, profit, and "forget sauce":
Made largely from edible oil products, this
condiment is never listed on the menu.

This sentence fits in with the topic sentence because it is a

description of the composition of "forget sauce."

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 In addition, this well-kept industry secret is the
reason why ingredients are never listed on the
packaging of victuals sold by these restaurants.

The transitional phrase "In addition" relates the

composition of "forget sauce" to secret fast-food industry
practices.
"Forget sauce" has a chemical property which
causes temporary amnesia in consumers.

Now the paragraph moves on to the short-term effect on

consumers:
After spending too much money on barely edible
food bereft of any nutritional value, most
consumers swear they will never repeat such a
disagreeable experience.

This sentence describes its longer-term effects:

Within a short period, however, the chemical in
"forget sauce" takes effect, and consumers become
dependent. They often return and spend more
money in the same junk food restaurants. They
become older but no wiser.

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Finally, I finish the paragraph by "proving" the claim
contained in the topic sentence, that many fast-food chains
make their profits from adding a special ingredient called
"forget sauce" to their foods.

Analyzing a Topic Sentence

Topic sentences often act like tiny thesis

statements. Like a thesis statement, a topic sentence
makes a claim of some sort. As the thesis statement is the
unifying force in the essay, so the topic sentence must be
the unifying force in the paragraph. Further, as is the case
with the thesis statement, when the topic sentence makes a
claim, the paragraph which follows must expand,
describe, or prove it in some way. Topic sentences make a
point and give reasons or examples to support it.

Consider the previous paragraph about topic sentences,

beginning with the topic sentence itself:
Topic sentences often act like tiny thesis
statements.

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This is my claim, or the point I will prove in the following
paragraph. All the sentences that follow this topic
sentence must relate to it in some way.
Like a thesis statement, a topic sentence makes a
claim of some sort. As the thesis statement is the
unifying force in the essay, so the topic sentence
must be the unifying force in the paragraph.

These two sentences show how the reader can compare

thesis statements and topic sentences: they both make a
claim and they both provide a focus for the writing which
follows.
Further, as is the case with the thesis statement,
when the topic sentence makes a claim, the
paragraph which follows must expand, describe, or
prove it in some way.

Using the transitional word "further" to relate this

sentence to those preceding it, I expand on my topic
sentence by suggesting ways a topic sentence is related to
the sentences that follow it.
Topic sentences make a point and give reasons or
examples to support it.

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Finally, I wrap up the paragraph by stating exactly how
topic sentences act rather like tiny thesis statements.

Exercises

Choose the best among the several topic sentences for

each paragraph below.

1-The first is the wear-and-tear hypothesis that

suggests the body eventually succumbs to the
environmental insults of life. The second is the notion
that we have an internal clock which is genetically
programmed to run down. Supporters of the wear-and-
tear theory maintain that the very practice of breathing
causes us to age because inhaled oxygen produces
toxic by-products. Advocates of the internal clock
theory believe that individual cells are told to stop
dividing and thus eventually to die by, for example,
hormones produced by the brain or by their own genes.
(from Debra Blank, "The Eternal Quest"

1. There are two broad theories concerning

what triggers a human's inevitable decline to
death.

39
 2. Some scientists believe that humans contain
an "internal time clock" which forces them
eventually to die.
3. We all must die some day.
4. My biology professor gave an interesting
lecture Thursday.
2. The strictest military discipline imaginable is still
looser than that prevailing in the average assembly-
line. The soldier, at worst, is still able to exercise
the highest conceivable functions of freedom -- that
is, he or she is permitted to steal and to kill. No
discipline prevailing in peace gives him or her
anything remotely resembling this. The soldier is,
in war, in the position of a free adult; in peace he or
she is almost always in the position of a child. In
war all things are excused by success, even
violations of discipline. In peace, speaking
generally, success is inconceivable except as a
function of discipline. (from H.L. Mencken,
"Reflections on War"

1. Soldiers need discipline.

40
 2. We commonly look on the discipline of war
as vastly more rigid than any discipline
necessary in time of peace, but this is an
error.
3. Although soldiers are not always disciplined,
they serve an important social function in
wartime.
4. In times of peace, soldiers often convert
easily from wartime pursuits to the discipline
necessary successfully to compete in even the
most competitive marketplace.
3. In Montreal, a flashing red traffic light instructs
drivers to careen even more wildly through
intersections heavily populated with pedestrians
and oncoming vehicles. In startling contrast, an
amber light in Calgary warns drivers to scream to a
halt on the off chance that there might be a
pedestrian within 500 meters who might consider
crossing at some unspecified time within the current
day. In my home town in New Brunswick, finally,
traffic lights (along with painted lines and posted
speed limits) do not apply to tractors, all terrain

41
 vehicles, or pickup trucks, which together account
for most vehicles on the road. In fact, were any
observant Canadian dropped from an alien space
vessel at an unspecified intersection anywhere in
this vast land, he or she could almost certainly
orient him-or-herself according to the surrounding
traffic patterns.

1. People in Calgary are careful of pedestrians.

2. Although the interpretation of traffic signals
may seem highly standardized, close
observation reveals regional variations across
this country, distinguishing the East Coast
from Central Canada and the West as surely
as dominant dialects or political inclinations.
3. People in Montreal drive faster than people
in Alberta, and Suzy generally don't pay any
attention to traffic signals at all.
4. Canadians do not follow traffic signals
properly.

Starting a new paragraph is a signal to your reader

that you are beginning a new thought or taking up a new

42
point. Since your outline will help you divide the essay
into sections, the resulting paragraphs must correspond to
the logical divisions in the essay. If your paragraphs are
too long, divide your material into smaller, more
manageable units; if they're too short, find broader topic
sentences.
Summary
Topic Sentences : Topic + Controlling Idea
Before beginning writing any essay or even a paragraph, it
is important to think, first about the topic and then what
you want to say about the topic. Most often, the topic is
easy, but the question then turns to what you want to say
about the topic which is the controlling idea. Topic
sentences should always contain both ( 1 ) a topic and ( 2 )
a controlling idea.
Read the following topic sentences. They all contain a
topic (the topic is underlined) and a controlling idea
(between brackets). When your introduction contains a
clearly stated topic sentence such as one of the following,
your reader will know what to expect and, therefore,
understand your idea better.

43
1- People can avoid burglaries (by taking certain
precautions )
(The precautions for ……. )
2- There are (several advantages) to growing up in a small
town. ( The advantages of …… )
3- Most Us universities requires a 550 point TOEFL score
for (a number of reasons )
( The reasons for ….. )
4- Air pollution in Mexico City is the worst in the world
for (a number of reasons).
(The cause of …. ) Or ( The effect of …. )
5- Fixing a flat tire on a bicycle is easy if you (follow
these steps)
(The steps for ….. )
6- (There are several enjoyable ways) to travel between
the US and Queretaro.
( The ways to …. ) or ( The methods of …. )
7- Animals in danger of becoming extinct ( come from a
wide range of countries ).
(The different countries …parts, kinds, types)
8- Effective leadership requires (Specific qualities that
anyone can develop).

44
(The qualities or characteristics or traits of … )
9- Industrial waste poured into Lake Michigan has led to
(dramatic changes in its ability to support marine life).
(The effects of ….)
10- In order to fully explore the wreck of the Titanic,
scientist must address (several problems).
(The difficulties of …. ) or ( The obstacles to …. )
A carefully thought out topic sentence will serve two
important functions. First, it will provide you, the author,
with the means to stay focused on your objective. It's a lot
easier to write if you know what you are going to write
about! Second, clearly stated topic sentences will provide
readers with the tools they need to clearly understand
what you have to say. These are important reasons to
carefully consider topic sentences before writing.
Exercises on Chapter Two
Choose specific examples of the following three subject
areas. Explore them by using the varying ways handled in
chapter one. When you have found an ides that interests
you, free-write on it, make a branching egg, and then
formulate your TS
1- A person you know very well.

45
 2- A place with which you are familiar
3- An important event in your life.

Chapter Four
The Essay
In the previous chapter you have learnt to formulate
a thesis statement that expresses a controlling idea. In this
chapter, you will learn to shape your ideas so that your
reader will be able to follow your thoughts in a logical
manner. Shaping your ideas means you have to organize
them according to a pattern. Conventionally, an essay is
built upon a three-part framework: an opening, a body,
and a closing. The opening part introduces your topic and
presents your thesis statement to your readers. The body
develops and supports your thesis with explanations and
examples. Finally, the closing provides a smooth and
coherent finish to your paper.
The Opening Paragraph
Have you ever noticed how the first few minutes of
a movie are designed to capture tye viewers’ attention?
Movie directors can do this in several ways: panning
across majestic scenery, focusing on unusual characters,

46
or starting with fast-paced action and dramatic dialogue.
These first minuets are crucial; they draw filmgoers into
picture. You, as a writer, also want to engage your
audience's interest and attention. For this reason, the
opening paragraph is important.
The opening paragraph has three major functions (1) it
announces your topic, (2) it captures your reader's interest,
and (3) it presents your thesis statement. Once you have
developed your thesis statement, you should select an
introduction to prepare your reader for the thesis. The
following example may enlighten you in a better way.
“The memory is a little hazy today, but it is stronger than
other memories of that time. It must have been about three
or four in the morning. We had been watching T.V. most
of the night. All of us were tired but we couldn't go to bed
until we saw it. I remember a lot of little delays and the
T.V. commentator trying to keep our interest alive by
talking about anything he could think of. Finally it was
going to happen. The landing went ok and Armstrong
came out. Then he stepped on the moon. Afterwards we
all went out and looked up at the sky. The moon and the
stars looked different than they had an hour before. Since

47
that morning so many years ago, my mystical fascination
with space has been replaced by scientific curiosity."
The TS of this paragraph is italicized. Now you can
notice how the whole thing was introduced in an
interesting way and then how the thesis was crystallized at
the end of the paragraph to show us what is the direction
of the essay will be. Now, notice this second introductory
paragraph.

“The integrated-circuit chip was first developed in 1959

by Fairchild Semiconductor. Made of silicon, only one
square centimeter in size, tens of thousands of elements
are contained in one of these technological wonders.
Today the industry that has grown up around the modern
marvel earns billions of dollars. The integrated-circuit
chip, the heart and soul of micro-electronics industry
today, has affected nearly every aspect of human life."
When choosing your introduction, keep in mind
that your essay is always perceived as a coherent whole. It
is like a human being so keep your TS in mind. The TS
and the introductory paragraph should carry the reader
smoothly into the rest of your essay.

48
Summary, what is happening so far.
-What is an introduction (introductory paragraph)?
The introduction paragraph is the first paragraph of your
essay.

-What does it do?

It introduces the main idea of your essay. A good opening
paragraph captures the interest of your reader and tells
why your topic is important.

-How do I write one?

1. Write the thesis statement. The main idea of the essay is

stated in a single sentence called the thesis statement. You
must limit your entire essay to the topic you have
introduced in your thesis statement.
2. Provide some background information about your topic.
You can use interesting facts, quotations, or definitions of
important terms you will use later in the essay.

Example:
Hockey has been a part of life in Canada for over 120
years. It has evolved into an extremely popular sport
watched and played by millions of Canadians. The game

49
has gone through several changes since hockey was first
played in Canada.
Body Paragraph/s
Body paragraphs develop the ideas in your thesis.
You might think of your TS as the heart of your essay and
the body paragraphs as the flesh and bone. The Body
paragraphs provide the details, support and development
that allow your reader to accept the assertion in your
thesis statement. Each body paragraph develops a single
idea that is implicitly or explicitly included in the thesis
statement. Then this idea is expressed clearly in the topic
sentence of each paragraph. This topic sentence is usually
the first or second sentence of each of your body
paragraphs. This is its most effective placement. Then, it
is enlarged and developed in a coherent way throughout
the paragraph.
For example, the thesis statement, "Students often
feel they lose their identities at large universities" suggests
many sub-points to talk about. You can explore using
numbers instead of names to identify students. You can
also talk about the treatment of a student as one in a
crowd rather than as an individual, or the effect of

50
conformity resulting from the need to comply with rules
and regulations. These are three possible examples
suggested by the thesis statement, each one to be
introduced in a separate topic sentence in a separate
paragraph.
Notice the following example
Opening paragraph----------
Thesis statement: Dream Park is a model city park in that
it offers outdoor sports facilities, cultural programs and
an opportunity to enjoy nature.
Body-------------
TS1: First of all, the public can make use of the numerous
athletic facilities.

TS2: Not only does Dream park offer athletic activities,

but it is also the setting for varied cultural events.
TS3: Several extraordinary nature spots are to be found
there.
Of course the body paragraph may be more than three
ones. But the standard essay for this level is the five
paragraph essay we will see.

51
Summary

What are supporting (body) paragraphs?

Supporting paragraphs make up the main body of your
essay.

What do they do?

They develop the main idea of your essay.

How do I write them?

1. List the points that develop the main idea of your essay.
2. Place each supporting point in its own paragraph.
3. Develop each supporting point with facts, details, and
examples.

To connect your supporting paragraphs, you should use

special transition words. Transition words link your
paragraphs together and make your essay easier to read.
Use them at the beginning and end of your paragraphs.
Transitional Words
Transitions are probably the most effective way to
establish coherence in your essay. Transitional words and
phrases emphasize the relationships between ideas. Listed

52
here are the transitional words which are categorized
according to the types of relationships they show.
Exemplification
For example that is namely
In other words in particular frequently
Specifically to illustrate for instance
Enumeration/Sequence
First, second finally before
Moreover also another
In addition next afterwards
Then later again
Furthermore

Comparison
Similarly not only …. but also
Also likewise
Just as in the same way/manner
Contrast
But though even though
However nevertheless unlike
Yet still in contrast
On the other hand in spite of on the contrary

53
Conversely whereas despite
In fact although nonetheless
Result
Therefore thus as a consequence
Consequently as a result for this reason
Hence for because
Accordingly so cause
Emphasis
Even actually as a matter of fact
Certainly again true
Indeed
Summary
In summary in conclusion to conclude
To sum up on the whole to summarize
The Closing Paragraph (conclusion)
A closing paragraph gives your essay a feeling of
completion. It sums up and ties together the ideas in your
essay. This paragraph needs to be thoughtful and well-
written because the closing paragraph creates the last
impression your reader will have of your essay.
Your paper may end in several ways.

54
 1- Restate, but in different words, your thesis and the
major points in your essay
2- Discuss the significance and assertions made in
your thesis, for example make predictions or
speculations
3- Sum up the whole thesis and call for action.
Look at the following closing paragraph as an
example.
The combination of sports facilities, cultural
offerings, and natural beauty makes Dream park an ideal
park for the city resident. People can re recondition their
bodies, broaden their minds, and reacquaint themselves
with nature just a short drive from their workplaces. As
cities expand and develop, and the pace of life becomes
more demanding, parks will become increasingly essential
to the well being of urban people. In short, city planners
could do well to look to Dream Park as an example of a
park that serves and benefits its local residents.
Cautionary Note
Do not introduce any new thoughts or ideas in your
closing paragraph. All important ideas should have been
discussed in the body paragraphs. The closing paragraph

55
should not lead the reader into new direction, it should
complete the paper.
Summary
What is a summary/ concluding paragraph?
The summary paragraph comes at the end of your essay
after you have finished developing your ideas. The
summary paragraph is often called a "conclusion."

What does it do?

It summarizes or restates the main idea of the essay. You
want to leave the reader with a sense that your essay is
complete.
How Do I write One?
1. Restate the strongest points of your essay that support
your main idea.
2. Conclude your essay by restating the main idea in
different words.
3. Give your personal opinion or suggest a plan for action.

The Title
Perhaps you are wondering why we mention the
title after we have mentioned all the parts of the essay
though it always appears first. It is because this is the best

56
time to formulate it. It is only after you have written the
essay and kwon what it is really about that you can
formulate the most effective title. If you select a title
before you start to write, you may find yourself restricted
to the idea suggested in the title. So let your paper suggest
a title for you, rather than imposing one on the paper.
With few-chosen words, your title either states directly the
subject of your essay or catches the reader's attention. A
title is Not a sentence. You do not end it with a period.
You capitalize all the words except the articles and
prepositions. Think of the titles of movies and imitate
them in choosing your titles.
Summary So far

1. Think carefully about what you are going to write. Ask

yourself: What question am I going to answer in this
paragraph or essay? How can I best answer this question?
What is the most important part of my answer? How can I
make an introductory sentence (or thesis statement) from
the most important part of my answer? What facts or ideas
can I use to support my introductory sentence? How can I
make this paragraph or essay interesting? Do I need more

57
facts on this topic? Where can I find more facts on this
topic?

2. Open your notebook. Write out your answers to the

above questions. You do not need to spend a lot of time
doing this; just write enough to help you remember why
and how you are going to write your paragraph or essay.

3. Collect facts related to your paragraph or essay topic.

Look for and write down facts that will help you to
answer your question. Timesaving hint: make sure the
facts you are writing are related to the exact question you
are going to answer in your paragraph or essay.

4. Write down your own ideas. Ask yourself: What else

do I want to say about this topic? Why should people be
interested in this topic? Why is this topic important?

5. Find the main idea of your paragraph or essay. Choose

the most important point you are going to present. If you
cannot decide which point is the most important, just
choose one point and stick to it throughout your paragraph
or essay.

58
6. Organize your facts and ideas in a way that develops
your main idea. Once you have chosen the most important
point of your paragraph or essay, you must find the best
way to tell your reader about it. Look at the facts you have
written. Look at your own ideas on the topic. Decide
which facts and ideas will best support the main idea of
your essay. Once you have chosen the facts and ideas you
plan to use, ask yourself which order to put them in the
essay. Write down your own note set that you can use to
guide yourself as you write your essay

59
 Chapter Five
The Descriptive Essay
You have met someone that you think is the mate of
your soul. You are deeply in love with him/her. You
cannot wait to tell your best friends about that person.
They ask you and you reply “He is tall, dark and terribly
young handsome person." What you have done is to
provide enough information about that person so that the
audience can form a mental image of him/her.
Description is an everyday activity. You describe what a
dish tastes like; what a dress looks l like, what a song
make you feel, what a place looks like. You simply
translate your senses about something, someone or
someplace into words; this is what description is about.
How do we describe? Before we think about
describing an object, we need to determine its nature. You
need to create a certain impression when you describe; a
sense of seeing, touching, hearing, tasting, and feeling. In
order to do that, we have to select details which we
contribute to our purposes. Details in a description need to
be carefully designed and arranged to achieve the best
effect.

60
 Describing people is not different from describing a
thing. Notice what you do when you see a movie or read a
novel. You find that you automatically form a mental
image of the character because the director or the novelist
has created that image either through the camera or words.
Descriptions have order. You should follow a
scheme when you describe. You can start from a point and
move logically, from front to back, from top to bottom,
from outside to inside and so on.
Choose your topic carefully, making sure that you
have a purpose in making that description. Use that
purpose as a way for deciding which the important details
are and which are not.
Study or observe your subject and try to see it in a
fresh and interesting way. Gather details and make a list
of them. Engage all your senses in doing so. Use vivid
adjectives and nouns when you describe. Use a dictionary
of synonyms to help you not to use the same adjectives
over and over again.
An Outline for Describing People
The Introductory Stage:
 Identifying the person(s) to be described.

61
  Providing background information about the
person(s).
 Importance of the person(s).
 Other relevant information about the person(s).
 Thesis Statement (reasons for description).
The Development Sage:
 General : age, height, build or weight.
 Specific : physical features (head to toes).
 Clothing : (hat to shoes).
 Accessories.
The Concluding Stage :
 Impression or effect about the person.
 Importance of the description.
 Conclusions reached from the description.
N.B.
 The conclusion shouldn't include any descriptive
details.
 In the development of your essay you should
provide as much details as you can.

62
  In your description provide the reader with the
significance of the features chosen to be described
(what the description entails ).
 You should use figurative language as it can help
you deliver a certain message that appeals to the
senses.
The following examples are very illuminating when it
comes to the descriptive essay. Read and analyze with the
help of your teachers and work groups.
Living Dangerously
There's a joke going round at the moment "War's
about to break out in Britain" " How do you know ?
Because Kate Adie flew into Heathrow this morning " No
one's suggesting she's trouble-maker. But it seems that no
disaster, in any part of the world, is complete without the
distinctive voice of the BBC's star reporter brining the
news to us from the middle of a danger zone.
Beirut, Libya-wherever the bombs fall and the
bullets fly is where you'll find Kate Adie. And nearer
home too, covering national tragedies such as the Zeeb-
ugge and Hillsborough disasters. But it's her cool,
objective reporting that people most praise.

63
 The reporter, whose sensible haircut and pearl ear-
rings make her look more like a school perfect than a war
correspondent, admits that her job rules her life. She's
never off-duty. She recalls the time when the telephone
rang in the middle of a dinner party. ' I had to turn to
everyone and say, " Does any know how to cook rout ?"
And she ran off to cover the Brixton riots.
There's price to pay of course. Still single and in her
forties, she's described as being married to the BBC.
Centaury, it would be a very tolerant man who would stay
at home while Kat rushed off on an assignment. It's not a
life that most people would choose. And it's one where
you find few women. 'but, says Kate, I think it's important
that a woman is seen to do it, particularly in areas of
combat. I find it insulting that people see it as exclusively
somewhere where men can operate.
Being the first woman to make it as a front-line TV
reporter, ahs its own problem, however. When she got her
first foreign assignment she was terrified that the camera
crew would think she was a 'silly, frilly girl'. That's the
reason why she crammed everything she needed into a
tiny bag which would fit underneath her plane seat. She

64
was then amazed to see the cameraman staggering into the
airport with a trunk. Now she knows that it's her
appearance as well as her words that matter.
She used to get letters from viewers saying, You
look a real mess. Haven't you got a hair-dresser?' So she
decided to include a pair of curling tongs in a hold that
entire she now takes everywhere. But as she said, ' Can
you imagine getting out a hairbrush when someone's
pointing a rifle at you?' She's often worked in dangerous
situations but she says she's not a heroine. ‘I don’t' get a
wonderful feeling when I go into danger', she say ' You're
not there to fight. You're there to report. But there's a
great human desire to push sadness, misery and cruelty
out of sight, and people often turn away from the sort of
reporting I do. My reply to them is : you may not want to
know but you should know'. However, despite all the
drawbacks, she wouldn't change her life for the world. It's
an incredible job. You go to places you'd never dream of
going to. So could she ever give it up ? ' I tend not to plan
ahead', she says. ' I just bump along from one of these
days I'll have to stop climbing over walls arthritis sets in, '
she joked.

65
 Madam Mosquito

By Alice Gray

You are now taking a last turn around your yard

before going in to dinner. Insect eyes are more sensitive to
contrast and motion than to form or color. In your shirt of
faded blue denim, you are a moving target no insect could
miss. A mosquito zeroes in for a landing. The warmth,
moisture and odor of your skin assure her that she has
arrived, and the convection currents set up in the cool air
by the heat of your body prompt her to cut the motor and
left down the landing gear.
On six long legs, she puts down so lightly that you
feel nothing. Sensors on her feet detect the carbon dioxide
that your skin exhales. Down comes the long proboscis;
up go the long back legs, as. though to balance it. The
little soft lobes at the tip of the proboscis are spread to test
the surface. It will do. A sudden contraction off the legs
with the weight of the body behind it bends the proboscis
backward in an arc while the six sharp blades it has
unsheathed are thrust into your skin. Two of the blades are
tipped with barbs.| These work alternately, shove and

66
hold, shove and hold, pulling the insect's face down and
carrying these fellows deeper into your skin.
Once the skin is penetrated, all the blades bend
forward and probe as far as they can reach in all
directions- (A scientist learned all this by watching
through a microscope while a mosquito bit the
transparent membrane between the toes of a frog.) With
luck, the blades strike a capillary. If they don't, saliva
pumped into the wound through a channel in one of the
blades stimulates the flow of blood into a pool. And still
you feel nothing. Your continued ignorance of attack is
probably due, not to any anesthetic effect (although a few
mosquitoes do have an anesthetic saliva) but rather to the
minute size of the mouthparts, which have simply passed
between nerve endings without touching any.
The taste of blood turns on two pumps in the insect's
throat. The broadest blade of the mouthparts is rolled
lengthwise to form a tube. Through it, blood passes
upward into the mouth. In a blood meal, volume is what
counts—the more blood, the more eggs—and even while
the pumping is going on, excess water is passing out at the
insect's other end.

67
 In three to five minutes, her body is so swollen that
your blood shows pinkly through the taut skin. The
stretching of the stomach wall stimulates nerves that turn
on a pair of glands in the thorax; the glands, in turn,
release a hormone that sets the ovaries to work. Finally,
when she has filled herself so full that she can't force in a
single additional corpuscle, Madam Mosquito withdraws
her mouthparts with a tug and drifts away.

Chapter Six

68
 The Narrative Essay
When you are asked what did you do last weekend,
you reply that after you woke up late, you went to the club
where you ran a bit, went into the gym, had sauna
followed by a massage session and then a hot nice shower.
After that, you had lunch overlooking the Nile and went
home fresh and happy. This is the simplified narrative,
which we define as a story. The story is the origin of
narrative and the origin of all literature; spoken and
written.
People are so fond of stories ; they are inherent in the
human nature. Of course, when you write a narrative
essay, you need to weed out unimportant details. For
instance, when you talk about your day out in the club,
which left you fresh and happy, you should not mention
that you ran into a friend who talked about her
engagement nor that you wore you blue t-shirt which your
mom hated. When you narrate, you narrate with a purpose
and all the narrative details should simply serve that
purpose. The main point, the purpose, rules what goes on
in your essay. Notice the following examples, analyze
with your teacher and work groups.

69
 "I Thought My Last Hour Had Come"

By Robert Guillain
A Description of the Explosion of Hiroshima
Kist was in Hiroshima, that morning of August 6. I had
joined a team of women who, like me, worked as
volunteers in cutting fire paths against incendiary raids
by demolishing whole rows of houses. My husband,
because of a raid alert the previous night, had stayed at
the Chunichi (Central Japan Journal), where he worked.
"Our group had passed the Tsurumi Bridge, Indian-
file, when there was an alert; an enemy plane appeared
all alone, very high over our heads. Its silver wings shone
brightly in the sun. A woman exclaimed, 'Oh, look—a
parachute'.' I turned toward where she was pointing, and
just at that moment a shattering flash filled the whole
sky.
Was it the flash that came first, or the sound of the "
explosion, tearing up my insides? I don't remember. I
was thrown to the ground, pinned to the earth, and
immediately the world began to collapse around me, on
my head, my shoulders. I couldn't see anything. It was
completely dark. I thought my last hour had come. I

70
thought of my three children, who had been evacuated
to the country to be safe from the raids. I couldn't move;
debris kept falling, beams and tiles piled up on top of
.me

"Finally I did manage to crawl free. There was a

terrible smell in the air. Thinking the bomb that hit us
might have been a yellow phosphorus incendiary like
those that had fallen on so many other cities, I rubbed my
nose and mouth hard with a tenugui (a kind of towel) I
had at my waist. To my horror, I found that the skin of
my face had come off in the towel. Oh' The skin on my
hands, on my arms, came off too. From elbow to
fingertips, all the skin on my right arm had come loose
and was hanging grotesquely. The skin of my left hand
fell off too, the five fingers, like a glove.
"I found myself sitting on the ground, prostrate.
Gradually I registered that all my companions had
disappeared. What had happened to them? A frantic
panic gripped me, I wanted to run, but where? Around
me was just debris, wooden framing, beams and roofing
tiles; there wasn't a single landmark left,

71
 "And what had happened to the sky, so blue a moment
ago? Now it was as black as night. Everything seemed
vague and fuzzy. It was as though a cloud covered my
eyes and I wondered if I had lost my senses, I finally saw
the Tsurumi Bridge and I ran headlong toward it,
jumping over the piles of rubble. What I saw under the
bridge then horrified me.
"People by the hundreds were falling in the river. I
couldn't tell if they were men or women; they were all in
the same state: their faces were puffy and ashen, their
hair tangled, they held their hands raised and, groaning
with pain, threw themselves into the water. I had a
violent impulse to do so myself, because of the pain
burning through my whole body. But I can't swim and I
held back.
"Past the bridge, I looked back to see that the whole
Hachobori district had suddenly caught fire, to my
surprise, because I thought only the district I was in had
been bombed. As I ran, I shouted my children's names.
Where was I going? I have no idea, but I can still see the
scenes of horror I glimpsed here and there on my way.

72
"A mother, her face and shoulders covered with blood,
tried frantically to run into a burning house. A man held
her back and she screamed, 'Let me go! Let me go! My
son is burning in there!" She was like a mad demon.
Under the Kojin bridge, which had half collapsed and had
lost its heavy, reinforced-concrete parapets, I saw a lot of
bodies floating in the water like dead dogs, almost naked,
with their clothes in shreds. At the river's edge, near the
bank, a woman lay on her back with her breasts ripped
off, bathed in blood. How could such a frightful thing
have happened? I thought of the scenes of the Buddhist
hell my grandmother had described to me when I was
little.
"I must have wandered for at least two hours before
finding myself on the Eastern military parade ground. My
burns were hurting me, but the pain was different from an
ordinary burn. It was a dull pain that seemed somehow to
come from outside my body. A kind of yellow pus oozed
from my hands, and I thought that my face must also be
horrible to see.
"Around me on the parade ground were a number of
grade-school and secondary-school children, boys and

73
girls, writhing in spasms of agony. Like me, they were
members of the anti-air raid volunteer corps. I heard them
crying 'Mama! Mama!' as though they'd gone crazy. They
were so burned and bloody that looking at them was
insupportable. I forced myself to do so just the same, and
I cried out in rage. 'Why? Why these children?' But there
was no one to rage at and I could do nothing but watch
them die, one after the other, vainly calling for their
mothers.
"After lying almost unconscious for a long time on the
parade ground, I started walking again. As far as I could
see with my failing sight, everything was in flames, as far
as the Hiroshima station and the Atago district. It seemed
to me that my face was hardening little by little. I
cautiously touched my hands to my cheeks. My face felt
as though it had doubled in size. I could see less and less
clearly. Was I going blind, then? After so much hardship,
was I going to die? I kept on walking anyway and I
reached a suburban area.
In that district, farther removed from the center, I
found my elder sister alive, with only slight injuries to
the head and feet. She didn't recognize me at first, then

74
she burst into tears- In a handcart, she wheeled me nearly
three miles to the first-aid center at Yaga. It was night
when we arrived. I later learned there was a pile of
corpses and countless injured there. I spent two nights
there, unconscious; my sister told me that in my delirium
I kept repeating, 'My children' Take me to my children!'
On August 8, 1 was carried on a stretcher to a train and
transported to the home of relatives in the village of
Kasumi. The village doctor said my case was hopeless.
My children, recalled from their evacuation refuge,
rushed to my side. I could no longer see them; I could
recognize them only by smelling their good odor. On
August 11, my husband joined us. The children wept
with joy as they embraced him,
Our happiness soon ended. My husband, who bore no
trace of injury, died suddenly three days later, vomiting
blood- We had been married sixteen years and now,
because I was at the brink of death myself, I couldn't
even rest his head as I should have on the pillow of the
dead.
I said to myself, 'My poor children, because of you I
don't have the right to die!' And finally, by a miracle, I

75
survived after I had again and again been given up for
lost.
My sight returned fairly quickly, and after twenty days
I could dimly see my children's features. The burns on
my face and hands did not heal so rapidly, and the
wounds remained pulpy, like rotten tomatoes. It wasn't
until December that I could walk again. When my
bandages were removed in January, I knew that my face
and hands would always be deformed. My left ear was
half its original size. A streak of cheloma, a dark brown
swelling as wide as my hand, runs from the side of my
head across my mouth to my throat, My right hand is
striped with a cheloma two inches wide from the wrist to
the little finger. The five fingers on my left hand are now
fused at the base."

An Absence of Windows

Richard Selzer
Not long ago, operating rooms had windows- It was a
boon and a blessing in spite of the occasional fly that

76
managed to strain through the screens and threaten our
very sterility. For the adventurous insect drawn to such a
ravishing spectacle, a quick swat and, Presto! The door to
the next world sprang open. But for us who battled on,
there was the benediction of the sky, the applause and
reproach of thunder- A Divine consultation crackled in on
the lightning! And at night, in Emergency, there was the
pomp, the longevity of the stars to deflate a surgeon's ego.
It did no patient a disservice to have Heaven looking over
his doctor's shoulder. I very much fear that, having
bricked up our windows, we have lost more than the
breeze; we have severed a celestial connection.
Part of my surgical training was spent in a rural
hospital in eastern Connecticut. The building was situated
on the slope of a modest hill. Behind it, cows grazed in a
pasture. The operating theater occupied the fourth, the
ultimate floor, wherefrom huge windows looked down
upon the scene. To glance up from our work and see the
lovely cattle about theirs, calmed the frenzy of the most
temperamental of prima donnas. Intuition tells me that our
patients had fewer wound infections and made speedier
recoveries than those operated upon in the airless sealed

77
boxes where now we strive. Certainly the surgeons were
of a gentler stripe.
I have spent too much time in these windowless
rooms. Some part of me would avoid them if I could. Still,
even here, in these bloody closets, sparks fly up from the
dry husks of the human body. Most go unnoticed, burn
out in an instant. But now and then, they coalesce into a
fire which is an inflammation of the mind of him who
watches,

Not in large cities is it likely to happen, but in

towns the size of ours, that an undertaker will come to
preside over the funeral of a close friend; a policeman will
capture a burglar only to find that the miscreant is the
uncle of his brother's wife. Say that a fire breaks out. The
fire truck rushes to the scene; it proves to be the very
house where one of the firemen was born, and the luckless
man is now called on to complete, axe and hose, the
destruction of his natal place. Hardly a civic landmark,
you say, but for him who gulped first air within those
walls, it is a hard destiny. So it is with a hospital, which is
itself a community. Its citizens—orderlies, maids, nurses,
x-ray technicians, doctors, a hundred others.

78
 A man whom I knew has died. He was the hospital
mailman. It was I that presided over his death, A week
ago I performed an exploratory operation upon him for
acute surgical abdomen- That is the name given to an
illness that is unknown, and for which there is no time to
make a diagnosis with tests of the blood and urine, x-rays,
I saw him writhing in pain, rolling from side to side, his
knees drawn up, his breaths coming in short little
draughts. The belly I lay the fiat of my hand upon was hot
to the touch- The slightest pressure of my fingers caused
him to cry out—a great primitive howl of vowel and
diphthong. This kind of pain owns no consonants. Only
later, when the pain settles in, long and solid, only then
does it grow a spine to sharpen the glottals and dentals a
man can grip with his teeth, his throat. Fiercely then, to
hide it from his wife, his children, for the pain shames
him.
In the emergency room, fluid is given into the
mailman's veins. Bags of blood are sent for, and poured
in- Oxygen is piped into his nostrils, and a plastic tube is
let down into his stomach. This, for suction, A dark tarry
yield slides into ajar on the wall- In another moment, a

79
second tube has sprouted from his penis, carrying away
his urine. Such is the costume of acute surgical abdomen.
In an hour, I know that nothing has helped him. At his
wrist, a mouse skitters, stops, then darts away. His slaty
lips insist upon still more oxygen. His blood pressure,
they say, is falling. I place the earpieces of my
stethoscope, this ever-asking Y, in my ears. Always, I am
contorted a bit by this ungainly little hose. It is my oldest,
my dearest friend. More, it is my lucky charm, I place the
disc upon the tense mounding blue-tinted belly, gently, so
as not to shock the viscera into commotion (those
vowels!), and I listen for a long time. I hear nothing. The
bowel sleeps. It plays possum in the presence of the
catastrophe that engulfs it. We must go to the operating
room. There must be an exploration- I tell this to the
mailman. Narcotized, he nods and takes my fingers in his
own, pressing. Thus has he given me all of his trust.
A woman speaks to me,
"Do your best for him, Doctor. Please,"
My best? An anger rises toward her for the charge she has
given-Still, I cover her hand with mine.
"Yes," I say. "my best."

80
 An underground tunnel separates the buildings of
our hospital. I accompany the stretcher that carries the
mailman through that tunnel, cursing for the thousandth
time the demonic architect that placed the emergency
room in one building, and the operating room in the other.
Each tiny ridge in the cement floor is a rut from
which rise and echo still more vowels of pain, new sounds
that I have never heard before. Pain invents its own
language. With this tongue, we others are not conversant.
Never mind, we shall know it in our time.
We lift the mailman from the stretcher to the operating
table. The anesthetist is ready with still another tube.
"Go to sleep, Pete," I say into his ear, my lips so close it is
almost a kiss. "When you wake up, it will all be over, all
behind you."
I should not have spoken his name aloud! No good
will come of it. The syllable has peeled from me
something, a skin that I need. In a minute, the chest of the
mailman is studded with electrodes. From his mouth a
snorkel leads to tanks of gas. Each of these tanks is
painted a different color. One is bright green. That is for
oxygen. They group behind the anesthetist, hissing. I have

81
never come to this place without seeing that dreadful
headless choir of gas tanks.
Now red paint tracks across the bulging flanks of the
mailman. It is a harbinger of the blood to come.
"May we go ahead?" I ask the anesthetist.

"Yes," he says. And I pull the scalpel across the framed

skin, skirting the navel. There are arteries and veins to be
clamped, cut, tied, and cauterized, fat and fascia to divide.
The details of work engage a man, hold his terror at bay.
Beneath us now, the peritoneum. A slit. and we are in. Hot
fluid spouts through the small opening I have made. It is
gray, with flecks of black. Pancreatitis! We all speak the
word at once. We have seen it many times before-It is an
old enemy. I open the peritoneum its full length. My
fingers swim into the purse of the belly, against the tide of
the issuing fluid. The pancreas is swollen, necrotic, a dead
fish that has gotten tossed in, and now lies spoiling across
the upper abdomen. I withdraw my hand.
"Feel," I invite the others. They do, and murmur against
the disease. But they do not say anything that I have not
heard many times. Unlike the mailman, who was rendered

82
eloquent in its presence, we others are reduced to the
commonplace at the touch of such stuff.
We suction away the fluid that has escaped from the sick
pancreas. It is rich in enzymes. If these enzymes remain
free in the abdomen, they will digest the tissues there, the
other organs. It is the pancreas alone that can contain them
safely. This mailman and his pancreas—careful neighbors
for fifty-two years until the night the one turned rampant
and set fire to the house of the other. The digestion of
tissues has already begun. Soap has formed here and
there, from the compounding of the liberated calcium and
the fat. It would be good to place a tube (still another
tube) into the common bile duct, to siphon away the bile
that is a stimulant to the pancreas. At least that. We try,
but we cannot even see the approach to that duct, so
swollen is the pancreas about it. And so we mop and suck
and scour the floors and walls of this ruined place. Even
as we do, the gutters run with new streams of the fluid.
We lay in rubber drains and lead them to the outside. It is
all that is left to us to do.
"Zero chromic on a Lukens," I say, and the nurse hands
me the suture for closure.

83
I must not say too much at the operating table. There are
new medical students here. I must take care what sparks I
let fly toward such inflammable matter.
The mailman awakens in the recovery room- I speak his
magic name once more.
"Pete," Again., 'Pete", I call.
He sees me, gropes for my hand.
" What happens now?" he asks me.
" In a day or two, the pain will let up," I say" you will get
better.'
" Was there any…?"
" No," I say knowingly." There was no cancer. You are as
clean as a whistle.
“Thank God," he whispers, and then," Thank You,
Doctor."
It took him a week to die in fever and pallor and pain.

It is the morning of the autopsy. It has been scheduled

for Eleven O'clock. Together, the students and I return
from our coffee. I walk slowly. I do not want to arrive
until the postmortem examination is well under way. It is
twenty minutes past eleven when we enter the morgue. I

84
pick the mailman out at once from the others, Damn' They
have not even started. Anger swells in me, at being forced
to face the whole patient again.
It isn't fair! Dismantled, he would at least be at some
remove ... a tube of flesh. But look! There is an aftertaste
of life in him. In his fallen mouth a single canine tooth,
perfectly embedded, gleams, a badge of better days.
The pathologist is a young resident who was once a
student of mine; a tall lanky fellow with a bushy red
beard. He wears the green pajamas of his trade. He pulls
on rubber gloves, and turns to greet me.
"I've been waiting for you," he smiles. "Now we can
start."
He steps to the table and picks up the large knife with
which he will lay open the body from neck to pubis- All at
once, he pauses, and, reaching with his left hand, he
closes the lids of the mailman's eyes. When he removes
his hand, one lid comes unstuck and slowly rises. Once
more, he reaches up to press it down. This time it stays.
The gesture stuns me. My heart is pounding, my head
trembling. I think that the students are watching me.

85
Perhaps my own heart has become visible, beating
beneath this white laboratory coat.
The pathologist raises his knife.
"Wait," I say. "Do you always do that? Close the eyes?"
He is embarrassed. He smiles faintly. His face is beautiful,
soft.
"No," he says, and shakes his head. "But just then, I
remembered that he brought the mail each morning... how
his blue eyes used to twinkle."
Now he lifts the knife, and, like a vandal looting a
gallery, carves open the body.

To work in windowless rooms is to live in a jungle

where you cannot see the sky. Because there is no sky to
see, there is no grand vision of God, Instead, there are the
numberless fragmented spirits that lurk behind leaves,
beneath streams. The one is no better than the other, no
worse. Still, a man is entitled to the temple of his
preference. Mine lies out on a prairie, wondering up at
Heaven. Or in a many windowed operating room where,
just outside the panes of glass, cows graze, and the stars
shine down upon my carpentry.

86
87
 Chapter Seven

Editing

The final step of the writing process is editing.

Revising is another process. When you revise, you make
changes in what you write, but when you edit, you correct
how you wrote something. Editing, polishes the surface
features of your writing, such as grammar, and
punctuation. ESL students always make the same
mistakes and in my opinion, they all have to do with their
misunderstanding of the basic and simple structure of
language. In this chapter certain common mistakes are
discussed and grammatical rules are explained with the
goal of clarifying the origin of those mistakes.
What is the editing stage?
The editing stage is when you check your essay for
mistakes and correct them.
Editing Steps:
Grammar and Spelling
1. Check your spelling.
2. Check your grammar.
3. Read your essay again.

88
4. Make sure each sentence has a subject.
5. Make sure your subjects and verbs agree with each
other.
6. Check the verb tenses of each sentence.
7. Make sure that each sentence makes sense.
Style and Organization
1. Make sure your essay has an introduction, supporting
paragraphs, and a summary paragraph.
2. Check that you have a thesis statement that identifies
the main idea of the essay.
3. Check that all your paragraphs follow the proper
paragraph format.
4. See if your essay is interesting.

Now, to the Grammar part.

The Sentence

Many mistakes in writing have to do with the sentence

structure. Here is the English sentence structure told

simply.

89
The Simple Sentence

The most basic type of sentence is the simple sentence,

which contains only one clause. A simple sentence can be
as short as one word:
Run!

Usually, however, the sentence has a subject as well as a

predicate and both the subject and the predicate may have
modifiers. All of the following are simple sentences,
because each contains only one clause:
Melt!
Ice melts.
The ice melts quickly.
The ice on the river melts quickly under the warm
March sun.
Lying exposed without its blanket of snow, the ice
on the river melts quickly under the warm March
sun.
We drove from Cairo to Luxor in one day.
I ate my lunch fast.

90
 As you can see, a simple sentence can be quite long
-- it is a mistake to think that you can tell a simple
sentence from a compound sentence or a complex
sentence simply by its length. A simple sentence contains
one independent clause; that is to say one verb and one
subject.

The most natural sentence structure is the simple

sentence: it is the first kind which children learn to speak,
and it remains by far the most common sentence in the
spoken language of people of all ages. In written work,
simple sentences can be very effective for grabbing a
reader's attention or for summing up an argument, but you
have to use them with care: too many simple sentences
can make your writing seem childish. When you do use
simple sentences, you should add transitional phrases to
connect them to the surrounding sentences.

The Compound Sentence

A compound sentence consists of two or more

independent clauses (or simple sentences) joined by co-
ordinating conjunctions like "and," "but," and "or":
Simple

91
 Canada is a rich country.
Simple
Still, it has many poor people.
Compound
Canada is a rich country, but still it has many poor
people.
I came early and I was able to prepare lunch.
The First year Students made it and they all got
excellent grades.

Compound sentences are very natural for English speakers

-- small children learn to use them early on to connect
their ideas and to avoid pausing (and allowing an adult to
interrupt):
Today at school Mr. Moore brought in his pet
rabbit, and he showed it to the class, and I got to pet
it, and Kate held it, and we colored pictures of it,
and it ate part of my carrot at lunch, and ...

Of course, this is an extreme example, but if you over-use

compound sentences in written work, your writing might
seem immature.

92
A compound sentence is most effective when you use it to
create a sense of balance or contrast between two (or
more) equally-important pieces of information:
Montéal has better clubs, but Toronto has better
cinemas.

Special Cases of Compound Sentences

There are two special types of compound sentences

which you might want to note. First, rather than joining
two simple sentences together, a co-ordinating
conjunction sometimes joins two complex sentences, or
one simple sentence and one complex sentence. In this
case, the sentence is called a compound-complex
sentence:
Compound-complex
It is more than one independent clauses and at least one
dependent clause.
1- After it was all over, ( dependent) my dad
claimed he knew we were planning something
(independent), but we think he was really surprised
(independent).

93
 2-The package arrived in the morning, but the
courier left before I could check the contents.

The second special case involves punctuation. It is

possible to join two originally separate sentences into a
compound sentence using a semicolon instead of a co-
ordinating conjunction:
Sir John A. Macdonald had a serious drinking
problem; when sober, however, he could be a
formidable foe in the House of Commons.

Usually, a conjunctive adverb like "however" or

"consequently" will appear near the beginning of the
second part, but it is not required:
The sun rises in the east; it sets in the west.

The Complex Sentence

A complex sentence contains one independent clause and

at least one dependent clause. Unlike a compound
sentence, however, a complex sentence contains clauses
which are not equal. Consider the following examples:
Simple
My friend invited me to a party. I do not want to go.

94
Compound
My friend invited me to a party, but I do not want to
go.
Complex
Although my friend invited me to a party, I do not
want to go.
Although he is now 79 years old (dependent), he
still claims to be 65(independent)
Despite his late coming, he could join us.
HE could not propose to her, though she waited for
him to talk.

In the first example, there are two separate simple

sentences: "My friend invited me to a party" and "I do not
want to go." The second example joins them together into
a single sentence with the co-coordinating conjunction
"but," but both parts could still stand as independent
sentences -- they are entirely equal, and the reader cannot
tell which is most important. In the third example,
however, the sentence has changed quite a bit: the first
clause, "Although my friend invited me to a party," has
become incomplete, or a dependent clause.

95
 A complex sentence is very different from a simple
sentence or a compound sentence because it makes clear
which ideas are most important. When you write
My friend invited me to a party. I do not want to go.
or even
My friend invited me to a party, but I do not want to
go.

The reader will have trouble knowing which piece

of information is most important to you. When you write
the subordinating conjunction "although" at the beginning
of the first clause, however, you make it clear that the fact
that your friend invited you is less important than, or
subordinate, to the fact that you do not want to go.

You will not become a better writer simply by

learning to name the different types of sentences, but you
will develop a more sophisticated understanding of how
language works. If you would like to make certain that
you understand how to identify a simple sentence,
compound sentence, complex sentence, or a compound-
complex sentence, you may try this simple exercise.

96
1. Ottawa is the capital of Canada, but Toronto is the
capital of Ontario.
1. Simple Sentence
2. Compound Sentence
3. Complex Sentence
4. Compound-Complex Sentence
2. Democracy is a noble goal; it is important,
however, to protect the minority from the tyranny
of the majority.

1. Simple Sentence
2. Compound Sentence
3. Complex Sentence
4. Compound-Complex Sentence
3. I do not own a Porsche.

1. Simple Sentence
2. Compound Sentence
3. Complex Sentence
4. Compound-Complex Sentence
4. Call your father as soon as you arrive in
Antigonish.

97
 1. Simple Sentence
2. Compound Sentence
3. Complex Sentence
4. Compound-Complex Sentence
5. I ate the sushi and left the restaurant.

1. Simple Sentence
2. Compound Sentence
3. Complex Sentence
4. Compound-Complex Sentence
6. Unless my girlfriend postpones her visit from
Calgary, I will not have time to study for my exam.

1. Simple Sentence
2. Compound Sentence
3. Complex Sentence
4. Compound-Complex Sentence
7. Susanne wanted to be here, but she cannot come
because her car is in the shop.

1. Simple Sentence
2. Compound Sentence
3. Complex Sentence

98
 4. Compound-Complex Sentence
8. The football game was cancelled because it was
raining.

1. Simple Sentence
2. Compound Sentence
3. Complex Sentence
4. Compound-Complex Sentence
9. The football game was cancelled because of the
rain.

1. Simple Sentence
2. Compound Sentence
3. Complex Sentence
4. Compound-Complex Sentence
10.When the train arrives and if Ms. Langlois is on it,
she will be served with a subpoena.

1. Simple Sentence
2. Compound Sentence
3. Complex Sentence
4. Compound-Complex Sentence

99
 In English a sentence must have at least one
independent, or main, clause.
A main clause must have a subject and its verb – a
verb that shows person, number, and time. Only one type
of main clause has no subject : an imperative sentence. In
imperative sentences, the subject you, is understood.
( Note that Let's dance is a kind of imperative sentence.
You is understood. )
A main clause does not depend on another clause to
be fully understood.
Other clauses are said to be dependent. Dependent
clauses have a subject and a verb, but they depend on
another clause to be fully understood.
Look at the following sentences. The complete subjects
are underlined once and the complete verbs twice.
 Mark and his friends are students.
 They are spending a year in Spain.
 All students in the program will have arrived by
September.
 Most of them will stay for a year.
 Emily has received three letters from Mark.
 The letters were written over the course of the year.

100
  Call me.
 Are dogs good pets ?
The following word groups are not sentences :
 Mark sitting and writing letter. ( no verb )
 Were taking the train to Barcelona. ( no subject )
 Such an exciting year. ( no verb )
 Because he was afraid of heights. ( dependent
clause )
 Which was a beautiful building. ( dependent
clause )
A- In the line below each of the following word groups.
Write sentence if he group is an independent clause. If
the word group is not a sentence, write not a sentence
and explain why by writing " no subject ", " no verb",
or " dependent clause".
1- Isao at the studio his TV programs
2- All afternoon.
3- Mark and Luis were at home.
4- Has been an exciting year.
5- A worth while experience meeting students from many
nations.

101
6- They would do it again.
7- Which they had always wanted to do.
8- Think about this question
B-Read the following paragraph. You will find eight
sentences and nine groups of words that are not
sentences. On the lines provided, write the eight
sentences.
In late December, on their way to the French Rivira.
Mark, Luis and Isao took a one-day trip to Barcelona. Not
knowing anyone there, They stayed in a youth hostel for a
very reasonable price. On their one day in the city. They
visited the sagrada Famiia, Gaudi's famous cathedral.
Which was unfinished when Gaudi died and is still
unfinished. All three boys were impressed by the
cathedral's beauty. And decided to climb it to the top
instead of taking the elevator. Nearing the top. Isao began
to feel vertigo and had to start down again. Mark and Luis
continued climbing. Even Mark, who had done a great
deal of mountain climbing in the United States. Felt
nervous and unprotected at the summit. Both he and Luis
agreed that the view was magnificent. And the climb

102
worth it. The three decided to return to Barcelona. As
soon as they.
1- Mark. Luis, and Isao took one-day trip to Barcelona.
2- ……………………………………………………....…
3- …………………………………………………….……
4- …………………………………………………….……
5- …………………………………………………….……
6- …………………………………………………………
7- …………………………………………………………
8- …………………………………………………….……

(2)

The first word of a sentence begins with a capital

letter. A sentence ends with some punctuation, most
commonly a period, a question mark, or an exclamation
point.
Sometimes a sentence ends with a semicolon or a
colon. When one sentence ends with a semicolon or colon,
the first word of the next sentence does not need to be
capitalized.
 Who knows the answer

103
 - French food is very delicious ; it is known all over
the world.
C- Read and study the following paragraph. It contains ten
sentences. Find the ten sentences and insert initial
capitalization and end punctuation in the appropriate
places. Do not add or eliminate any commas.
A year ago Bruce and Alice Corwyn were on the
verge of divorce. If they hadn't decided to give counseling
a try, they might not have stayed together fortunately,
however, they did participate in counseling the process
was difficult for both Bruce and Alice at first because
each of them had to challenge for Alice was to realize that
she was married to Bruce and not to her mother for Bruce
the difficulty was in learning to express his feelings
outwardly, something that he had never really done
through there were times when both wanted to throw up
their hands in despair, both realized that they would have
to stick at the task of rebuilding their marriage if it was
going to have any chance of succeeding often feeling that
they were progressing at a snail's pace, they somehow
managed to renew their commitment to each other in the
process they came to understand that no relationship is

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perfect and that one should never take a relationship for
granted in the past year Bruce and Alice have
rediscovered their love for each other, and their prospects
look bright.

The Run-On Sentence

A sentence is made up of at least one independent
clause. A sentence containing more than one independent
clause must be punctuated properly to avoid two kinds of
errors : the run-on sentence and the comma splice.
A run-on sentence is a group containing at least two
independent clauses without any punctuation separating
them : the sentences are " run together ".
David and Aurora were on their way to a yard sale and
old man waved feebly to them.
The following are four ways to correct a run-on sentence :
a- Separate the two independent clauses with a period
Capitalize the first word of the second clause.
David and Aurora were on their way to yard sale. An
old man waved feebly to them.

105
b- Separate the two independent clauses with a
semicolon. Do not capitalize the first word of the
second clause.
David and Aurora were on their way to yard sale ; an
old man waved feebly to them.
c- Join the two independent clauses with comma and a
coordinating conjunction.
David and Aurora were on their way to a yard sale, and
an old man waved feebly to them.
d- Make one of the independent clauses dependent by
adding a subordinating conjunction, and separate the
two clauses with a comma if the dependent clause
comes first.
When David and Aurora were on their way to a yard
sale, an old man waved feebly to them.
A- Correct the following run-on sentences by using the
method suggested:
1- The old man had forgotten to buy medicine He went
into diabetic shock.
( period )

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2-David asked Aurora to pull over his intuition told him
the old man needed their help.
( semicolon )
1- Kate knew she had to change her relationship with
her boss she didn't know how to do it.
( coordinating conjunction and comma )
4- Aurora wished they had gotten to the yard sale on time
she was glad they had stopped to help the old man.
(Subordinating conjunction at the beginning of sentence
and comma) Comma splice

A comma splice is the joining of two independent clauses

with only a comma. A comma, however, does not provide
adequate separation :
Marsha read the Assertive Individual's Handbook,
(Independent clause ) she learned a lot about
expressing herself in the process. ( independent
clause )
A comma splice can be corrected by the same four
methods used to correct a run-on sentence.
a- Use a period.

107
 Marsha read the Assertive Individual's Handbook.
She learned a lot about expressing herself in the
process.
b- Use a semicolon.
Marsha read the Assertive Individual's Handbook ;
She learned a lot about expressing herself in the
process.
c- Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction.
Marsha read the Assertive Individual's Handbook,
and she learned a lot about expressing herself in the
process.
d- Make one of the clauses dependent by adding a
subordinating conjunction.
When Marsha read the Assertive Individual's
Handbook, she learned a lot about expressing
herself in the process.
A fifth way of correcting a comma splice is to
convert one of the clauses into an adverbial –ing phrase if
the subjects of the two clauses are the same.

108
  Marsha read the Assertive Individual's Handbook,
learning a lot about expressing herself in the
process.
The period and semicolon are similar punctuation
marks in that they are both used between independent
clauses. The period can be thought of as separating two
clauses and the semicolon as joining two clauses.
Do not capitalize the first word after a semicolon
( unless it is / or proper noun ).
 The teacher considered the Board of Educations
offer,; then they went on strike.
Use a semicolon instead of period to join
independent clauses if you feel that the two clauses have a
close connection in meaning.
 Kate's job situation deteriorated a great deal ; she
had to speak to her boss.
Be careful. Do not use a semicolon to connect an
independent clause and dependent clause.
 While I was learning to be assertive, I learned many
things about myself.
Not

109
While I was learning be assertive; I learned many things
about myself.
B- Correct each of the following comma splices by using
the suggested method in each case :
1- The old man looked ill. He needed to get out the sun
quickly. (semicolon)
2- David and Aurora drove to a pharmacy, they got the
old man his insulin. (period)
3- Aurora wanted to get the yard sale, there was a chest of
drawers for sale. (semicolon)
4- Aurora didn't want to stop fort the old man, David
persuaded her it was necessary. ( comma and
coordinating conjunction )
5- Harold says he will seek professional help to overcome
his anger. there is no assurance that he will carry out
his promise. ( subordinating conjunction at beginning
of sentence dependent clause and comma )
6- Nancy felt dominated by her mother 0 in – law. She
needed to take assertive action. ( Convert the first
clause to an adverbial –ing phrase and place the noun
subject in the second clause )

110
Sentences and Fragments
As you have learned, a sentences must have at least one
independent. Or main, clause. If a group of words does
not have an independent clause, it is a fragment, not a
sentence.
 We need to do something about violence. ( sentence
– independent clause )
 Sitting in my auto ( fragment – no independent
clause )
For correctness in writing. We normally avoid sentence
fragment, we often attach it to an independent clause. We
can do this with the fragment above.
 We need to do something about violence because
it's tearing apart the fabric of societies everywhere.
If there is no independent clause nearby, we can correct a
fragment by adding a subject and its verb.
 Interviewed by our news team. ( fragment )
 One commuter was interviewed by our news team.
( sentence )
In the following sentences, underline dependent clauses
once and independent clauses twice. Do not underlined

111
phrases. In the blank to the each item, write (S) for
sentence or (F) for fragment.

…… 1- Though you handled the car well, you ran a red

light.
…… 2- As soon as you learn the hand signals.
…… 3- Although China is overpopulated, it is trying to
correct the problem.

……. 4- We don’t solve the problem of violence until

we control guns.

…… 5- If a young basketball player from Nigeria can

get scholarship.

…… 6- Because I was one of those students.

…… 7- The economy is perhaps too dependent on the
automobile.

…… 8- Carried out right, this procedure would cause

the population to stabilize.

…… 9- By the time the train finally arrived in Santa

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 Maria.
…… 10- We need to make some personal sacrifices if
we want to help.

The Relative Clause

It is one writing strategy that makes your sentences
sound more concise, natural and lively. You construct a
relative clause by replacing a noun or a noun phrase with
a pronoun like "which, that, who, whom, and whose."
1- The athlete developed a spear throwing device. The
spear throwing device developed his range by 30
yards.
--Replace the repeated noun phrase " spear-throwing
device
" with the pronoun which
--The Athlete developed a spear-throwing device which
developed his range by 30 yards. ( you can use "that"
instead of "which" here as well)
When the relative pronoun replaces a noun that refers to
people, we can use "who" or "that'
1-The peasant farmers till the Nile Delta. The peasant
farmer still work in the ancient ways of their ancestors.

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--The Peasant farmers who (that) till the Nile Delta still
work in the ancient ways of their ancestors.
When the noun phrase we replace is an object, we can use
whom/that/who.
1-The college honored the students. The Students had
made the dean's list for the past two years.
--The students whom/that/who the college honored, had
made the dean's list for the past two years.

Relative pronouns and relative adjectives : are also used to

join ideas together by creating adjective or noun clauses,
which allow a writer to create smoother, more flowing
and effective sentences by combining ideas.

Relative Pronouns and Relative Adjectives

who which
whom that
whose what
whoever whichever
whomever whatever

Examples :
 This is the man who sells peanuts.

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  Tell me what you want.
 Hers is an idea that I would like to think through.
 The shirts, which are in the laundry, will need
ironing.
Subject – Verb agreement
Every sentence in English can be divided into two
parts. The subject and the predicate. The subject is a
person, place, or thing about which a statement is made.
The predicate is the statement, and it always contains the
verb.
( Remember that the subjects and verbs of English
sentences agree in person ) In the following sentences.
The completed subject is underlined once and the
complete predicate is underlined twic.
 Birds sing.
 Koalas live in Australia.
 The men at Ron's office like to play volleyball.
 Ron and Ashley lamon are trying to save money.
 The danger of credit cards is that they encourage us
to live beyond our means .

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 To determine the complete subject of a sentence,
ask a who or what question. The answer to that question
will be the complete subject.
 The man on the train reminded penny of her
father.
 Who reminded penny of her father ? The man
on the train. ( complete subject )
 The increasing extinction of plant and animal
species is alarming.
 What is alarming ? The increasing extinction
of plant and animal species. ( complete
subject )
A- Underline the complete subject in each of the
following sentences :
1- Five of my best friends are coming over tonight to play
volleyball.
2- Far too many individuals are addicted to credit cards.
3- The Siberian tiger and the spotted owl are endangered
species.
4- That man who is sitting at the mahogany desk is our
loan officer.

116
5- Relatively few adults or teenagers are able to handle
credit cards wisely.
6- The expectation that we will like well-known works of
art. Literature, or music can detract form our
appreciation of them.
There is one word in the complete subject that
controls the verb (or auxiliary ) in the sentences. To
determine this main subject. Find the word that the other
words modify. In the following sentences. It is underlined.
 My blue skirt is gorgeous
 Our first three attempts were unsuccessful
Note that the main subject of a sentence is never
located in a prepositional phrase ( a phrase beginning with
a preposition and ending with a noun or pronoun e.g.. on
the table )
B- Circle the main subject in each of the following
sentences and draw an arrow between it and the verb :
1- Far too few of us have financial discipline.
2- A list of available jobs was posted on the office bulletin
board.
3- Much of what you were told was inaccurate.

117
4- Neither of those two environmentalists is in favour of
the clear-cutting of forests.
5- The number of species on the Endangered Species List
is increasing.
6- None of the work has been completed satisfactorily.
7- Very little of this work can be done by a single person
working alone.
8- That clever little Canadian fox terrier is near and dear
to my heart.
9- The signing of that famous Australian opera star is
uplifting.
10- More and more old-growth forest is being cut down.
Even though the word there is often the
grammatical subject of a sentence, it is linked to a word
later in the sentence that controls the verb. In the
following sentences, an arrow connects the word there and
the noun it is linked to. Note the underlined verb.
 There are hundreds of animal on the Endangered
Species list.
 There have been many environmental disasters in
the last twenty years.

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  There is a large fierce dog guarding the house.
C- Choose the correct verb to complete each sentence :
1- There ……… never been an environmental disaster of
this magnitude.
2- There ……… many reasons why I am against the use
of nuclear power.
3- There ……… always a rational explanation for his
behavior.
4- There ……… been fewer business mergers this year
than last.
5- There ……… a lot of demonstrators present at the
environmental rally.
6- There ……… a lot of instances when we put
roadblocks in our own path.
7- There ……… any elegantly dressed people at the party.
Everyone was wearing blue jeans.
8- There ……… lots of chance to do worthwhile and
ethical things.
Compound subjects are those in which the subject
is composed of more than one item. The are often
connected by and.

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  Mona and Ahmed are going to join AlAhly
club ( two subject : Mona and Ahmed )
 The spotted owl, the Siberian tiger, and the
whooping crane need our protection ( three
subjects : owl, tiger, crane )
Some subjects appear to be compound subjects, but
they really constitute a single phrase made up of two
items acting as a unit. These take a singular verb.
 Bacon and eggs is a high-cholesterol
nourishing meal. ( Bacon and eggs is a single
dish )
 The owner and manager of the bark is Mr.
Sameer.
(Mr. Sameer is one person who has two functions)
D- Choose the correct verb to complete each sentence.
1- Both the whale and the manatee ……… federal
protection.
2- Multiple personality and schizophrenia …………. to
serious mental disorders.
3- The founder and owner the franchise ……….. Mr. Paul
Trudeau.

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4- Liver and onions ……….. a meal detested by many
children.
5 Mathematics ………… often considered a difficult
subject.

Subject connected by either … or, or neither …. nor

behave differently from compound subjects. The subject
that is closer to the verb determines whether the verb is
singular or plural.

 Either the president or his cabinet members are

responsible for this environmental policy. ( two
subject : president, members, members is closer to
the verb and forces the plural verb are. )

 Neither the members of the city council nor mayor

supports more real-estate development ( two
subjects members, mayor, mayor is closer to the
verb and forces the singular verb supports. )
Note that if we reverse the order of the sentences above.
The verb changes.

 Either the cabinet members or the president is

responsible for this environmental policy.

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  Neither the mayor nor the members of the city
council support more real-estate development.
E- Choose the correct verb in the following sentences :
1- Either Ahmed Sameer or Ola Ghanem ……… going to
host this year's party.
2- Neither pollution nor other atmospheric phenomena
……….. thought to be related to the unusual weather
we've been having.
3- Neither the local environmentalists nor the mayor
……….. a plan that will satisfy everyone.
4- Either a major credit card or a check ……….. an
acceptable means of payment.
5- Neither Venus nor the outer planets ………. A
breathable atmosphere.
Choose the correct verb to complete each sentence :
1- The price of airline tickets to England ( had, have )
remained fairly reasonable.
2- His decision ( requires, require ) a lot of thought.
3- She ( doesn’t, don’t ) know the answer to any of the
test questions.

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4- Either the elevator operator or the security guard ( see,
sees ) every visitor.
5- The committee ( agree, agrees ) to the fund-raising
projects for this year.
6- Potato chips and soda ( makes up, make up ) most of
her diet.
7- One of the people in the audience ( is, are ) my brother.
8- There ( was, were ) two raccoons sleeping in the barn
last night.
9- Posted on the bulletin board ( was, were ) the
assignments for the week.
10- Everyone ( takes, take ) the test on Monday.
11- Included in the price of the trip ( was, were ) five
nights in a lovely hotel and all meals.
12- Nobody in the family ( knows, know ) how to swim.
13- Jerry and Craig ( works, work ) well together.
14- The number of essay questions on the state exam
( seems, seem ) to be increasing.
15- Where ( is, are ) the wrapping for these packages ?
16- In the entire building there ( is, are ) only two
windows.

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17- Either the fruits pies or that chocolate cake ( looks,
look ) like the best choice for your picnic.
18- Performing in public ( makes, make ) me nervous.
19- One of my most favorite shows ( is, are ) the
fantasticks.
20- The book for the report ( doesn't, don't ) have to be
from the reading list.
Choose the correct verb to complete each sentences :
1- John's choice of topics to be discussed ( doesn’t – don’t
) have to be now.
2- One of my favorite books ( is – are ) Les Miserables.
3- Either the manager or the secretary ( behaves –
behave ) in a pleasant way.
4- Peanut butter and jelly ( is – are ) my favorite
sandwich.
5- The magazine for the production of cosmetics ( was –
were ) fantastic.
6- An enormous number of political issues ( is – are )
presented in this book.

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7- The assumption that we will ( provides – provide ) a
variety of pictures works of art or music ( is – are )
wrong.
8- The danger of credit cards ( is – are ) that they
( encourages – encourage ) us to spend a lot of
money.
9- The supporter and founder of the committee ( is – are )
Tracy.
10- Neither pollution not atmospheric phenomenon ( was
– were ) thought to be related to the unusual weather.
11- Drawn on the sheets ( was – were ) a beautiful design.
12- Our attempts to silence him ( was – were ) futile.
13- The beautiful outfit that your are wearing ( seems –
seem ) expesive !
14- Either the rice or the potatoes ( is – are ) tasty.
15- The extreme disturbance ( was – were ) caused by the
cats and dogs.
Parallelism
Parallelism (also called parallel structure) is an
important feature of English that makes our speaking, and
especially our writing easier to understand. To make

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speech or writing parallel, put all items in a series in the
same grammatical form.
 Over the weekend ! bought a new car, painted the
living room, and planted a garden. ( All three verbs
in the predicate are in the simple past and in the
active voice )
 The prisoner was arrested, was taken to the police
station, and was booked and fingerprinted. ( All
three verb phrases are in passive voice. )
 My favorite hobbies are skin-diving, reading, and
playing the guitar. ( All three subject complements
are gerunds or gerund phrases )
 Children in this program are not allowed to watch
television or to eat junk food. ( The two
complements are infinitive phrases )
We will concentrate in this unit on parallelism with nouns
and articles and with active or passive voice.

In writing sentences which contain a series of nouns

and articles. You can place the article before each noun or

126
before the first noun only. However, it is more common to
place the article before each noun.
Nonparallel: I bought that make of car for its reliability, it
is durable, and it cost little.
Parallel: I bought that make of car for its reliability,
durability, and economy.
Parallel: I bought that make of car because it was reliable,
durable, and economical.
I bought that make of car because it always worked, it
stood up to hard work, and it used little gas.
In sentences with several items in the passive voice:
the auxiliary may be repeated each time or used before the
first item only. Both styles are equally common.
The prisoner was arrested, was tired, and was found
innocent.
OR
The prisoner was arrested, tried, and found innocent.
NOT
The prisoner was arrested, tried, and was found innocent.
Notice the following nonparallel sentence with two
phrases with the passive voice and one with the active.

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 The evidence was taken to the crime lab, a team of
biochemists analyzed it, and used in a criminal trial.
To put this sentence in parallel structure. Change the
middle item to the passive voice, eliminating the word it.
The evidence was taken to the crime lab, analyzed
by a team of biochemists, and used in a criminal
trail.
B- Each of the following sentences contains an error in
parallelism involving active or passive voice. In each
case. One item is nonparallel with the others. Correct
the nonparallel item.
1- The crop circles in the English countryside have been
photographed, written about, and have been
scientifically analyzed.
2- According to historical records, Billy the Kid was
hunted. Killed in a gunfight, and was buried.
3- Anthropologists speculate that the Atlantis might have
been attacked by unfriendly tribes, decimated by crop
failures, or drought might have driven them away.
4- According to legend. The continent of Atlantis was
struck by devastating earthquakes, inundated by
floods, and the ocean swallowed it up.

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 Adverbs, and adjectives are two other slippery
linguistic points. Their formation and order often cause
problems to ESL students. Below are a simple diagram to
explain them.

It trained
yesterday. He is
coming soon
Tom jogs slowly
It was raining hard

Yesterday tomorrow
always
sometimes
It trained
Last semester soon never yesterday. He is
coming soon

THE ROYAL ORDER OF ADVERBS

Verb Manner Place Frequency Time Purpose

Beth enthusiasticall in every before to keep in

swims y the morning dawn shape
pool

Dad impatiently into every before to get a

walks town afternoon supper newspaper

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Tashond in every before
a naps her morning lunch
room

in actual practice, of course, it would be highly unusual

to have a string of adverbial modifiers beyond two or
three ( at the most ). Because the placement of adverbs
is so flexible, one or two of the modifiers would
probably move to the beginning of the sentence : "Every
afternoon before supper, Dad impatiently walks into
town to get a newspaper." When that happens, the
introductory adverbial modifiers are usually set off with
a comma.

The royal order adverbs was created by Dr. Charles

Darling. Professor of English, Capital Community
College
Adjectives
Adjectives are words that describes a noun. Ugly, funny,
big, round, and loose are all examples of adjectives. Some
less obvious examples are : that dog, her bone, enough

130
food, every room. Adjectives can also describe how much
or how many : fewer friends, less food, more people.

colors quality size emotions numbers demonstrative

blue honest big sad one this ( close )

red loyal small angry two that ( fare )
green sincere tiny happy three these ( close )
orange efficient large nervous first those ( far )
fuchsia confident miniscule second
yellow rude huge third

action verbs of articles possessive ( + noun )

feeling ( can be
used as adj. )

interested / a my ( tradition ) our ( traditions )

interesting an your ( tradition ) your
satisfied / the ( traditions )
satisfying his ( tradition ) their ( traditions )
bored / boring her ( tradition )
excited / exciting its tradition )

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 Verb + ED becomes an adjective when it is used to
describe a person or animal that experiences an emotion
We will call this adjective the Experience adjective.
 One good way to remember to use ED to describe
the Experience is to remember that both words start
with E. The Experience is described with ED.
"Interested, concerned, developed"
Verb + ING becomes an adjective when it is used to
describe the things that cause an emotion. We will call
this the Instigator ( Causing ) adjective.
 One good way to remember to use ING to describe
the Instigator ((or Causing ) adjective is to
remember that both words start with I. The
Instigator is described with ING. " Interesting,
concerning, developing"

E ROYAL ORDER OF AJDECTIVES

erminer observation physical Description origin material qualifier noun

size shape age color

beautiful old Italian touring car

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 expensive antique sliver mirror

long-
gorgeous stemme red silk roses
d

short black hair

big old English sheepd

se square wooden hat boxes

t dilapidated little hunting cabin

eral enormous young American basketball player

me delicious Thai food

Royal orders of adjectives was created by Dr. Charles

Darling, Professor of English, Capital community
College.
Pronouns
Pronouns are words that take the place of a noun.
They constitute a major problem for ESL students who
often confuse them. Study the following table very well.
Example : Carol is nice. She is also pretty. I met her last
night. I saw her new bag. The bag is hers.

133
 subject object possessive Reflexive
( of verb or
preposition)

Singular I me mine myself

you you yours yourself
he him his himself
she her hers herself
it it …… itself

Plural we us ours ourselves

you you yours yourselves
they them theirs themselves

You need to know how to form words from words in

order to enrich your vocab. Also, you need to know how
to do this well to avoid mistakes.
Suffixes to Know
Suffixes (word- endings ) come ate the end of a
word. They show whether the word is a verb, noun,

134
adjective, or adverb. Learning these word-endings can
help you recognize a verb, noun, adjective, or adverb.
Noun Suffixes

These are common endings for nouns. If you see these

endings on a word, then you know it must be a noun

-dom at the end of a word means

 state or condition
 domain, position, rank
 a group with position, office, or rank
wisdom wise + dom means the state of
(n) understanding what is good, right and
lasting

kingdom ( n king + dom means the domain or area

) belonging to a king

-ity at the end of a word means condition or

quality of ……

capability capable + ity means the condition of being

(n) capable

flexibility flexible + ity means the quality of being

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(n) flexible

-ment at the end of a word means act of ………. ;

state of ………… ; result of ……….

contentment content + ment means the state of bein

(n) satisfied (content )

-sion, - tion at end of a word means act of …….. ; state

celebration of …
(n) celebrate + tion means the act of
celebrating

-ness at the end of the word means state of

toughness ………
(n) tough + ness means the state being tough.

-ance, -ence at the end of a word means act of …… ;

assistance state of ……… ; quality of ………….
(n) assist + ance means act of giving help

-er, - or at the end of a word means one who ……. ;

that which …………

fighter ( n ) fight + er means one who fights.

actor ( n ) act + or means one who acts

-ist at the end of a word means one who …… ;

136
 that which ………
violin + ist means one who plays the vilion.
violinist
(n)

Adjective Suffixes

These are common word endings for adjectives. If you see

these ending at the end of a word, you can be certain it is
an adjective.

-ive at the end of a word means doing or

tending toward doing some action

extensive (adj) extend + ive means doing something

large or amount.

selective (adj) select + ive means tending to select.

-en at the end of a word means made of

wooden ( adj ) ………
wood + en mean made of wood.
Note : When the word is an adjective,
the –en means made of ……..
We have seen-en at the end of a verb.

137
 There it means to make

-ic at the end of a word means

characteristic of …… ; like …….
hero + ic means characteristic of a hero.
heroic ( adj )
poet + ic mean characteristic of ( or like
poetic ( adj )
) poets or poetry.

-al sometimes makes an adjective ; when it

financial (adj) makes an adjective it means relating to
finance + al means relating to finance. (

manual ( adj ) Finance means money. )

manu + al means relating to the hand.
( Manus means hand in Latin )

-able at the end of a word means able …… ;

can ….. ; or giving ……..

protable (adj) port + able means can be carried ; able

to be carried.

pleasurable(adj ) pleasure + able means giving pleauser

-y at the end of a word mean having ……

hairy ( adj) hair + y means having hair ( a lot of
rainy ( adj ) hair )

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 rain + y means having rain.

-ous at the end of a word means full of

……… ; having ……….

mysterious (adj) mystery + ous means full of mystery.

-ful at the end of a word means full of

……….. ; having ……..

hopeful (adj) hope + ful means full of hope.

beautiful (adj) beauty + ful means full of beauty

Note : The suffix-ful is always spelled
with one I ; the word full has two.

- less at the end of a word means without

powerless (adj) ……

homeless(adj) power + less means without power.

Home + less means without a home.

Verb suffixes
These are common endings for verbs. If you see these
endings on a word, then the word is most likely a verb.

-en at the end of word means to make

139
brighten ( v ) ………
soften ( v ) bright + en means to make bright.
soft + en means to make soft.

-ize at the end of a word means to make

publicize ( v ) …….
public + ize means to make public or to
make the public aware of.

-ate at the end of a word means to have or

be characterized by ………

activate ( v ) active + ate means to make active.

differentiate( v ) different + ate means to make or show a

difference.

-ify or –fy at the end of a word means to cause to

become or to make.

simplify ( v ) simple + ify means to make simple or

simpler.

Adverb Suffix
This is the most common ending for an adverb. If you see
this ending on a word, you can be fairly certain that it is

140
an adverb. However, keep in mind that not all adverbs end
this way.

-ly at the end of a word almost always makes

an adverb ; occasionally it will make an

quickly adjective.

( adv ) quick + ly

Spelling problems

When the sound is a long "e" (as in feed), write "i" before
"e", except after "c". After "c" reverse the spelling ("ei"):
After other letters
Believe, yield, reprieve
After c
Ceiling, perceive, conceit

The problem with this rule is that it works only when

"ei"/"ie" sounds like the "ee" in feet. If it has any other
sound, you should write "ei" even after letters other than
"c":
foreign, vein, freight

Choose the proper spelling of the following words.

141
When a word ends in "y" preceded by a consonant, you
should usually change the "y" to "i" before adding the
suffix:
curly becomes curlier
party becomes parties
thirty becomes thirties, thirtieth

However, if the suffix already begins with "i", keep the

"y" (except before the suffix "-ize"):
thirty becomes thirtyish
fry becomes frying
agony becomes agonize
memory becomes memorize

When the ending "y" is preceded by a vowel ("a" "e" "i"

"o" or "u"), "y" does not change to "i":
journey becomes journeying
trolley becomes trolleys

If a word ends in a consonant followed by a silent "e",

drop the "e" before endings beginning with a vowel, but
keep the "e" before endings beginning with a consonant:
engage becomes engaging but engagement

142
 care becomes caring but careful
fate becomes fatal but fateful
scarce becomes scarcity but scarcely

Double the final consonant before a suffix beginning with

a vowel if both of the following are true: the consonant
ends a stressed syllable or a one-syllable word, and the
consonant is preceded by a single vowel:
drag becomes dragged
wet becomes wetter
occur becomes occurred, occurring
refer becomes referral, referring
Choose the correct form of the following words.

1. Which is correct?
1. safely
2. safly
‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬
2. Which is correct?
1. argueing
2. arguing

‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬

143
‫?‪3. Which is correct‬‬
‫‪1. guideance‬‬
‫‪2. guidance‬‬

‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬
‫?‪4. Which is correct‬‬
‫‪1. excitement‬‬
‫‪2. excitment‬‬

‫ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ‬
‫?‪5. Which is correct‬‬
‫‪1. hopeful‬‬
‫‪2. hopful‬‬

‫‪Chapter Eight‬‬

‫!‪Doing the Right Thing‬‬

‫‪144‬‬
Using the Right Word

A, an A is used before words that begin

with consonant sound; An is used
before words that begin with any
vowel sound except long “U”.
A heap, a cat, an idol, an
elephant, an honor, a Historian,
an umbrella, a unicorn.
Accept, expect The verb accept means “to
receive”; the proposition except
means “other than”.
Mellissa graciously accepted
defeat. (verb)
All the boys except Zach were
here. (proposition)
Affect, effect Affect is almost always a verb; it
means “to influence”. Effect can
be a verb, but it is most often
used as a noun that means “the
result”.
How does population growth

145
 affect us?
What are the effect of population
growth?
Allowed, aloud The verb allowed means
“permitted” or “let happen” aloud
is an adverb that means “in a
normal voice”.
We aren’t allowed to read aloud
in the library.
Allusion, illusion An allusion is a brief reference to
or mention of a famous person,
place, thing, or idea. An illusion
is a false impression or idea.
The great dontini, a magician,
made an allusion to
Houdini as he created the illusion
of sawing his assistance in half.
A lot A lot is not one word, but two; it
is general descriptive phrase
meaning “plenty”. (it should be
avoided in formal writing)
All right Al right is not one word, but two;

146
 it is a phrase meaning
“satisfactory” or “okay” (please
note, the following are spelled
correctly: always, altogether,
already, almost).

Grammar Practice
 Using the right word 1
o Accept, expect; affect, effect; illusion, allusion; all right
For each Of the following sentence, write the correct
choice from each set of words in parentheses
Example: Dennis thought be saw pools of water in the
parking lot on that hot, hot day, but it was
just an (allusion, illusion).
1) I guess the sun can (affect, effect) us in many ways!
2) Will give away all the kittens (accept, expect) the two
that we’re keeping.
3) will it be (all right, alright) with your mom if you take
4) Ms. Whitsom thinks consonant cloudy weather has a
bad (affect, effect) on a person’s outlook.
5) You outfit looks (all right, alright) to me.

147
6) All the mail was addressed to Dad (accept, expect) for
one handwritten letter, which was addressed to me.
7) “Please (accept, expect) my apology, “the letter began.
8) Some students do not understand Roy’s (allusion,
illusion) to start trick in his speech during science
class.
Next step: write three sentences that show you know the
meaning of these words: allusion, effect, and expect.
Using the Right Word
Already, Already is adverb that tells when. All
All ready ready is a phrase meaning “completely
ready”. We have already eaten breakfast;
now we are all ready for school
Altogether Altogether is always an adverb meaning
All together “completely”.
Altogether is used to describe people or
things that are gathered in one place at
one time.
Ms. Monces held her baton in the air and
said, “Okay, class all together now:
sing!”
Unfortunately, there was together too

148
 much street noise for us to hear her.
Among, Among is used when speaking of more
between than two persons or things. Between is
used when speaking of only two.
The three friends talked among
themselves as they tried to
Choose between trumpet or trombone
lessons.
Amount Amount is used to describe things that
Number you cannot count.
Number is used when you can actually
count the persons or things.
The amount is interested in playing the
tuba is shown by the number of kids
learning to play the instrument.
Annual An annual event happens once every
Biannual year. A biannual (or semiannual) event
Semiannual happens twice a year. A biennial event
Biennial happens every two years. A perennial
Perennial event happens year after year.
The annual PTA rummage sale is so
successful that it will now be a

149
 semiannual event.
The neighborhood has some wonderful
perennial flowers.
Ant, aunt An ant is an insect. An aunt is a female
relative (the sister of a person’s mother or
father)
My aunt is an entomoiogist, a scientist
who studied ants and other insects.
Ascent, Ascent is the act of rising or climbing;
assent assent is agreement.
After the group’s ascent of five flight of
stairs to the meeting room, plans for
elevator repairs met the quick assent.

Grammar Practice
 Using the right word 2
o Altogether, all together; among, between; amount,
number; annual, biannual, semiannual, biennial,
perennial; ascent, assent.

For each the following sentences, write the correct

choice from each set words in parentheses

150
Example: the (ascent, assent) of Mount Everest is hard
and dangerous
1) The (amount, number) of climbers who successfully
climb Mount Everest varies from year to year.
2) For the people of Tibet and Nepal, the arrival of
climbing tea ms every May has become (an annual, a
biennial, a perennial) event.
3) Some climbing routes on the mountain are more
dangerous than others because of the (amount,
number) of snow of the ridges.
4) The (amount, number) of days of good weather is very
low.
5) Some critics believe that there are (altogether, all
together) to many inexperienced climbers on Mount
Everest.
6) Mountaineers must scrambled (among, between)
numerous Ice-Covered rocks.
7) Prior to a climb, each hiker must (ascent, assent) to
doing his or her Part for the team.
8) (Altogether, all together), team members decide on
tasks for the Day.

151
9) Astwo climbers make their way up the mountain, the
distance (among, between) them usually not very great.
10) One man who climb once is may and once in
October says his (Biannual, biennial) climbs keep him
in shape.
11) After reaching the top of Mount Everest each year
during A five-year period, as seasoned mountaineer
said that these (annual, semiannual) climbs had worn
him out.

Using the Right Word

Bare, bear The adjective bare means “naked”. A

bear is a large, heavy animal with shaggy
hair.
Despite his bare feet, the man chased the
polar bear across the snow.
The verb bear means “to put up with” or
“to carry”.
Shondra could not bear another of her
older sister’s Lectures.
Base, bass Base is the foundation or the lower part
of something. Bass (pronounced like

152
 “base”) is a deep sound or tone.
The stereo speakers are on a base so solid
that even the loudest bass tones don’t
rattle it.
Bass (rhymes with “mass”) is a fish.
Jim hooked a record-setting bass, but it
got away………… so he says.
Beat, beet The verb beat means “to strike, to defeat”
and the noun beat is a musical term for
rhymes or tempo. A beet is a carrot like
vegetable (often red). The beat of the
drum in the marching band encouraged
the fans to cheer on the team. After they
beat west highs team four games to one,
many team members were as red as a
beat.
Berth, birth Berth is a space or compartment. Birth is
the process of being born.
We bulled aside the curtains in our train
berth to view the birth of a new day
outside our window.
Beside, Beside means “by the side of “. Besides

153
 besides means “in addition to”. Besides a
flashlight, kedar likes to keep his pet boa
beside his bed at night.
Billed, Billed means either “to be given a bill” or
build “to have a beak”.The verb build means
“to constructed”
We asked the carpenter to build us a
birdhouse. She build us for time and
materials.
Blew, blue Blew is the past tense of “blow”. Blue is
a color and is also used to means “feeling
low in spirit”. As the wild blue out the
candles in the dark. Blue room I felt
more blue than ever.
Grammar Practice
o Bare, bear; base, bass; berth, birth; beside, besides
 Using the right word 3

For each the following sentences, write the word from

the list above to fill in the blank

154
Example: at the …………….. Of the status of library is
plaque that says her lamp is a sign of
welcome to those seeking freedom.
1) The …………………….. European countries,
immigrants to the United States Africa.
2) Pictures of immigrants in the early 1900s show
children with …………………. hands in cold weather.
3) The desire for freedom and opportunity was at the
…………………. Of many immigrants’ decisions to
endure the Journey.
4) Many immigrants would spend most of the long
voyage in a crowded …………….. Below the
waterline of the ship.
5) From there, the passenger could hear and sometimes
feel the deep …………………. Sounds of the ship’s
engines.
6) The ship’s crewmembers were occasionally called on
to assist in the …………………. Of a baby.
7) After a two-week voyage, many passengers couldn’t
…………………. Another day at sea.
8) Tugboats …………………. The ocean liners guided
them into the harbor at the weary travelers celebrated.

155
Next step: find the other definitions for beat and bass
explained on the facing page. Write two sentence that
show your understanding of these definitions.
Using the Right Word

Board, A board is a piece of wood. Board also

bored means “a group or council that helps run
an organization”
The school board approved the purchase
of 5 pine boards for the woodworking
classes.
Bored means “to become weary and tired
of something”.
It can also mean, “made a hole by
drilling”.
Dule bored a hole in the ice and dropped
in a fishing line. Waiting and waiting for
a bite bored him.
Borrow, Borrow means, “to receive for a
lend temporary use”. Lend means “to give for
a temporary use”
I asked mom “may I borrow $15 for a

156
 CD?”
She said, “I can lend you $15until next
Friday”.
Brake, A break is a device used to stop a
break vehicle. The verb break means “to split,
crack, or destroy” as a noun, break
means “gap or interruption”
After the brake on my bike failed, I took
a break to fix it so I would not break a
bone.
Bring, take Use bring when the action is moving
towards the speaker; use take when the
action is moving away from the speaker.
Grandpa asked me to take the garbage
out and bring him today’s paper.
By, buy, bye By is a proposition meaning “near” or
“not later than” buy is a verb meaning
“to purchase”
By tomorrow, I hope to buy tickets for
the final match of the tournament.
Bye is the position of being
automatically advanced to the nest

157
 tournament round without playing.
Our soccer team received a bye because
of our winning record.
Can, may Can means “able to” while may means
“permitted to”
“Can I go to the library?”
(This actually means, “are my mind and
body strong enough to get me there?”
“May I got?”
This means, “do I have your permission
to go?”
Grammar Practice:
 Using the right word 4
o Borrow, lend; brake, break; bring, take; by, buy,
bye; can, may
For each the following sentences, write the correct
choice from each set of words in parentheses

Example: when I was sick at home, I asked Salvatore to

(bring, take) me my homework.
1) Suddenly the car’s (brake, break) pedal wasn’t
working).

158
2) sanji was able to make the car stop.
3) Our team will sit out the first round if we are given
(by, buy, bye) in the tournament schedule
4) Vanessa has some black pants that she’ll (borrow,
lend) me for the choir concert
5) I still need to (by, buy, bye) a white shirt, though.
6) We need to ask if we (can, may) hold a party for Alex.
7) We don’t mind if we have to (bring, take) our own
food.
8) I can’t find the pen that is usually kept right here (by,
buy, bye) the phone.
9) All you needs is a library card to (borrow, lend)
books, CD’s, or magazines from any library in the
system.
10) You never have to (by, buy, bye) any of that again!
11) A city crime record is one record that its citizens
really don’t want to (brake, break).
12) “here, let me (bring, take) that for you,” Maura
offered as I carried my heavy suitcase.
13) “No, thanks. I (can, may) carry it,” I said
Next step: write two sentences that show your
understanding of the words borrow and lend.

159
Using the Right Word
Canvas, Canvas is a heavy cloth; canvass means,
canvass “ask people for votes or opinions”.
Our old canvas tent leaks.
Someone with a clipboard is canvassing
the neighborhood.
Capital, Capital can be either a noun, referring to a
capitol city or to money, or an adjective, meaning
“major or important”. Capitol is used only
when talking about building.
The capitol building in the capital city for
a capital (major)
Reason: the city government contributed
the capital (money) for the building
project.
Cell, sell Cell mean :”a small room” or “ a small
unit of life basic to all plants and animals”
cell is a verb meaning “to give up for a
price”
Today we looked at a human skin cell

160
 under a microscope.
Let’s sell those old bicycle at the
rummage sale.
Cent, sent, Cent (1/100 of dollar) is a coin, sent is the
scent past tense of the verb “send”; scent is an
odor or smell.
After our car hit a skunk, we sent our
friends a postcard that said, “one cent
doesn’t go far, but skunk scent seems to
last forever”.
Chord, Chord may mean “an emotion or a
cord feeling”. But it is more often used to mean
“the sound of three or more musical tones
played at the same time. “A cord is a
string or rope”.
The band struck a chord at the exact
moment the mayor pulled the cored on the
drape covering the new statue
Chose, Chose (choz) is the past tense of the verb
choose choose (chooze).
This afternoon mom chose Tacos and hot
sauce; this evening she will choose an

161
 antacid.
Coarse, Coarse means “rough or crude”. Course
course means “a path” or “a class or serious of
studies”.
In our cooking course, we learned to use
coarse salt and freshly ground pepper in
salads.
Grammar Practice:
 Using the right word 5
o Canvas, canvass; capital, capitol; chord, cord;
coarse, course
Write a word from the above list to property complete
each of following sentences

Example: Phil used ………………….. sand paper to

remove the paint from the old dresser.

1) When Tasha was learning how to play the guitar, she

played the same ………………….. over and over
again.
2) The class trip included a tour of the ………………..
building in Washington, D.C.

162
3) Elaine’s family fits into one huge …………………
tent when they go camping
4) The tie the bulky, heavy tent the car roof with lots of
nylon .……………………
5) Last year the high school offered its first
……………………. In German.
6) Jackson is the state ……………………. Mississippi.
7) Whenever our dog would get lost, we would
…………….the neighborhood looking for him.
8) On my way to school yesterday, I took
…………………. Through the Woods that that I
hadn’t taken before.

Next step: write two sentences that show your

understanding of the words capital and capitol.

Using the Right Word

Complement, Complement means “to complete or go
compliment with” compliment is an expression of
admiration or praise.
Aunt Athena said, “your cheese sauce

163
 really complement this cauliflower!”
“thanks you for your compliment” I
replied.
Continual, Continual refers to something that
Continuous happens again and again; Continuous
refers to something that doesn’t stop
happening.
Sunlight hits Peoria, lowa, on a
continual basis, but sunlight hits the
earth continuously.
Counsel, When used as a noun, counsel means
council “to advice” council refers to a group
that advises.
The student council asked for counsel
from its trusted advisor.
Creak, creek A creak is a squeaking sound, a creek is
a stream.
I heard a creak from the old dock under
my feet as I finished in the creek.
Cymbal, A Cymbal is a metal instrument shaped
symbol like a plate. A symbol is something
(usually visible) that stands for or

164
 represents another thing or idea (usually
invisible).
The damaged cymbal lying on the stage
was a symbol of the band’s final
concert.
Dear, deer Dear means “loved or valued”; deer are
animals.
My dear, old great-grandmother leaves
corn and salt licks in her yard to attract
deer.
Desert, A desert is a barren wilderness. Dessert
dessert is a food served at the end of the meal.
In the desert, cold water is more
inviting than even the richest dessert.
The verb desert means “to abandon”;
the noun desert (pronounced like the
verb) means “deserving reward or
punishment”.
A spy who deserts his country will
receives his just deserts if he is caught.

Grammar Practice

165
  Using the right word
o Complement, compliment; continual, continuous;
counsel, council; dear, deer; desert, dessert

For each unnumbered sentence below, write the

correct choice from the set of words in parentheses

Example: some (dear, deer) appeared on the edge of the

field.
(1)After a light dinner, Kiana brought some (desert,
dessert) to the table. (2)She said, “I also have the perfect
(complement, compliment) for these brownies-hazelnut
ice creams” as she and Juwan ate, he kept making “mmm”
sounds (3) I’ll take that as (complement, compliment),
Kiana said. (4) Then she said, “Juwan, I’ve noticed there’s
a (continual, continuous) or do you won’t stop. Do you
think I should have it checked?” (5) Juwan said, “Do you
want my (counsel, council) or do you want me to actually
check it?” (6) “well, yes, please see if you can fix it
yourself, (dear, deer). And while you’re at it, take a look
at the humidifier, too (7) It feels like a (desert, dessert) in
here” Kiana said. (8) “Kiana”, Juwan said, “your

166
(continual, continuous) requests for me to check things are
a signal. Your apartment is falling apart!” I know (9) I’m
going to bring it up at the next renters (counsel, council)
meeting” she said, “in the meantime, thanks for being so
handy!”
Next step: write a few lines of dialogue between two
friends. Include at least two of the words from the list at
the top of the page.
Using the Right Word
Die, dye Die (dying) means “to stop living”. Dye
(dyeing) is used to change the color of
something.
The young girl hoped that her sick
goldfish wouldn’t die.
My sister dyes her hair with coloring
that washes out.
Faint, feign, Faint means “feeble, without strength”
feint or “to fall unconscious”
Feign is a verb that means “ a move or
an activity that means “to pretended in
order to divert attention”
The actors feigned a sword dual. One

167
 man staggered and fell in a feint. The
audience gave faint applause.
Farther is used when you are writing
Farther, about physical distance. Further means
further “additional”.
Alaska reaches farther north than
Iceland. For further information check
your local library.
Fewer, less Fewer refer to the number of separate
units; less refers to bulk quantity.
I may have less money than you have ,
but I have fewer worries
Fir, fur Fir refers to a type of evergreen tree; fur
is animal hair.
The Douglas fir tree is named after a
Scottish botanist
An arctic fox has white fur in the winter
Flair, flare Flair means “a natural talent” or “style”;
flare means “to light up quickly” or
“burst out” (or an object that does so).
Jenrette has a flair for remaining calm
when other people’s tempers flare

168
 For, four The proposition for means “because of”
or “directed to”; four is the number 4.
Mary had grilled steaks and chicken for
the party, but the dog had stolen one of
the four steaks.
Grammar Practice
 Using the right word 7
o Faint, feign, feint; Farther, further; Fewer, less;
Flair, flare; for, four
For each sentence below, write the word “correct” if
the underlined word is used correctly. If it is incorrect,
write the right word.

Example: during a Marathon, which is just over 26

miles long, some runners faint along the way

1) Some of the runners have less stamina than others.

2) Those who can endure run further than many who
begin the race.
3) Less runners finish the race than start it.
4) Near the end, a few minutes away feel like four hours.

169
5) Only a surge of energy that flares up at this point will
get the runners to the finish line.
6) Occasionally, a competitor will feign a move to one
side before giving a burst of speed.
7) Most of Marathoners practice four at least a year prior
to the race
8) A few people run a Marathon every year, but many are
not interested in farther Marathons once they’ve run
one.
9) One runner, who has a definite flare for humor, wears
a funny hat as he runs.
10) He also seems to stumble a lot, perhaps as some sort
of faint.

Next step: write two sentences two sentences about

some kind of race to show your understanding of the
words farther and further.
Using the Right Word
6Good. Well Good is an adjective. Well in nearly
always as adverb.
The strange flying machines flew well.
(the adverb well modifies flew).

170
 They looked good as they flew
overhead. (the adjective good modifies
they)
When used in writing about health. Well
is an adjective.
The pilots did not feel well, however,
after the long, hard race.
Hare, hair A hare is an animal similar to a rabbit;
hair refers to the growth covering the
head and body of mammals and human
beings.
When a hare darted out in front of our
care, the hair in my hair stood up.
Heal, heel Heal means, “to mend or restore to
health”. Heel is the back part of a human
foot.
I got a blisteron my heel from wearing
my new shoes. It won’t heal unless I
wear my old ones.
Hear, here Your hear sounds with your ears. Here is
the opposite of there and means
“nearby”

171
Heard, herd Heard is the past tense of the verb “to
hear”; heard is the group of animals.
The heard of grazing sheep raised their
heads when they heard the collie parking
in the distance.
Hole, whole A hole is a cavity or hollow place.
Whole means “entire or complete”
The hole on the ozone layer is a serious
problem requiring the attention of the
whole world
Immigrate, Immigrate means “to come into a new
emigrate country or area” emigrate means “to go
out of one country to live in another”
Martin Ulferts immigrated to his country
in 1882. He was only three years old
when emigrated from Germany.

Grammar Practice
 Using the right word 8
o Good, Well; Heal, heel; Hear, here; Hole,
whole; Immigrate, emigrate

172
For each sentence below has a choice of words in
parentheses. Write the word that makes the sentence
correct

Example: did you (hear, here) the latest news

After her heart surgery, Granny Kasten is
feeling surprisingly.
(good, well)

1) The doctor said it may take a few months for her to

(heal, heel) completely.
2) When she (Immigrate, emigrate) to his country, she
was only 12 years old.
3) When Sybil broke her (heal, heel), she had to stay off
her foot for two months.
4) My dad’s parents (Immigrate, emigrate) from laos
5) We often (hear, here) them talk about their lives there.
6) My grandparents adjusted (good, well) to living in this
country.
7) I can’t play in this weekend’s concert because there is
a (hole, whole) in my drum.

173
8) Deshawn is (good, well) at coming up with creative
ideas for art projects
9) Will this school still be (hear, here) in 50 years?

Next step: write three sentences that show you know the
meaning of these words “good, well and heal”.

Using the Right Word

Imply, infer Imply means “to suggest indirectly”;
infer means “to draw a conclusion from
facts”.
“Since you have to work, may I infer that
you won’t come to my party?” Guy
asked.
“no, I meant to imply that I would be late
“Rochelle responded”
It’s a contraction of “it is”. Its is the
It’s, its possessive from “it”.
It’s a fact that a minnow’s teeth are in its
throat
Knew, new Knew is the past tense of the verb
“know”. New means “recent or modern”

174
 If I knew how to fix it, I would need a
new one.
Know, no Know means “to recognize or
understand” no means “the opposite of
yes”.
Phil, do you know Cheri?
No, I’ve met her.
Later, Later means “after a period of time”.
latter Latter refers to “the second of two things
mentioned”.
The band arrived later and set up the
speakers and lights.
The latter made the stage look like a
carnival ride.
Lay, lie Lay means “to place”. (lay is a transitive
verb; that mean it needs a word to
complete the meaning). Lie means “to
recline”. (Lie is an intransitive verb).
Lay your sleeping bag on the floor before
you lie down on it. ((lay needs the word
bag to complete its meaning).
Lead, led Lead (led) is a present tense verb

175
 meaning “to guide”. The past tense of the
verb is “led”. The noun lead (led) is the
metal.
Guides planned to lead the settlers to safe
quarters. Instead, they led them into a
winter storm.
Peeling paint in old houses may contain
lead.
Learn, Learn means “to get information”; teach
teach means “to give information”
I want to learn how to sew. Will you
teach me?
Grammar Practice:
 Using the right words 9
o Imply, infer; later, latter; lay, lie; learn, teach

For each numbered word below, write the word

“correct” if it is used correctly. If it is incorrect, write
the right word.

Example: are you inferring that I’m not smart enough?

176
Mr. Levine was attempting to (1) Learn us a difficult
scientific concept. After answering some questions, he
said, “From the looks on some of your faces, I (2) imply
that you still don’t get it”. “Mr. Levine”, Davion said,
“isn’t there another way that we can (3) “learn this?”
Albert added, “why do we need to know this, anyway?”
Without being too obvious, Mr. Levine (4) implied that
we should all fail the exam if we didn’t understand it.
“Furthermore,” he said “if you don’t have some basic
curiosity, you might as well just (5) lay down and sleep
away your life”. (6) Latter in the week, Mr. Levine come
up with a difficult way to (7) teach us about the
characteristics of atoms. He asked Chaya to (8) lie her
fleece jacket on some carpet. (he had brought a piece of
the (9) later from home) then he shut off the light and told
Chaya to drag her jacket back and forth on the carpet.
There were sparks! Mr. Levine explained to us that static
forms when one material pulls electrons away from the
other. And, just like that, we had (10) learned something!

Next step: here is an easy way to remember the difference

between imply and infer :”when you (with a y) imply, I

177
infer”. Try to think of something that will help you
remember the difference between lay and Lie.

Using the Right Word

Leave, let Leave means “fail to take along|”. Let
means “allow”
Rolz wanted to leave her boots at home
but Jorge wouldn’t let her.
Like, as Like is a proposition meaning “similar
to”; as is a conjunction meaning “to the
same degree” or “while” like usually
introduces a phrase, as usually introduces
a clause.
The glider floated like a bird. The gilder
floated as the pilot had hoped it would.
As we circled the airfield, we saw
maintenance carts moving like ants
below us.
Loose, lose, Loose (lus) means “free or united”; lose
loss (looz) means to “misplace or fail to win”;
loss (los), means “something lost”.
These jeans are too loose in the waist

178
 since my recent weight loss. I still want
to lose a few more pounds.
Made, maid Made is the past tense of “make” which
means to “create” “prepare”, or “put on
order”. A maid is a female servant; maid
also used to describe an unmarried girl or
young woman.
The hotel maid asked if our beds needed
to be made.
Grandma made a chocolate cake for
dessert.
A maid strolled in the garden before the
concert.
Mail, male Mail refers to letters or packages handled
by the postal service.
Male refers to the masculine sex.
My little brother likes getting junk mail.
The male sea horse, not the female takes
care of the fertilized eggs.
Main, mane Main refers to “the most important part”.
Mare is the long hair growing from the
top or sides of the neck of certain

179
 animals, such as the horse, lion, and so
on.
The main thing we noticed about the
magician’s tamed lion was its luxurious
mane.
Meat, meet Meat is food or flesh; meet means “to
come upon or encounter”. I’d like to
meet the butcher who sells the leanest
meat in town

Grammar Practice:
 Using the right word 10
o Like, as; loose, lose, loss; mail, male; main,
mane

For each the following sentences write the correct

choice from the set of words parentheses.

Example: the road crew set up detour signs and began

repairing the village’s (main, mane) street
1) Bianca wears her hair in (loose, lose, loss) curls around
her face.

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2) Four thousands of year, people have dreamed of flying
(like, as) a bird.
3) In the 1980s, rock stars sported big, wild (mains,
manes) of hair.
4) Most people know to avoid a bull moose, which is a
(mail, male) moose, but a mother moose with a calf is
equally dangerous.
5) Is California or Florida the (main, mane) producer of
oranges in the United States?
6) The basketball players from Orson Middle School
celebrated their victory (like, as) their fans screamed
with joy.
7) The opposing team took their (loose, lose, loss) well,
even though it was their last game.
8) Worrying causes many people to (loose, lose, loss)
sleep.
9) In the hottest parts of Africa, some lions have almost
no (main, mane).
10) More and more people around the world now send
and receive (mail, male) electronically.
11) I wish I had a friend (like, as) you.

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Next step: write three sentences that show you
understanding of the words loss, loose, and lose

Using the Right Word

Medal, metal A medal is an award. Metal is an
, meddle, element like iron or gold.
mettle Meddle means “interfere”. Mettle, a
noun refers to quality of character.
Grandpa’s friend received a medal for
showing his mettle in battle. Grandma,
who loves to meddle in others’ business,
asked if the award was a precious metal.
Miner, A miner digs in the ground for valuable
minor one; a minor is a person who is not
legally an adult. Minor means “of no
great importance” when use as an
adjective.
The use minors as miners are no minor
problem.
Moral, Moral relates to what is right or wrong
morale or to the lesson to be drawn from a
story. Morale refers to person’s attitude

182
 or mental condition.
The moral of this story is “everybody
loves a winner”
After the unexpected win at football,
morale with high throughout the town.
Morning, Morning refers to the first part of the
mourning day (before noon); mourning means
“showing sorrow”
Abby was mourning her test grades all
morning.
Oar, or, ore An oar is a paddle used in rowing or
steering a boat. Or is a conjunction
indicating choice. Ore refers to mineral
made up of several different kinds of
material, as in iron ore.
Either use one oar to push us away from
the dock, or start the boat’s motor.
Silver-copper ore is smelted and refined
to exact each metal
Pain, pane Pain is the feeling of being hurt. A pane
is a section or part of something.
Dad looked like he was in pain when he

183
 find out we broke a pane of glass in the
neighbor’s front door.
Pair, pare, A pair is a couple (two); pare is a verb
pear meaning “to peel”
Pear is the fruit.
A pair of doves nested in the pear tree.
Please pare the apples for the pie.
Grammar Practice:
 Using the right word 11
o Meddle, mettle; moral, morale; morning,
mourning; pain, pane

For each the following sentences write a word from the

list above to fill in the blank.
Example: people’s ……………………. Often sags when
winter drags on.
1) Some people ……………………. The long, worm
summer days that have passed, can’t see the beauty of
autumn.
2) When Kaleb picked up the pile of heavy, wet clothes,
he felt a sharp ………………. In his back.

184
3) Once last winter, the extreme cold formed delicate
frost flowers on the window ………………………..
4) Grandma thinks that the ……………………….. values
of young people have sunk to a new low.
5) “I appreciate your interest”, said Alejandra “but I
really don’t need you to ……………………… in this
situation”.
6) Thad is …………………….. the loss of his beloved
dog.
7) Sometimes only time will ease the ………………….
Of such a loss.
8) A firefighter’s …………………….. is tested every
time an emergency requires swift action.
9) Sometimes only time will ease the ………………….
Of such a loss.
10) I find that ………………….is the best time for me
to work out.
11) It is a person’s ………………………. Obligation to
help someone in need?
12) The team’s high ……………………, despite a
string of defeats, was inspiring.

185
Next step: write some sentences using one word from
each of the four words groups at the top of the page.
Using the Right Word
Past, passed Passed is always a verb; it is a past tense
of pass. Past can be used as a noun, as
an adjective, or as preposition.
A motorcycle passed my dad’s ‘vette
(verb)
The old man won’t forget the past
(noun)
I’m sorry, but I’d rather not talk about
my past life. (adjective)
Old blue walked right past the cat and
never saw it. (preposition)
Peace means “harmony or freedom from
Peace, piece war”. A piece a part of fragment of
something
In order to keep peace among the
triplets, each one had to haven identical
piece of cake.
Peak, peek, A peak is a “high point” or “pointed
pique end”. Peek means “brief look”. Pique, as

186
 a verb, means, “to excite by
challenging”; as a noun, it means “a
feeling of resentment”.
Just a peek at pike’s peak in the Rocky
Mountain can pique a mountain
climber’s curiosity.
In a pique, she marched away from her
giggling sisters.
Personal, Personal means “private”. Personnel are
personnel people working at a job. Some thoughts
are too personal to share. The personnel
manager will be hiring new workers.
Plain, plane Plain is an area of land that is flat or
level; it is also means “clearly seen or
cleanly understood” and “ordinary”.
Plane means “a flat, level surface” (as in
geometry) it is also a tool used to
smooth the surface of wood.
When I saw the door wasn’t a perfect
plane, I used a phone to make it smooth.
Pore, pour, A pore is an opening in the skin. Pour
poor means “to cause a flow or stream” poor

187
 means “needy”.
People perspire through the pores in
their skin. Pour yourself a glass of
water; your poor body needs it.

Grammar Practice:
 Using the right word 12
o Past, passed; peace, piece; peak, peek, pique; pore,
pour, poor

For each sentence below, write the word “correct” if

the underlined word is used correctly. If it is incorrect,
write the right word

Example: I look up for my book and realize that my bus

was now more than a mile past my stop

1) I peaked at my watch and wondered if I get possibly

get to my dentist appointment in time.
2) I took out what I thought was my bus schedule and
discovered that it was only a small peace of blank
paper.

188
3) I got off the bus and saw just the pique of the pique of
the building where I needed to be in 15 minutes.
4) I walked as I fast as I could, and soon I was sweating
from every pour in my body
5) That would pique anyone’s thirst, so I got a bottle of
water from my backpack.
6) When I’d had enough, I decided to poor the rest of it
on a small tree before throwing the empty bottle in a
city waste can.
7) I was so focuses on satisfying my thirst that I almost
past the dentist’s office.
8) I gratefully sat at piece in the waiting room
9) My pore feet needed the rest.
10) I was glad that this experience with now on my
passed.
Next step: write a paragraph about a time when you
were late. Use as many of the words in the list at the top
of the page as you can.

Using the Right Word

Principal, As an adjective, principal means

“primary”. As a noun, it can mean “a

189
principle school administration” or “a sum of
money”. Principle means “idea or
doctrine”.
My mom’s principal goal is to save
money so she can pay off the principal
balance on her loan from the bank.
Hey, Charlie, I hear the principal gave
you a detention.
The principle of freedom is based on the
principle of self-discipline.
Quiet, quit, Quiet is the opposite of “noisy”. Quit
quite means “to stop”. Quite means
“completely” or “entirely”.
I quit mowing even though I wasn’t
quite finished.
The neighborhood was quiet again
Raise, rays, Raise is a verb meaning, “to lift or
raze elevate”. Rays are thin lines or beams.
Raze is a verb that means, “to tear down
completely”.
When I raise this shade, bright rays of
sunlight stream into the room.

190
 Construction workers will raze the old
theater to make room for a sparking lot.
Real, very, Do not use the adjective real in place of
really the adverb very …………
The plants scattered throughout the
restaurant are not real. Pimples are very
embarrassing
Her nose is really small.
Red, read Red is a color; read; pronounced the
same way, is the past tense of the verb
meaning of written word and symbols.
“I’ve read five books in two days; said
the little boy. The Librarian give him a
red ribbon

Using the Right Word

Right, Right means “correct or proper”. Right is

write, rite the opposite of “left”; it also refer to
anything that a person has a legal claim to,
as in “copyright”. Write means “to record
in print”. Rite is a ritual or ceremonial act.
We have to write an easy about how our

191
 rights are protected by the constitution
Turn right at the next corner.
A rite of passage is a ceremony that
celebrates becoming an adult.
Scene, seen Scene refers to setting or location were
something happens; it also means “sight
or spectacle”. Seen is a form of the verb
“see”
The scene of the crime was roped off. We
hadn’t seen anyone go in or out of the
building.
Seam, A seam is a line formed by connecting
seem two pieces or material.
Seem means “appear to exist”.
Every thanksgiving, it seems, I stuff
myself so much that my shirt seams
threaten to burst.
Sew, so, Sew is a verb meaning to “to stitch” so is
sow a conjunction meaning, “in order that”.
The verb sow means “ to plant”
In ………………… time, the wife would
sow the family clothes and the husband

192
 would sow the family garden so the
children could eat.
Sight, cite, Sight means “the act of seeing” or
site “something that is seen”.
Cite means “to quote or refer to”. A site is
a location or position (including a website
on the internet).
The Alamo at night was a sight worth the
trip. I was also able to cite my visit to this
historical site in my history paper.
Sit, set Sit means, “to put the body in a seated
position”. Set means ”to place”. (Set is a
transitive verb; that means it needs direct
object to complete its meaning).
How can you just sit there and watch as I
set up all these chairs?
Grammar Practice
 Using the right word
o Scene, seen; seam, seem; sew, so, sow; sit, set

For each the following sentences, write a word from a

list above to fill in the blank.

193
Example: because even a little moisture can damage
wood, please do not That …………………..
wet towel in the table.
1) Did you noticed that the ……………………….. of this
jacket is coming apart?” Mia asked
2) Yes”, I replied, “I’m going to try
to………………………. It up myself.”
3) Theo finally had to ………………………. Down after
standing for three hours during the football game.
4) When he ………………………. His soda on the
bench, someone knocked it over.
5) Janelle and Rhonda stopped Craig to ask him if he
had………………………. Their lost dog.
6) Landon wants to design his diorama to look like a
………………………. From the battle of new
Orleans.
7) Looking around, Jay said “I ………………………. To
have lost my hat”.
8) Sharon promise to help her Mother
………………………. Some flower seed in their little
garden.

194
9) I’m trying to get extra per-sitting
jobs……………………….that I will have enough
money to get two kittens.
10) We ………………………. In assigned seats in this
class.
11) My aunt doesn’t like to be ……………………….
Without her makeup.
12) Although lemmings might ………………………. To
jump of a ledge into the sea, they are actually looking
for food and accidentally fall.
13) Khadija is tired of her long hair,
………………………. She’s going to get it cut
short this weekend.
Using the Right Word

Sole, soul Sole means “single, only one”; sole also

refers to the bottom surface of a foot or
a shoe. Soul refers to the spiritual part
of a person.
Maggie got a job for the sole purpose of
saving for a car.
The soles of these shoes are very thick.

195
 “Who told you dogs don’t have
souls?”asked the kind vegetarian.
Some, sum Some means “an unknown number of
part”. Sum means “ the whole amount”
The sum of the cash register was stolen
by some thieves
Sore, soar Sore means “painful”; to soar means “
to rise or fly high into the air Craning to
each the eagle soar overhead, we seen
has sore necks.
Stationary, Stationary means “not moveable”;
Stationery stationery is the paper and envelopes
used to write letters.
Grandpa design and printed his own
stationery.
All of the built-in furniture is stationary
of course.
Steal, steel Steal means, “to take something
without permission”. Steel is a metal.
Early iron makers had to steal recipes
for producing steel.
Than, then Than is used in a comparison; then tells

196
 when.
Since tomorrow’s weather is supposed
to be nicer than today’s , will go to the
zoo then
Their, there, There is a possessive pronoun, one that
they’re shows ownership. There is an adverb
that tells where , there is the contraction
for “they are”
They’re upset because their dog got
into the garbage over there.
Threw, Threw is the past tense of “throw”.
through Through means “passing from one side
to the other” or “by means of”. Through
cheer talent and long practice. Nolan
Ryan threw baseballs through the strike
zone at more than 100 miles per hour.

Using the Right Word

197
To, too, two To is the proposition that can means “in
the direction of”.
(To also is used to form an infinitive. See
730.4.). Too is an adverb meaning “very
or excessive”. Too is often used to mean
“also”. Two is the number 2.
Only two of Columbus’ first three chips
returned to Spain from the new world.
Columbus was too restless to stay on
Spain for long.
Vain, vane, Vain means” worthless”. It may also
vein mean thinking too highly of one’s self;
stuck-up”. Vane is a flat piece of material
set up to show which way the wind
blows. Vein refers to a blood vessel or a
mineral deposit.
The weather vane indicates the direction
of wind.
A blood vein determines the direction of
flowing blood.
The vain mind move in no particular
direction and thinks only about itself.

198
Vary, very Vary is a verb that means, “to change”.
Very can be an adjective meaning “in the
fullest sense” or complete”; it can also be
an adverb meaning “extremely”.
Garon’s version of the event would vary
from day to day.
His very interesting story was the very
opposite of the truth
Waist, Waist is the part of body just above the
waste legs. The verb waste means “to wear
away” or “to use carelessly” the noun
verb refers to material that is unused or
useless.
Don’t waste your money in fast-food
meals. What a waste to throw away all
this food because you’re concerned about
the size of your waist!
Wait, Wait means, “to stay somewhere
weight expecting something”. Weight is the
measure of heaviness.
When I have to wait for the bus, the
weight of my backpack seems to keep

199
 increasing.
Ware, Ware means “a product to be sold”; wear
wear, means “to have on or to carry on one’s
where body”; where asks the question “in what
place or in what situation?”
Where can you buy the best cookware to
take on a campout and the best rain gear
to wear if it rains?

Grammar Practice
 Using the right word 16
o To, too, two; vain, vane, vein; vary, very;
ware, wear, where

For each the following sentences, write the correct

choice from the set of word in parentheses

Example: Angelica braids her hair 9to, too, two) kept it

out of her face.
1) The school’s weather (vain, vane, vein) shows that the
wind is from the north today.

200
2) A cold breeze makes me want to (ware, wear, where) a
sweater.
3) Although the school ordered a reference guide for
every class, only (to, too, two) arrived.
4) After searching for 15 minutes, tony finally asked the
librarian (ware, wear, where) the biographies were
located.
5) As long as he had to talk to her to point out the
bathrooms (to, too, two).
6) In a (vain, vane, vein) attempt to open the window,
Ms. Jenkins discovered that it had been painted shut.
7) When Char glanced at the clock and realize only 20
minutes had gone by, she knew it was going to be a
(vary, very) long day.
8) Grandpa says that sometimes a nurse cannot find a
good (vain, vane, vein) from which to draw his blood.
9) Darren and I went (to, too, two) the mall yesterday.
10) Fatima is an artist who works with metal; she sells her
(wars, wears, wheres) at festival and county fairs.
11) Although we were told that the lunch menu would
(vary, very) from week to week, it always seems the
same to me.

201
12) Many fast foods have (to, too, two) much salt.
Next step: write one sentence that uses to, too, and two.
For an extra challenge, write one for vary and very.

Using the Right Word

Way, weigh Way means “path or route” or “a serious

of action”. Weigh means “to measure
weight”.
What the correct way to weigh liquid
medicines?
Weather, Weather refers to the conditions of the
whether atmosphere. Whether refers to a
possibility.
The weather will determine whether I go
fishing.
Week, weak Week is a period of seven days; weak
means “not strong”.
Last week when I had the flu, I felt
light-headed and weak.
Wet, whet Wet means “soaked with liquid”. Whet
is verb that means “to sharpen”.
Of course, going swimming means I’ll

202
 get wet, but all that exercise really whets
my appetite.
Which, Which is a pronoun used to ask “what
witch one or once”? Out of group. A witch is a
woman believed to have super natural
powers.
Which of the woman in Salem in the
1600s were accused of being witches?
Who, which, When introducing a clause, who is used
that to refer to people ; which refers to
animals and nonliving being but never to
people (it introduces a nonrestrictive, or
unnecessary, clause); that usually refers
to animals or things but can refers to
people (it introduces a restrictive, or
necessary clause).
The idea that pizza is junk food is crazy.
Pizza which is quite nutritious, can be
included I a healthful diet.
My mom, who is dietician, said so
Who, whom Who is used as the subject in a sentence;
whom is used as the object of a

203
 preposition or as a direct object.
Who asked you to play tennis?
You beat whom at tennis? You played
tennis with whom?
NOTE to test for who, whom; arrange
the parts of the clause in a subject verb
direct object order. Who works as the
subject; whom as the object (see page
570)

Using the Right Word

Who’s, Who’s is the contraction for “who is”.

whose Whose is a possessive pronoun, one that
shows ownership.
Who’s is the most popular write today?
Whose bike is this?
Wood, Wood is the material that comes from
would trees; would is a form of the verb “will”.
Sequoia trees live practically forever, but
would you believe that the wood from
these giants is practically useless?
Your, Your is a possessive pronoun, one that

204
 you’re shows ownership. You’re is the
contraction for “you are”. You are the
most important person in your parents’
lives

School Daze
- David, you know you’re supposed to be doing your
homework.
- I am, Mom. I’m doing firsthand research on energy
conservation.
Grammar Practice
 Part of Sentence 1
o Simple, complete, and Compound Subjects

For each the following sentences, write a word from

the list above to fill in the blank.

Example: please ………………………. Journal to class

Tomorrow.

1) Five students said that they ……………….. be

willing to help serve at the wing road soup kitchen.

205
 2) Can anyone tell me ……………………. Watch this
is?
3) ……………………. Planning to go on the
Washington D.C., trip?
4) The manager said, “after you put away the weights
and sweep the workout room, …………………….
Free to go”.
5) This old desk is made completely of
…………………….
6) Make sure you have ……………………. Lunch,
and then get on the bus.

 Using the right word review

For each the following sentences, write the correct

choice from the set of parentheses

(1) My uncle living in Cuba wants to (immigrate,

emigrate) to the united state.
(2) The (stationary, stationery) bike is (to, too, two) heavy
for you to move by yourself

206
(3) Have you (scene, seen) the city bus that’s painted to
look (as, like) a shark?

(4) Scuba divers need a (continual, continuous) supply for

air.

(5) The magician asked Frank to (borrow, lend) her a coin

for an (allusion, illusion) she would perform.
(6) Larry wasn’t (quiet, quit, quite) ready to have the lake
and the (base, bass) (who, which, that) got away.
Understanding Sentences:
Sentences:
A sentence is a group of words that expresses a
complete thought. A sentence must have both a subject
and predicate. A sentence begins with a capital letter; it
ends with a period, a question mark, or an exclamation
point.
 I like my teacher this year.
 Will we go on a field trip?
 We get to go to the water park!
Parts of a sentence
subject A subject is the part of a sentence that
does something or istalked about.

207
 The kids on my block play basketball at
the local park.
We meet after school almost every day
Simple, The simple subject is the subject
subject without the words that describe or
modify it. (Also see page 501.)
My friend Chester plays basketball on
the school team.
Complete, The complete subject is the simple
subjects subject and all the words 'that modify it.
(Also see page 500)
My friend Chester plays basketball on
the school team.
Compound A compound subject has two or more
subjects simple subjects. (See page 501)
Chester; Milk, and Mesheile play on our
pickup team.
Lou and I are the best shooters.
Grammar Practice
 Part of Sentence 2
o Simple, complete, and Compound predicates

208
For each sentence below, write the complete predicate
(or predicates for a compound sentence). Circle the
simple or compound predicate.

Example: Ancient people were the first to work with

copper. Were the first to work with copper.

1) It was easy to find, and it was a fairly simple process

to melt the copper
2) Bronze is probably the first invented metal.
3) Metalworkers, or smelters, melted copper and threw
tin into it.
4) Smelters gradually added other substances to copper
and created even stronger metals

o Direct and Indirect Objects

Write the direct object or objects that are part of the

predicate In each sentence below. If the sentence has an
indirect object, write it after the direct object and
underline it.
Example: Metalworkers produced bronze pins, jewelry oil

209
 lamps.
pins, jewelry, lamps
(1) Sculptors could cast lifelike statues in bronze.
(2) Kings sometimes gave great warriors bronze swords.
(3) Wealthy people bought their families bronze trinkets.
(4) Archaeologists have found many bronze artifacts.
(5) Museum displays show visitors bronze objects that are
thousands of years old.
(6) Even today, one can see the fine designs carved into
them.
(7) Artists still like bronze and work with it often.

Part of a sentence

predicates The predicate, which contains the verb,

is the part of the sentence that shows
action or says something about the
Subject.
Hunting has reduced the tiger
population in India.
Simple The simple predicate is the predicate
predicates (verb) without the
Words that describe or modify it. (See
page 501) In the past, poachers killed

210
 too many African elephants.
Poaching is illegal.
Complete The complete predicate is the simple
Predicates predicate with all the
Words that modify or describe it. (See
page 500).
In the past, poachers killed too many
African elephants.
Poaching is illegal.
Direct The complete predicate often includes a
objects direct object. The
direct object is the noun or pronoun that
receives the action
Of the simple predicate-directly. The
direct object answers
The question what or whom. (See page
570).
Many smaller animals need friends who
will speak up for them.
The direct object may be compound.
We all need animals, plants, wetlands,
deserts, and forests.

211
Indirect If a sentence has a direct object, it may
objects also have an indirect object. An indirect
object is the noun or pronoun that
receives the action of the simple
predicate-indirectly.
An indirect object names the person to
whom or for whom
Something is done. (See page 570).
I showed the class my
multimedia report on
endangered species. (Class is the
indirect object
because it say to whom the
Report was shown).
Remember, in order for a sentence to
have an indirect object,It must first have
a direct object.
Compound A compound predicate is composed of
Predicates two or more simple predicates (see page
501).
In 1990s the countries of the world
………… and ……… the sale of ivory.

212
 Parts of a sentence …

Understood Either the subject or the predicate (or

Subject and both) may not be stated in a sentence,
predicates but both must be clearly understood.
[You] Get involved! (You is the
understood subject).
Who needs your help? Animals [do].
(Do is the understood predicate).
What do many animals face? [They
face] Extinction.
(They is the understood subject, and
face is the understood predicate).
Delayed In sentences that begin with there
subjects followed by a form of the
"be" verb, the subject usually follows
the verb (See page 570)
There are laws that protect endangered
species. (The subject is laws; are is the
verb.)
The subject is also delayed in
questions. How can we preserve the

213
 natural habitat? (We is the subject.)
School Daze
- John, I've got all the projects Now which one is
yours?
- I'm not sure See if there's one with a missing piece.

Parts of a sentence …

Modifiers A modifier is a word (adjective, adverb)

or a group of words "
(phrase, clause) that changes or adds to
the meaning of
another word (See pages 486-493.)
Many North American zoos and
aquariums voluntarily participate in
breeding programs that help prevent
extinction.
The modifiers in this sentence include
the following: many,
North American (adjectives), voluntarily
(adverb), in breeding programs (phrase),
that help prevent extinction (clause).

214
Grammar Practice
 Part of Sentence 3
o Simple, complete, and Compound predicates.
o Delayed subjects

For write the simple subject in the numbered

sentences below. If the simple subject is understood,
write "you".

Example: There are ticks that carry disease.

Ticks
(1) Imagine a tick embedded in your arm. (2) How do you
remove it? (3) First of all, do not try to pull it off by force.
(4) A portion of its head could break off and remain inside
the flesh. (5) There is a better way to remove it. (6) To
begin, cover the tick with rubbing alcohol, heavy salad
oil, or petroleum. Jelly, and wait for it to relax its grip. (7)
Then carefully remove the tick with tweezers. (8) What is
the final step? To wash the affected area thoroughly with
soap and water.

215
Next step: In the last sentence above, neither the subject
nor the predicate is stated, but they are understood.
Rewrite the sentence, stating both the subject and the
predicate.

o Modifiers
List the adjectives and adverbs in each of the sentences
below.
Example: Fortunately, fleas are usually not dangerous.
Fortunately, usually, not, dangerous
1. An intense itch is often the only result of a flexible.
2. Fleas really like to hide in pet fur.
3. All fleas are wingless.
4. They do not fly, but they can jump incredibly far!

Parts of a sentence …

clauses A clause is a group of related words

that has both a subject
and a verb. (Also see pages 515-517).
A whole chain of plants and animals Is
affected(Chain is the subject, and is

216
 affected is the verb.)
when one species dies out completely
(Species is the subject; dies out is the
verb.)
Independent An independent clause presents a
clauses complete thought and can
stand alone as a sentence.
This ancient oak tree may be cut down.
This act could affect more than 200
different species of animals!
Why would anyone want that to
happen?
Depended A dependent clause does not present a
clauses complete thought and cannot stand as a
sentence. A dependent clause depends
on being connected to an independent
clause to make sense. Dependent
clauses begin with either a
subordinating conjunction (after,
although, because, before, if) or a
relative pronoun (who, whose, which,
that). (See pages 710 and 744 for

217
 complete lists).
If this ancient oak tree is cut down, it
could affect more than 200different
species of animals!
The tree, which experts think could be
400 years old, provides ahome to many
different kinds of birds and insects.

School Daze
- Boy, are you in for a real blockbuster next hour!
- Yeah …. Mr. Runge is showing a movie called A
Day in the Life od A Depended Clause
Grammar Practice
 Parts of a sentence 4
o Clauses

For the even-numbered sentences, write the dependent

clause. (If there Is no dependent clause, write "none.")
Write the independent clause for the odd-numbered
sentences.
Odd-numbered

218
Example: Although digital cameras take excellent
pictures, they still do not see as well as the
human eye.
although digital cameras take excellent
pictures
1) The eye sends nerve signals through the optic nerve to
the brain, which interprets the signals as sight.
2) The cornea, pupil, lens, and retina are the key parts of
the eye.
3) The cornea is a clear membrane that covers the front
of the eye.
4) The retina, which focuses light, is located in the back
of the 'eye and is filled with rods and cones.
5) Cones, which are not functional in every person, make
it possible to see in color.
6) Because rods sense light in black, white, and gray,
they allow People to see in low light.
7) A person can. also see in low light because the pupil
enlarges.
8) When the light is bright, the pupil contracts.
9) Muscles stretch or compress the lens in each eye so
that a person can see near or far.

219
10) The lenses of a person: who has cataracts are not
clear.
11) If someone's eye shape isn't quite right, he or she will
have trouble seeing clearly.
12) Although surgery can solve many vision problems,
glasses or contact lenses are still the simplest remedy.
Next step: Write two complex sentences about your
eyes. Remember that a complex sentence has both an
independent and a dependent clause.

Parts of a sentence …

phrases A phrase is a group of related words that

lacks either a subject or a predicate (or
both). (See pages 519-520).
Guards the house (The predicate lacks a
subject).
the ancient oak tree (The subject lacks a
predicate).
with crooked old limbs (The phrase lacks
both a subject and
a predicate.)
The ancient oak tree with crooked old

220
 limbs guards the house.
(Together, the three phrases form a
complete thought).
Types of Phrases usually take their names from the
phrases main words that
introduce them (prepositional phrase,
verb phrase, and so on). They are also
named for the function they serve in a
sentence (adverb phrase, adjective
phrase).
The ancient oak tree (noun phrase)
with crooked old limbs (prepositional
phrase)
has stood its guard, (verb phrase) very
stubbornly, (adverb phrase) protecting
the little house. (verbal phrase) For more
information on verbal phrases,

School Daze
- Give me an example for a verbal phrase used to as a
subject

221
 - Hanging upside down refreshes my brain.
Grammar Practice
 Nouns 1
o Concrete and Abstract Nouns

For each of the following sentences, write whether the

underlined noun is "concrete" or "abstract."

Example: Pilots enjoy the challenge of flying a

sailplane.
Abstract
1) It's as close to soaring like a bird as a person is likely
to get.
2) Fliers talk about the sense of peace they have when
gliding.
3) To keep the flight going, a pilot might have to put the
sailplane into a dive.
4) The dive gives the craft speed, which means more air
time.
5) After the flight, the pilot returns the glider to its
storage trailer so that it is ready for another day.
 Compound and Collective Nouns

222
For each sentence below, write any compound or
collective nouns you find. Circle the collective nouns.

Example: West of the Great Plains, groups of glider

pilots take advantage of winds blowing
against or over mountains.
Great Plains (groups)
1) A glider's lightweight and long wings, along with a
small cluster of instruments, allow a pilot to take
advantage of updrafts in the air.
2) With the right conditions, gliders (or sailplanes) can
travel over great distances by moving along a
mountain range.
3) A pilot will travel southeast along with a flock of
geese over several miles.
4) Pilots can join gliding clubs that support this unique
sport.
5) I think this "unique sport" would give me a
stomachache.
Using the Parts of speech
 Nouns

223
 A noun is a word that names a person, a place, a thing,
or an idea.
 Person: John Ulferts (uncle) Thing: "Yankee Doodle"
(song)
 Place: Mississippi (state) Idea: Labor Day (holiday)

Gender of Nouns
Noun Nouns are grouped according to gender:
gender feminine, masculine, neuter, and
indefinite.
Feminine (female): mother, sister,
women, cow, hen
Masculine (male): father, brother, men,
bull, rooster
Neuter (neither male nor female): tree,
cobweb, closet
Indefinite (male or female): president,
duckling, doctor

Uses of nouns
Subject A singular noun names one person,
nouns place, thing, or idea.

224
 boy group audience stage concert hope
Predicate A plural noun names more than one
nouns person, place, thing,
or idea.
boys groups audiences stages concerts
hopes
Gender of Nouns
Possessive Nouns are grouped according to gender:
nouns feminine, asculine,
neuter, and indefinite.
Feminine (female): mother, sister,
women, cow, hen
Masculine (male): father, brother, men,
bull, rooster
Neuter (neither male nor female): tree,
cobweb, closet
Indefinite (male or female): president,
duckling, doctor
Object A noun is an object noun when it is used
nouns as the direct object,
The indirect object, or the object of the
preposition

225
 Some rappers tell people their story
about life in the city.
(indirect object; people; direct object;
story)
Rap is now a common music choice in
this country. (object of the preposition:
country)

Kinds of Nouns

Common A common noun is any noun that does

nouns not name a specific
person, place, thing, or idea. These
nouns are not capitalized.
woman museum book weekend
Proper A proper noun is the name of a specific
nouns person, place, thing,
or idea. Proper nouns are capitalized.
Hillary Clinton Central Park Maniac
McGee Sunday
Concrete A concrete noun names a thing that is
nouns physical (can be
touched or seen). Concrete nouns can be

226
 either proper or common .
Abstract An abstract noun names something you
nouns can think about but
cannot see or touch. Abstract nouns can
be either common or proper.
Judaism poverty satisfaction illness
Collective A collective noun names a group or
nouns collection of persons, animals, places,
or things.
Persons: tribe, congregation, family,
class, team Animals: flock, herd,
gaggle, clutch, litter
Things: batch, cluster, bunch
Compound A compound noun is made up of two or
nouns more words.
Football (written as one word)
high school (written as two words)
brother-in-law (written as a hyphenated
word)

Nouns …
Number of Nouns

227
The number of a noun is either singular or plural
Singular A singular noun names one person,
nouns place, thing, or idea.
boy group audience stage concert hope
Plural A plural noun names more than one
nouns person, place, thing,
or idea.
boys groups audiences stages concerts
hopes
Grammar Practice
 Nouns 2
o Uses of Nouns
Write whether the underlined noun in each of the
following sentences is a "subject," “predicate",
"possessive" or “object" noun.

Example: Last year, Danika's dad found a good used

all-terrain wheelchair for her.
Possessive
1) It's a big improvement over her old one.
2) This wheelchair's frame and tires are very sturdy.
3) Danika recently competed in a wheelchair ~·

228
4) A local business ~ arranged the loan of a racing
wheelchair for Danika.
5) The business owner is also a wheelchair user.
6) Racing wheelchairs are not the same as ordinary
wheelchairs.
7) Regular wheelchairs have two large and two small
wheels.
8) The made-for-racing chair features two large angled
wheels but only one small wheel in the front.
9) The large side wheels tilt so the rider can more easily
push the wheels.
10) The city's parks department has approved plans to
make all the parks accessible to wheelchairs.
11) The parks' redesign is a definite move in the right
direction.
Next step: Write two sentences about someone in a
wheelchair. Use a predicate noun and an object noun
somewhere in Your sentences. Underline and label each
one appropriately.

Pronouns

229
A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. Some
examples are I, you, he, she, it, we, they, his, hers, her, its,
me, myself, us, yours, and so on.
Without pronouns: Kevin said Kevin would be going to
Kevin's grandmother's house this weekend.
With pronouns: Kevin said he would be going to his
Grandmother’s house this weekend

Antecedents An antecedent is the noun that the

pronoun refers to or
replaces. All pronouns (except
interrogative and indefinite pronouns)
have antecedents. (See page 474.)
Jamal and Rick tried out for the team,
and they both made It.
(They refers to Jamal and Rick; it
refers to team.) NOTE Pronouns must
agree with their antecedents in
number, person, and gender.

230
Types of Pronouns
There are several types of pronouns. The most common
types the personal pronoun. (See the chart on page 710).

Personal A personal pronoun takes the place of a

pronoun specific person (or
thing) in a sentence. Some common
personal pronouns are I,
…………………………………………
…
Relative A relative pronoun is both a pronoun and
pronoun a connecting word.
It connects a dependent clause to an
independent clause in a complex
sentence. Relative pronoun include who,
whose, which, and that. (see 684.6).
Buffalo, which often gets more than
eight feet of snow in a year, is on the
northeast shore of Lake Erie. The United
States city that gets the most snow in
Valdez, Alaska.
Interrogativ An interrogative pronoun helps ask a

231
e pronoun question
Who wants to go to Alaska?
Which of the cities would you visit?
Whom would you like to travel with?
What did you say?

Grammar Practice
 Antecedents
 Personal pronoun
 Relative pronoun

For each blank in the sentences below, write the

missing pronoun. (The type of pronoun is in
parentheses.) Also, write its antecedent.

Example: Field trips are enjoyable because personal

allow students to Learn outside of the
classroom.
They (trips)
1) The student (relative) suggests the best field trip may
propose Personal to the principal.

232
2) The Adler Planetarium, (relative) is in Chicago, is a
favorite field trip destination.
3) Mrs. Bogart said (personal) thought the class should
visit a veterinary hospital.
4) Ben said that (personal) thought the class should visit a
veterinary hospital.
5) Mr. Andrews suggested, “(personal) would like to take
the class to Washington, D.C., for several days”.
6) The state capitol, (relative) is a popular place to visit,
is where we plan to go next Tuesday.
7) The students (relative) names are on Mr. Daly’s list
should attend the field trip meeting.
8) The field trip (relative) Susan liked best was sailing on
a tall ship.
Mrs. Bogart and Mr. Andrews announced, "(personal)
will discuss all your suggestions."
Next step: Write two sentences about a field trip you
have taken. Use pronouns in each sentence and underline
them. Exchange papers with a classmate and circle the
antecedents in each other's sentences.

Pronouns …Types of pronouns

233
708.1 A demonstrative pronoun points out
Demonstrative or identifies a noun
pronouns without naming the noun. When used
together in a sentence, this and that
distinguish one item from another,
and these and those distinguish one
group from another. (See page 710).
This is a great idea; that was a
nightmare.
These are my favorite foods, and
those are definitely not.
NOTE When these words are used
before a noun, they are
not pronouns; rather, they are
demonstrative adjectives.
Coming to this picnic was fun-and
those ants think so, too.
Intensive An intensive pronoun emphasizes, or
pronouns intensifies, the noun or pronoun it
refers to. Common intensive pronouns
include
itself, myself, himself, herself, and

234
 yourself.
Though the chameleon's quick-change
act protects it from predators, the
lizard itself can catch insects 10
inches away with Its lung, sticky
tongue.
When a chameleon changes its skin
color-seemingly matching the
background-the background colors
themselves do not affect the
chameleon's color changes.
NCTE These sentences would be
complete without the intensive
pronoun. '):fie pronoun simp1y
emphasizes a particular noun.
708.3 A reflexive pronoun refers back to the
Reflexive subject of a sentence,
pronoun And it is always an object (never a
subject) in a sentence.
Reflexive pronouns are the same as
the intensive pronoun-itself, myself,
himself, herself, yourself, and so on.

235
 A chameleon protects itself from
danger by changing colors.
(direct object)
A chameleon can give itself tasty
meals of unsuspecting insects.
(indirect object)
I wish I could claim some of Its
amazing powers for myself.
(object of the preposition)
NOTE Unlike sentences with
intensive pronouns, these Sentences
would not be complete without the
reflexive pronoun.

Pronouns …
Types of pronouns

Indefinite An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun that

pronoun does not have a specific antecedent (the
noun or pronoun it replaces). (See page
475).
Everything about the chameleon is
fascinating.

236
 Someone donated a chameleon to .our
class.
Anyone who brings in a live Insect can
feed our chameleon.
Types of Pronouns
Personal Pronouns
I, me, mine, my, we, us, our, ours, you, your, yours, they,
them, their, theirs, he, him, his, she, her, hers, it, Its
Relative Pronouns
who, whose, whom, which, what, that, whoever,
whomever, whichever, whatever
Interrogative Pronouns
who, whose, whom, which, what
Demonstrative Pronouns
this, that, these, those
Intensive and Reflexive Pronouns
myself, himself, herself, itself, yourself, yourselves,
themselves, ourselves
Indefinite Pronouns
All Both Everything Nobody Several
Another Each Few None Some
Any Each one Many No one Somebody

237
Anybody Either Most Nothing Something
Anyone Everyone Much One Something
Anything Everyone Neither Other Much
Grammar Practice
Pronouns
 Indefinite pronouns

Write the indefinite pronoun in each of the following

sentences.

Example: Many recognize Sondre Norheim as the

father of modern Skiing.
Many
1) Northeim created a new kind of ski for himself and
others.
2) Each had a heel binding and curved sides.
3) Sondre had a remarkable style of skiing that everyone
admired.
4) No one can deny that he promoted the joy of skiing.
5) Most credit Norheim with making skiing a popular
sport.
6) Pronoun Review

238
7) Identify the underlined pronouns in the sentences
below as “personal", "relative," or “indefinite."
8) Ralph Samuelson, who was from Minnesota, invented
waterskiing In 1922.
9) Most didn't believe the eighteen-year-old when he
talked about Skiing on water.
10) Ralph and his brother Ben set out to prove that they
could do it.
11) They tried skis made from pieces of a barrel, which
did notwork well.
12) Neither thought twice about using a window-sash
cord as aski rope.
13) Ralph made his own skis from leather strips and
lumber that he purchased
14) Everything worked fine!
15) In 1925, during an exhibition that was held on Lake
Pepin, Ralph made his first successful water-ski jump.

Pronouns …
Number of pronouns

239
 Pronouns can be either singular or plural
Singular in number.
and plural Singular: I, you, he, she, it Plural: we,
pronouns you, they
NOTE The pronouns you, your, and yours
may be singular or
Plural.
Person of a Pronoun
The person of a pronoun tells whether the
pronoun is speaking,
Being spoken to, or being spoken about.
(See page 474).
First A first-person pronoun is used in place of
person the name of the Speaker or speakers.
pronouns I am speaking.
We are speaking.
Second A second-person pronoun is used to name
person the person or thing
pronouns Spoken to.
Eliza, will you please take out the
garbage?
You better stop grumbling!

240
Third A third-person pronoun is used to name
person the person or thing
pronouns Spoken about.
Bill should listen if he wants to learn the
words to this song.
Charisse said that she already knows
them.
They will perform the song in the talent
show.
Uses of Pronouns
A pronoun can be used as a subject, as an object, or
to show possession (see the chart on page 714).
Subject A subject pronoun is used as the subject
pronouns of a sentence
(1, you, he, she, it, we, they).
I like to surf the Net.
A subject pronoun is also used after a
form of the be verb
(am. Is, are, was, were, being, been) if it
repeats the subject. (See “Predicate
Nouns” 704.5).
“This is the” Mom replied into the

241
 telephone
“Yes, it was I”, admitted the child who
had eaten the cookies.

Grammar Practice
Pronouns 4
 Number of pronoun
 Person of pronoun

Write the personal pronouns in each of the following

sentences and Identify each as "singular'' or "plural."
Also, tell whether it is "first" "Second” or "third"
person.

Example: We studied the Industrial Revolution in

Our history class.
We-plural, first person our-plural, first
person
1) My history teacher asked me, "Would you do a report
on the Industrial Revolution and child labor issues?
2) It was a time when machines replaced skilled labor.

242
3) Many people lost their jobs during that period in
history.
4) Samuel Slater and his textile mill began the Industrial
Revolution.
5) Inventors Watt, Kay, and Hargreaves are known for
their contributions to the textile industry.
6) My American ancestors were probably affected by the
industrial revolution
7) In 1886, workers formed a labor union that they called
the American Federation of Labor.
8) Samuel Gompers was its first president.
9) Early unions protected workers' rights and made sure
that they Were paid a fair wage.
10) Of course, the teacher gave us a test on this era.
11) My friend Chris said, "I know I passed!"

Next step: Write a short paragraph about a subject

you're studying in school. Make sure your pronouns agree
with their antecedents in person and number.

Pronouns …
Uses of pronouns

243
 An object pronoun (me, you, him, her, it,
Object us, them) can be used as the object of a
pronouns verb or preposition. (See 692 .4,
692.5 and 742.1).
I'll call her as soon as I can. (direct
object)
Hand me the phone book, please.
(indirect object)
She thinks these flowers are from you.
(object of the
preposition)
Possessive A possessive pronoun shows possession
pronouns or ownership. These
possessive pronouns function as
adjectives before nouns: my,
Our, his, her, their, its, and your.
School workers are painting our
classroom this summer. Its walls will look
much better.
These possessive pronouns can be used
after verbs: mine,
Ours, hers, his, theirs, and yours.

244
 I'm pretty sure this backpack is mine and
that one is his.
NOTE An apostrophe is not needed with
a possessive pronoun to show possession.

Singular Pronouns Plural Pronouns

Subje Posses Objec Subje Posses Objec
ct sive t ct sive t
Prono Pronou Prono Prono Pronou Prono
uns ns uns uns ns uns
Firs I My, Me We Our, us
t mine ours
pers
on
Seco You Your, You You Your, You
nd yours yours
pers
on
Thir He His Him They Their, Them
d theirs
pers
on

245
 She Her, Her
hers
It Its It

Grammar Practice
 Pronoun 5
o Uses of Pronouns

For each sentence below, identify each personal

pronoun as a "subject pronoun” (712.5), an “object
pronoun," or a “possessive pronoun."

Example: She thinks that the invitation to the dance is

from you.
She-subject pronoun, you-object pronoun
1) They asked me not to bring my brother to basketball
practice.
2) When we think of our fourth-grade teacher, Mr. Wong,
we Remember his funny skits in the variety show.

246
3) Angela admits that algebra is not easy for her; it is
difficult for me, too.
4) Before the game, she was afraid that her team might
lose.
5) Max said, "Sunan and Elena went to the band concert
without us, even after we asked them to wait."
6) The dirt bike hit some debris that caused it to crash.
7) It suffered quite a bit of damage.
8) Her sister sings in a band that plays at their school's
dances.
9) Hank was late for practice today; he has been late for
everything lately.
10) The coach is going to have a talk with him.
11) I thought the ball was mine, but then Jack jumped up
and caught it.
12) You should check with the teacher before posting
your ad on the bulletin board.
Next step: Write a sentence with a subject pronoun and
an object or a possessive pronoun. Trade sentences with a
classmate. Underline the subject pronoun and circle the
object or possessive pronoun.
Verbs

247
 A verb is a word that shows action or links a subject to
another word in a sentence.
 Tornadoes cause tremendous damage. (Action verb)
 The weather is often calm before a storm. (Linking verb)

Pronouns …
Uses of pronouns

Action An action verb tells what the subject is doing.

verbs (See page 480.)
Natural disasters hit the globe nearly every
day
Linkin A linking verb connects-or links-a subject to
g verbs a noun or an
adjective in the predicate. The most common
linking verbs
are forms of the verb be (is, are, was, were,
being, been, am).
Verbs such as smell, look, taste, feel, remain,
turn, appear,
become, sound, seem, grow, and stay can also
be linking
verbs. (See page 480.)
The San Andreas Fault is an earthquake zone

248
 in California.
(The linking verb is connects the subject to
the predicate
noun zone.)
Earthquakes there are fairly common. (The
linking verb are
connects the subject to the predicate adjective
common.)
718.3 A helping verb (also called an auxiliary verb)
Helpin helps the main verb express tense and voice.
g verbs The most common helping verbs are shall,
will, should, would, could, must, might,·
can, may, have, had, has, do, did, and the
forms of the verb be. be-is, are, was, were,
am, being, been. (See page 481).
It have estimated that 500.000 earthquakes
……... around
……………………………………… tense is
present perfect and the voice is passive.)
Fortunately, only about 100 of those will
cause damage.
(Will helps express the future tense of the

249
 verb.)
Grammar Practice:
 Verbs 1
o Action, Linking, and Helping verbs

For each numbered sentence in the following

paragraphs, write the verb or verbs. (Remember that
clauses also have verbs.) Identify each as an "action
verb," a "linking verb," or a "helping verb."

Example: Pizza, which is one of the most popular foods

in theworld today, was also eaten by ancient
people.
Is-linking verb, was-helping verb,
Eaten-action verb
(1) Pizza is one type of food with a long history. (2) Its
origins reach back to ancient Middle Eastern times. (3)
People of that era ate flatbread that had been cooked in
mud ovens. (4) Soon the Mediterraneans were eating the
same flat bread with olive oil and native spices on it.(5)
Much later, in 1889, Queen Margherita was touring her
Italian kingdom. (6) She noticed peasants who were

250
enjoying the flat bread with spices on top. (7) An Italian
baker, Raffaele Esposito, created a special pizza for the
queen. (8) He topped it with tomatoes, mozzarella cheese,
and fresh basil. (9) The pizza became the queen's favorite
…………… (10) Today, it is known as pizza Margherita.
(11) Pizza was not a standard American food until after
World War II. (12) American soldiers tried it for the first
time while they were staying in areas of Italy. (13) It
tasted wonderful! (14) When the soldiers returned home,
they were hungry for this Italian treat. (16) Before long,
everyone in America knew about pizza.
Next step: Write a paragraph about one of your favorite
foods. Use action, linking, and helping verbs. Exchange
papers with a classmate. List and identify all of the verbs.

A verb has three principal parts: present, past, and past

participle. (The part used with the helping verbs has,
have, or had is called the past participle.)
All six of the tenses are formed from these principal

251
parts.
The past and past participle of regular verbs are formed
by adding ed to the present tense. The past and past
participle of irregular verbs are formed with different
spellings.
Present The present tense of a verb expresses
tense action (or a state of being) that is
verbs happening now or that happens continually
or
regularly.
The universe is gigantic. It takes my breath
away
Past tense The past tense of a verb expresses action
verbs (or a state pf being)
that was completed in the past. (See page
482.)
To most people many years ago, the
universe was the earth, the sun, and some
stars. The universe reached only as far as
the eye could see.
Future The future tense of a verb expresses action
tense verb that will take place (see page 482).

252
 Maybe I will visit another galaxy in my
lifetime.
Somebody will find a way to do it.

School Daze:
- I know the answer
- Okay, but I said you will have to sing the answer
…. Go ahead!
Grammar Practice
 Verbs 2
o Present Tense, Past Tense, and Future Tense
verbs

For each of the sentences below, identify the

underlined verbs as "Present tense," "past tense," or
"future tense."

Example: The United States Naval Academy founded

its drumand bugle corps in 1914.
Past tense

253
1) Today it boasts being the oldest drum and bugle corps
in America.
2) The corps, consisting of 16 men, first performed at a
baseball game.
3) It was active for eight years until it disbanded in 1922.
4) The academy's superintendent, Henry B. Wilson, said,
"It is a luxury, not a necessity".
5) Some of the students thought, "The corps will return
someday."
6) In 1926, the corps back bigger and better.
7) Seeing them take the field again in full dress uniforms
was an awesome sight.
8) Today the U.S. Naval Academy Drum and Bugle Corps
has about 100 members.
9) The corps still ~ "Anchors Away," just as it did almost
a century ago.
10) You will hear its members shout, "Go, Navy!"
11) The corps provides enjoyable entertainment for
people of all ages.

Next step: Write a sentence in the present tense about

some music you enjoy. Exchange papers with classmate

254
and write each other's sentence in the past and future
tenses.

Common irregular verbs and their principal Parts

 The principal parts of the common irregular verbs are
listed below.
 The part used with the helping verbs has, have, or had
is called the past participle.

I write She hides

Present Tense
Earlier
past Tense Earlier she hid
wrote
I have
Past Participle She has hidden
written
Past Past
Present Past Present Past
Particip Partic
Tense Tense Tense Tense
le iple

255
am, is, Was,
Been Lead Led Led
are were
Lie
Begin Began Begun (recline Lay Lain
)
Lie
bid
bid bid (deceiv Lied Lied
(offer)
e)
Bid
Bade bidden Make Made Made
(order)
Ridde
Bite bit Bitten Ride Rode
n
Blow Blew Blown Ring Rang Rung
Break Brake Broken Rise Rose Risen
Broug
Bring Brought Run Ran Run
ht
Burst Burst Burst See Saw Seen
Buy Bought Bought Set Set Set
Caugh Shake
Catch Caught Shake Shook
t n
Shine Shine
Come Came Come Shined
(polish) d

256
 Dived Shine
Dive Dived Shone Shone
(dove) (light)
Shran Shrun
Do Did Done Shrink
k k
Sang,
Draw Drew Drawn Sing sung
sung
Sank,
Drink Drank Drunk Sink Sunk
sunk
Drive Drove Driven Sit Sat Sat
Eat Ate Eaten Sleep Slept Slept
Spoke
Fall Fell Fallen Speak Spoke
n
Spran
g, Sprun
Fight Fought Fought Spring
sprun g
g
Flee Fled Fled Steal Stole Stolen
Strive
Fly Flew Flown Strive Strove
n
Forsoo Forsake
Forsake Swear Swore Sworn
k n
Freeze Froze Frozen Swim Swam Swum

257
 Give Gave given Take Took Taken
Go Went Gone Tear Tore Torn
Throw
Grow Grew Grown Throw Threw
n
Woken
Hang Hange Woke,
Hanged Wake ,
(execute) d waked
waked
Hang
Hung Hung Wear Wore Worn
(dangle)
Hidden,
Hide Hid Weave Wove Woven
hid
Wrun
Know Knew Known Wring wrung
g
Lay(plac writte
Laid Laid Write Wrote
e) n

Verbs …
Tense of Verbs
Present The present perfect tense verb expresses
perfect action that began
tense In the past but continues or is completed in
verbs the present. The present perfect tense is

258
 formed by adding has or have to the Past
participle. (Also, see page 483.)
I have wondered for some time how the
stars got their names.
A visible star has emitted light for
thousands of years.
The past perfect tense verb expresses
action that began in
Past
The past and was completed in the past.
perfect
This tense is formed
tense
By adding had to the past participle.
verbs
I had hoped to see a shooting star on our
camping trip.
A future perfect tense verb expresses
action that will begin in the future and will
Future be completed by a specific time in the
perfect Future. The future perfect tense is formed
tense by adding will Have to the past participle.
verbs By the middle of this century, we probably
will have discovered.
Many more stars, planets, and galaxies.

Present A present continuous tense verb expresses

259
 action that is not
Completed at the time of stating it. The
continu present continuous
ous tense is formed by adding am, is, or are to
tense the mg form of
verbs The main verb.
Scientists are learning a great deal from
their study of the sky.
A past continuous tense verb expresses
action that was
Past
Happening at a certain time in the past.
continu
This tense is formed
ous
By adding was or were to the ing form of
tense
the main verb.
verbs
Astronomers were beginning their quest tor
knowledge hundreds of years ago.
Future A future continuous tense verb expresses
continu action that will take place at a certain time
ous in the future. This tense is formed by
tense adding will be to the ing form of the main
verbs verb Someday astronauts will be going to
Mars.

260
 This tense can also be formed oy adding a
phrase noting the
Future(are going to) plus be to the ing
form of the main verb.
They are going to be performing many
experiments.

Grammar Practice
 Verbs 4
o Perfect tense verbs
o Continuous tense verbs

For each of the sentences below, write the correct form

of the verb given in parentheses.

Example: Geologists some strange rocks.

(Discover, present perfect)
Have discovered

1) During years of careful study, scientists ______ some

of the ordinary-looking rocks to ultraviolet light.
2) (Expose, past continuous)

261
3) The rocks______ with brilliant colors! (Glow, past
continuous)
4) Oddly, the rocks______ to glow, even without the,
light onthem.
5) (Continue, past perfect)
6) Now researchers______ different levels of ultraviolet
light on
7) The rocks. (Test, present continuous)
8) Scientists______ these minerals unusual names, such
aswillemite, selenite, fluorite, aragonite, and Texas
calcite. (Give, present perfect)
9) As interest in these glow-in-the-dark minerals grows,
more People______ for them. (Look, future
continuous)
10) Geologists hope that rock hunters ______more of
these interesting objects by 2025. (Find, future perfect)
11) In the meantime, people______ museum displays of
the minerals. (Visit, present continuous)
12) The displays ______museum visitors for years to
come.
13) (Amaze, future-continuous)

262
Next step: Write two sentences about an interesting
mineral or metal. Use continuous tense verbs.

Verbs …
forms of Verbs
The voice of a verb tells you whether the
Active or subject is doing the action or is receiving
passive the action. A verb is in the active voice (in
voice any tense) if the subject is doing the action
in a sentence. I dream of going to galaxies
light-years from Earth. I will travel in an
ultrafast spaceship. A verb is in the
passive voice if the subject is not doing
the action. The action is done by someone
or something else. The passive voice is
always indicated with a helping verb plus
a past participle or a past tense verb. My
daydreams often are shattered by reality.
(The subject daydreams is not doing the
action.) Of course, reality can be seen
differently by different people.
(The subject reality is not doing the

263
 action.)

Active voice Passive voice

Tense
Singular Plural Singular Plural
I find We find I am found We
are
found
Presen You find You find You are We
t found are
Tense found
He/she/it They find He/she/it They
finds found are
found
Past I found We found I was found We
Tense were
found
You You found You were You
found found were
found
He/she/it They found He/she/it They
found was found were

264
 found
I will find We will I will be We
find found will
be
found
You will You will You will be You
Future find find found will
Tense be
found
He/she/it They will He/she/it They
will find find will be found will
be
found
Presen I have We have I have been We
t found found found have
Perfect been
found
You have You have You have You
found found been found have
been
found
He/she/it We had I have been We

265
 has found found found have
been
found
I had We had I had been We
found found found had
been
found
You had You had You have You
Past found found been found have
Perfect been
found
He/she/it They had He/she/it They
had found found had been have
found been
found
Future Ii will We will I will have We
Perfect found have found been found will
have
been
found
You will You will You will You
have have found have been will

266
 found found have
been
found
He/she/it They will He/she/it They
will have have found will have will
found been found have
been
found

Grammar Practice
 Verbs 5
o Active or passive voice

For each sentence below, write the verb and tell

whether It is in the active or passive voice.

Example: Elvis Presley has been called the King of

Rockand Roll.
has been called (passive)

1) He is recognized by many people as an American

music legend.

267
2) He soared to popularity with teenagers in the late
1950s.
3) By the end of his career, Elvis had recorded 81 albums
and 51 singles.
4) In addition to his recording career, Elvis starred in
movies.
5) Most of his best-known songs can be heard in his
movies.
6) Elvis Presley died in 1977 at the age of 42.
7) His talent will be remembered for a very long time.

Rewrite each of the following sentences in the active

voice. Add or Delete words as necessary

Example: Elvis Presley's movies have been enjoyed by

several generations.
Several generations have enjoyed Elvis
Presley's movies.
1) His films have been seen by millions of people.
2) In Jailhouse Rock, the part of Vince Everett was
played by Elvis.

268
3) Elvis's films have been appreciated by audiences
around the world.
4) Elvis was made famous by his singing and acting
talents.
Next step: Write· a sentence in the passive voice about a
famous Performer. Exchange papers with a classmate
and rewrite each other's sentence in the active voice

Verbs …
Forms of Verbs

Singular A singular subject needs a singular verb.

and plural A plural subject needs a plural verb. For
verbs action verbs, only the third-person
singular verb form is different: I wonder,
we wonder, you wonder, she wonders,
they wonder. Some linking verbs,
however, have several different forms.
First Person Singular: I am (or was) a
good student
Plural: We are (or were) good students
Second Person Singular: You are (or
were) a cheerleader

269
 Plural: You are (or were) cheerleaders
Third Person Singular: He is (or was) on
the wrestling team
Plural: They are (or were) also on the
team.
Transitive A transitive verb is a verb that transfers its
verbs action to a direct
Object. The object makes the meaning of
the verb complete.
A transitive verb is always an action verb
(never a linking
Verb).
An earthquake shook San Francisco in
1906. (Shook transfers
Its action to the direct object San
Francisco. Without San
Francisco the meaning of the verb shook
is incomplete).
The city's people spent many years
rebuilding. (Without the
……………………………………….
A transitive verb transfers the action

270
 directly to a direct Object and indirectly to
an indirect object.
Fires destroyed the city. (direct object:
city)
Our teacher gave us the details. (indirect
object: us; direct object: details) see
692 .5 for more on direct and indirect
object
Intransitiv An intransitive verb does not need an
e object to complete its
Verbs Meaning. (See pages 484 and 570.)
Abigail was shopping. (The verb's
meaning is complete.)
Her stomach felt queasy. (Queasy is a.
predicate adjective
Describing stomach, there is no direct
object.)
She lay down on the ……… (Again there
is direct object, down is an adverb
modifying lay).

Grammar Practice

271
  Verbs6
o Transitive and intransitive verbs

For each sentence below, write whether the underlined

verb is "transitive" or "intransitive".

Example: My best friend's mother writes poetry and

Short.
Stories.
Transitive
1) The wolf snarled fearsomely.
2) The coach gave the player a penalty for poor
sportsmanship.
3) The leaves on this bush ~ purple.
4) Near the end of the race, Taylor ran faster than ever
before.
5) Jorge has been transferred to Jackson Park Middle
School.
6) Casey told the truth when he said that he didn't do it.
7) I read a letter to the editor about rising energy costs.
8) Ted worked quietly.
9) The sound of the fire alarm blasted through the halls.

272
10) Eva plays the drums in a band that' she and her friends
put together.
11) Before eating his breakfast, Najee took a vitamin.
12) Have you ever seen a telephone with a dial?
13) The sky seems a little green this afternoon.
14) The maintenance staff cleans 'the pool once a week.
15) The housekeeping staff cleans regularly.
Next step: Write two sentences with transitive verbs and
two with Intransitive verbs. Exchange papers with a
classmate and identify each other's verbs correctly.

Verbs …
Forms of Verbs

Transitive Some verbs can be either transitive or

or intransitive.
intransitiv Transitive: She reads my note. Albert ate
e verbs an apple.
Intransitive: She reads aloud. Albert ate
already.
Verbals

273
 A verbal is a word that is made from a
verb but acts as another part of speech.
Gerunds, participles, and infinitives are
verbals.
Gerunds A gerund is a verb form that ends in ing
and is used as a noun. A gerund often
begins a gerund phrase.
Worrying Is useless. (The gerund is the
subject noun.)
You should stop worrying about so many
things. (The gerund phrase is the direct
object.)
Participles A participle is a verb form ending in ing or
ed. A participle is used as an adjective and
often begins a participial phrase.
The idea of the earth shaking and splitting
both fascinates and frightens me. (The
participles modify earth.)
Rattling in the cabinets, the dishes were
about to crash to the
……………………………………….
Why doesn't this tired earth just stand

274
 still? (The participle modifies earth.)
Infinitives An infinitive is a verb form introduced by
to. It may be used as a noun, an adjective,
or an adverb. It often begins an infinitive
phrase my ……….. to whisper is due to
this secret. (the infinitive is an adjective
modifying need).
I am afraid to swim. (The infinitive is an
adverb modifying the predicate adjective
afraid.)
To overcome this fear is my goal. {The
infinitive phrase is used as a noun and is
the subject of this sentence).

Grammar Practice:
 Verbs 7
o Verbal

For each sentence below, Identify the underlined verb

form as a "gerund," a "participle," or an "infinitive."

275
Example: In the late 1800s, Ohio artist Richard Felton
Outcault began to create comics for
newspapers.
Infinitive
(1) Richard Outcault's comic strips became popular in
America when the New York Journal decided to
print his comic strip, the "Yellow Kid." (2)The
"Yellow Kid" got his name because his
distinguishing nightshirt was always printed in the
color yellow. (3)Printing in color was new to
newspapers in those days. (4)Soon there were more
of Outcault's cartoons appearing in newspapers.
(5)Comic strips read by people of alleges became
an important part of the Sunday paper. (6) Reading
them was fun! (7) Outcault went on to create
several more popular strips, including one called
"Buster Brown." (8) Then, after a while, he grew
weary of creating comics, and the tired artist
moved on to other things. (9)Advertising became
his new profession. (10)Richard Outcault's ability
to develop characters- for, the Sunday funnies
earned him the title the Father of the Comic Strip.

276
For each sentence below, write the infinitive phrase
and label how it is used-as a "noun," an "adjective,"
or an "adverb."

Example: To enjoy the funnies is a Sunday ritual.

To enjoy the funnies (noun)

1. It's a good way to begin a Sunday morning!

2. I want to read the comics before anything else.
3. I'm happy to read them to my little sister.

Adjective

Articles An adjective is a word used to describe a

noun or a pronoun.
Adjectives tell what kind, how many, or
which one. They usually come before the
word they describe.
ancient dinosaurs 800 species that
triceratops
Adjectives are the same whether the
word they describe is singular or plural.

277
 small brain-or-small brains
large tooth-or-large teeth
Proper The articles a, an, and the are adjectives.
Adjectives A brontosaurus was an animal about 70
feet long.
The huge dinosaur lived on land and ate
plants
Common A proper adjective is formed from a
Adjectives proper noun, and it is always capitalized.
A Chicago museum is home to the
skeleton of one of these beasts. (Chicago
functions as a proper adjective describing
the noun museum.)

Special Kinds of Adjectives

Demonstrative A demonstrative adjective point out a

Adjective particular noun.
This and these point out something
nearby; that and those point out
something a distance.
This mammoth is huge, but this

278
 mammoth is even bigger
NOTE when a noun does not follow
this, these, that, or those, these words
are pronouns, not adjectives.
Compound Compound adjective is made up of
Adjectives two or more words.
(sometimes it is hyphenated)
Dinosaurs were egg-laying animals.
The North African Dinosaurs had
sharp teeth and powerful jaws.
Grammar Practice:
 Adjectives 1
 Demonstrative Adjectives
 compound Adjectives
 Indefinite and Predicate Adjectives (See page
734)

For each numbered sentence in the paragraphs

below, Identify the underlined word or words as
one of the kinds of adjectives listed above.

279
Example: Most people know about the Great
Chicago Fire
Indefinite
(1) On the night of October 8, 1871, an eerie, reddish
orange glow filled the Chicago sky. (2) Some people
believe that the Great Chicago Fire began in the O'Learys'
barn when a cow kicked over a lantern. (3) (That theory
was never proven, however, and the exact cause of the fire
is still unknown.) (4) Many residents panicked and tried to
flee the burning city. (5) Kind-hearted people did
whatever they could to help, but most of Chicago was
destroyed, and 300 people died. (6) As bad as it was,
another fire on the same day caused even more damage.
(7) The Great Peshtigo Fire was huge; it covered more
than a million acres in northeast Wisconsin and
Michigan's Upper Peninsula. (8) Hundreds of miles of
forest, dry from· drought, were tender for this firestorm.
(9) Hurricane-force winds created by the fire pushed the
blaze from town to town, and 1,500 people lost their lives.
(10) To this day, the Great Peshtigo Fire ranks as the
worst natural disaster to ever hit the United States.

280
Next step: Write two or three sentences about fire
safety. Use predicate adjective, an indefinite adjective,
and demonstrative adjective in your sentences.

Adjectives …
Special Kinds of Adjectives

Indefinite An indefinite adjective gives approximate

Adjectives or indefinite.
information (any, few, many, most, and so
on). It does not tell exactly how many or
how much.
Some mammoths were heavier than
today's elephants
Predicate A predicate adjective follows a linking
Adjective verb and describes the subject.
Mammoths were once abundant, but now
they are extinct.

Forms of Adjectives

Positive The positive form describes a noun or

Adjectives pronoun without
comparing it to anyone or anything else.

281
 The Eurostar is a fast train that runs
between London, Paris, and Brussels.
It is an impressive train.
Comparativ The comparative form of an adjective
e Adjectives (er) compares two persons, places,
things, or ideas.
The Eurostar is faster than the Orient
Express Some adjectives that have …..
than one ………. show comparisons by
their er suffix, but many of them use the
modifiers more or less.
It is a speedier commuter train than the
Tobu Railway trains in Japan.
This train is more impressive than my
commuter train.
Superlative The superlative form (est or most or
Adjectives least) compares three or more persons,
places, things, or ideas.
In fact, the Euro star is the fastest train in
Europe.
It Is the most impressive commuter train
in the world

282
Irregular Some adjectives use completely different
Forms words to express comparison.
Good, better, best bad, worse, worst.
Many, more, most little, less, least
Grammar Practice:
 Adjectives 2
o Forms of Adjectives

Based on the clues in each sentence below, write the

correct form (positive, comparative, or superlative) of
the adjective shown in parentheses to complete each
sentence.

Example: Giraffes are ______ than any other animal.

(tall)
Taller
1) The ______ snake in the world is the reticulated
python. (a long)
2) A rabbit has ______ ears than a hare does. (short)
3) A cheetah is a ______runner. (fast)
4) Even though the whale shark feeds mostly on plankton
and small fish, it is the fish______ in the sea. (big)

283
5) The common snail is probably the______animal on
earth. (slow)
6) Is the warthog really the ______animal? (attractive)
7) Many people believe the polar bear is ______ than the
grizzly bear. (powerful)
8) The Indian elephant has a ______forehead. (square)
9) Even the ______human sprinter can't outrun an
elephant. (good)
10) Some zebras have ______ stripes than other zebras.
(many)
11) Compared to other animals in the United States the
wolverine seems to be the one with the ______temper.
(bad)
12) An arctic fox in the snow is ______ than a red fox in
the forest. (visible)
13) Long ago, the Pacific salmon was the ______ source
of food in the diet of the Yakima tribe. (important)

Next step: Write three sentences about different animals

Use adjectives. that are positive, comparative, and
superlative in your sentences.
 Adverb

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 An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an
adjective, or another adverb. It tells how, when, where,
how often, or how much. Adverbs can come before or
after the words, they modify. (See pages 490-493). Dad
snores loudly. (Loudly modifies the verb snores.)
His snores are really explosive. (Really modifies the
adjective explosive.)
Dad snores very loudly.
(Very modifies the adverb loudly.)
Types of Adverbs
There are four basic types of adverbs: time, place,
manner, and degree.
Adver Adverbs of time tell when, how often, and
bs of how long.
time tomorrow often never always
Jen rarely has time to go swimming
Adver Adverbs of place tell where, to where, or
bs of from where.
Place there backward outside
We'll set up our tent here.
Adver ………………………………………………
bs …….

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 Manne is done.
r unkindly gently well
Ahmed boldly entered the dark cave.
Some words used as adverbs can be written
with or without the ly ending. When in
doubt, use the ly form.
slow, slowly deep, deeply
NOTE Not all words ending in ly are
adverbs. Lovely, for example, is an
adjective .
Adver Adverbs of degree tell how much or how
bs of little.
Degree scarcely entirely generally very really
Jess Is usually the leader in these situations.

Grammar Practice
 Adverb 1
o Types of Adverbs

Write the adverb or adverbs that modify the

underlined words in the sentences below. The number

286
of adverbs is in parentheses. Label each as one of
"time," "place," "manner," or "degree."

Example: America's national parks are always a great

place
to camp. (1)
always-time
1. Some parks, like Yosemite and Yellowstone, often
very·(2)
2. You might have to wait patiently to get a campsite.
(1)
3. People must enjoy sleeping outside! (1)
4. Campers in national parks regularly go bicycling,
canoeing, and hiking. (1)
5. Younger kids really enjoy meeting the park rangers.
(1)
6. Frequently, national park campgrounds offer evening
campfire activities. (1)
7. If someone brings a guitar there, people might start
dancing
8. around. (2)

287
9. Sometimes, national parks have programs to teach
campers about nature and wildlife. (V
10. Campers need to react quietly and cautiously when
wild
11. animals are nearby. (3)
12. Wherever you camp, it is important to do it safely.
(1)
13. You should follow the park's camping rules exactly
and faithfully. (2)
14. Never hike by yourself. (1)
15. Be extremely careful that your campfire does not
accidentally start a forest fire. (3)
16. Always remember to carefully inspect your campsite
before you leave.(2)

Adverbs …
Special Kinds of adverbs

Conjunctive A conjunctive adverb can be used as a

Adverbs conjunction and shows a connection or a
transition between two independent
clauses. Most often, a conjunctive
adverb follows a semicolon in a

288
 compound sentence; however, it can also
appear at the beginning or end of a
sentence. (Note that the previous
sentence has an example of a
conjunctive adverb.)
also besides however Instead
meanwhile nevertheless therefore

forms of Adverbs

Many adverbs-especially adverbs of manner-have three

form: positive, comparative, and superlative.
Positive The positive form describes but does not
Adverbs make a comparison.
Juan woke up late.
He quickly ate some breakfast.
Competitive The comparative form of an adverb (er)
Adverbs compares two things.
Juan woke up later than he usually did.
(See page 491.)
Some adverbs that have more than one
syllable show …….. but many of them

289
 use the modifiers more or less.
He ate his breakfast more quickly than
usual.
Superlative The superlative form (est or most or
Adverbs least)compares three or more things.
(see page 491)
Of the past those days, Juan woks up
latest on Saturday
Of the past three days, he ate his
breakfast least quickly on Saturday.
Some adverbs use completely different
words to express comparative
superlative
Positive comparative superlative
Well better best Worse worst
Grammar Practice
 Adverbs 2
o Comparative Forms
For each of the sentences below, write the adverb and
identify it as "positive," "comparative," or
"superlative."

290
Example: This year, the school bus arrives earlier than
it did last year.
earlier (comparative)
1) Makenna carelessly dripped paint on the floor.
2) Paul bakes walnut brownies better than I do.
3) Of everyone in our school's chorus, Marissa sings the
best.
4) The play's director said, "For this role, Carmen, you
have to act more mysteriously than that."
5) My old computer runs more slowly than this new one.
6) Ms. Green, who was formerly a marine, is a new
teacher a tour school.
7) Of any of the recent storms in the area, the wind blew
the most forcefully during last night's storm.
8) My brother rides his dirt bike faster than I do.
9) Julian divided the popcorn equally among the four of
us.
10) Of the Rosses' three regular babysitters, Bianca seems
to be the least readily available.
11) Instant messaging-was largely unknown until a few
years after its introduction.

291
12) Shanice dresses the most plainly of anyone in her
family.
13) Dimitri treats his dog roughly.
14) Paola gives classroom presentations more confidently
than the other students give them.

Next step: Write one sentence with a comparative

adverb and one with a superlative adverb.

Preposition

Preposition is words that show position, direction, or

how two words or ideas are related to each other.
Specifically, a preposition shows the relationship
between its object and some other word in the sentence.
Raul hid under the stairs. (Under shows the relationship
between hid and stairs.)
Prepositional A preposition never appears alone; it is
Phrases always part of prepositional phrase. A
prepositional phrase includes the
preposition, the object of the
preposition, and the modifiers of the
object. Raul's friends looked in the
clothes hamper. (Preposition: in;

292
 object: hamper; modifiers: the,
clothes). A prepositional phrase
functions as an adjective or as an
adverb. They checked the closet with
all the winter coats. (With all the winter
coats functions as an adjective
modifying closet.) They wandered
around the house looking for him
(Around the house functions as an
adverb modifying wandered.)
NOTE If a word found in the list of
prepositions has no object, it is not a
preposition. It is probably an adverb.
Raul had never won at hide 'n' seek
before. (Before is an adverb that
modifies had won.)

Apart From
Aboard Beyond Near over toward
from among
From
Aroun Near
About But betwee Over to Under
d to
n

293
 A side From Owing Underne
By Off
from under to ath
Accordi By
At Inn Off Past Until
ng to means of
In
Away Concerni
Across additio On Prior to Unto
from ng
n to
On
Across Back Consider I front Regardi
accou Up
from of ing of ng
nt of
In On
Becau
After Despite place behalf Round Up to
se of
of of
In
Befor On top
Against Down regardi Save Upon
e of
ng to
Behin Down In spite
Along Onto Since With
d from of
Along Oppos
Below During Inside Through Within
with ite
Alongsi Benea Inside Through
Except Out Without
de th of out

294
Alongsi Besid Except Instead
Out of Till
de of es for of
Besid Exceptin Outsid
Amid Into To
es g e
Betwe Outsid Together
Among For Like
en e of with
Grammar Practice
 Preposition

Write the prepositional phrases you find in each

numbered sentence below. Underline the prepositions
and circle the objects of the prepositions.

Example: The Plains Indians were once the finest horse

riders in the world.
in the world
(1) Plains Indians learned horse-riding skills at a very
early age. (2) tribesmen on horses could follow the
buffalo herds, so mastering those skills meant food for the
tribe. (3) Riding among the buffalo and using a bow
involved great skill and daring. (4) Some of the Indian
braves would ride with one foot on the top of the horse's

295
hips while shooting arrows underneath the horse's neck at
an enemy. (5) In the1800s, nations like the Crow and the
Lakota enjoyed a golden age because of their superb
riding abilities.

Write a prepositional phrase to complete each of the

following sentences.

Example: I like tropical fish . . . . (what kind?)

from the Caribbean Sea.

1. I was born ... (when?)

2. The CD ... (which one?) ... is my favorite one right
now.
3. My uncle grew up ... (where?)
4. My notebook is the one ... (which one?)
5. I keep my pens and pencils ... (where?)
6. Please get me some candy ... (what kind?)
Conjunction
A conjunction connects individual words or
groups of words. There are three kinds of conjunctions:
coordinating, correlative, and subordinating.(See pages

296
496-498.)
Coordinating A coordinating conjunction connects a
Conjunction word to a word, a phrase to a phrase, or
a clause to a clause. The words
phrases, or clauses joined by a
coordinating conjunction must be
equal, or of the same type.
Polluted rivers and streams can be
cleaned up. (Two nouns are connected
by and.)
Ride a bike or plant a tree to reduce
pollution. (Two verb phrases are
connected by or.)
Maybe you can't invent a pollution-free
engine, but you can cut down on the
amount of energy you use. (Two equal
independent clauses are connected by
but.)
NOTE When a coordinating
conjunction is used to make a
compound sentence, a comma always
comes before it .

297
 Correlative Correlative conjunctions are
Conjunction conjunctions used in pairs.
We must reduce not only pollution but
also excess energy use. either you’re
part of the problem, or you're part or
the solution.

Conjunction
Coordinating conjunction
And, but, or, not, for, so, yet
Correlative Conjunction
Either, Neither, Not Both, Wether, As, so
or nor only, but and or
also
Subordinating Conjunction
After, although, as, as if,
In order that, provided that, since, so, so that, that,
though, till, unless,
Until, when, where, whereas, while
Grammar Practice
 Conjunctions 1
o Coordinating Conjunctions

298
 Use a coordinating conjunction to combine each pair
of sentences below.
Example: Anyone may join the Polar Bear Club. He or
she must be willing to swim in freezing water.
Anyone may join the Polar Bear Club, but he or she must
be willing to swim in freezing water.

1) The members braved the subzero temperatures. They

plunged into the icy water.
2) Club members could go into the water wearing
swimsuits. They could go into the water wearing
warmer clothing.
3) Participants get very cold. It is important to have a
place to warm up when they get out of the water.
4) Polar Bear Club members like to have fun. They also
like to help raise money for special causes.
o Corrective Conjunctions
Use a different set of correlative conjunctions to combine
each sentence pair below. Underline the conjunctions.

299
Example: Josh must decide if he wants to go to the
game. Josh must decide if he wants to go to
the movies. Josh must decide whether he
wants to go to the game or the movie.
1. Rain will not stop the football game. Snow will not
stop the football game.
2. Volleyball is a team sport. Soccer is a team sport.
3. Sally, has twin sister, Sally also has twin cousins
4. Maybe Ron's mom will pick us up after school.
Maybe Ron's dad will pick us up after school.
5.

Conjunctions

Subordinating A subordinating conjunction is a word

Conjunction or group of words that connects two
clauses that are not equally important.
A subordinating conjunction begins a
dependent clause and connects it to an
independent clause to make a complex
sentence. (See page 517 and the chart
on page 744). Fuel-cell engines are
unusual because they don't have

300
 moving parts. Since fuel-cell cars run
on hydrogen, the only waste products
are water and heal As you can see in
the sentences above, a comma sets off
the dependent clause only when it
begins the sentence. A commais
usually not used when the dependent
clause follows the independent clause.
NOTE Relative pronouns and
conjunctive adverbs can also connect
clauses.

 Interjections
An interjections is a word or phrase used to express strong
Emotion or
…………………………………………………. Is used to
a separate an interjection from the rest of the sentences.
Wow, would you look at that! Oh, no! He’s falling!
School Daze:
- Forget it! We aren’t using activity money for that.
- Yikes, I’ve told every that we could buy a plasma-
screen TV for our classroom.

301
Grammar Practice:
 Conjunction 2
o Subordinating Conjunctions

Choose a subordinating conjunction (from the chart

on page 7 44) to connect each pair of clauses below,
forming complex sentences. Place the conjunction first
in some of the sentences.

Example: Cicadas are easy to recognize. They make

unique sounds.
Cicadae are easy to recognize because they
make unique sounds.
1) It's not uncommon to hear dozens of them ticking,
buzzing, and whining. It's hot outside.
2) They are capable of producing sounds in excess of
120 decibels. The noise might hurt your ears.
3) The king hornet preys on cicadas. Birds are even
worse.
4) Unsuspecting cicadas are sitting high in the treetops.
Hungry birds are watching.
5) It sounds disgusting. Some people eat cicadas.

302
6) You might hear the l7-year cicadas. You ‘re in the
United States east of the Great Plains.
7) These cicadas are called 17-year cicadas. They
emerge in great numbers once every 17 years.
8) You know what a cicada looks like. You might
mistake it for alocust or a giant fly.
9) A cicada's body temperature drops below 72 degrees
Fahrenheit. It won't fly.
10) You might not like the racket that cicadas make. You
have to admit that they are interesting insects.
Next step: Would an interjection be appropriate in an
of the sentences you just wrote? Add an interjection to at
least four of them. Separate it from the rest of the sentence
with either a comma or an exclamation point.
Quick Guide: Parts of Speech
In the English language, there are eight parts of
speech. Understanding them will help you improve your
writing skills. Every word you write is a part of speech-a
noun, a verb, an adjective, and so on. The chart below lists
the eight parts of speech.

Noun A word that names a person, a place,

303
 a thing, or an idea. Alex Moya Belize
ladder courage

A word used in place of a noun

Pronoun
I he It they you anybody some

A word that shows action or links a

Verb subject to another word in the
sentences ing shake catch Is are

A word that describes a noun or a

Adjective pronoun stormy red rough seven
grand

…….
………..
quickly today now bravely softer

A word that shows position or

direction and introduces a
Preposition prepositional phrase
around up under ever between
to

304
 A word that connects other words or
Conjunctio
groups of words and but or so
n
because when

word (set off by commas or an

exclamation point) that
Interjection
shows strong emotion
Stop! Hey, how are you?

Grammar Practice
 Parts of speech review

For each underlined word in the following paragraphs,

write whether it is a "noun," a "pronoun," a "verb,"
an "adjective," an "adverb," a "preposition," a
"conjunction," or an "interjection."

(1) There's a big change taking place in the Black Hills of

South Dakota. (2) Not far from Mount Rushmore, a huge
likeness of the Native American leader Crazy Horse is
being carved into the side of a mountain.(3) Crazy Horse

305
was a famous warrior of the Lakota tribe. (4) He was
committed leader who fought to preserve the traditions
and values of his people. (5) Now, people are creating this
memorial to his life. (6) Any one who's in the area can see
it in person. (7) The sculptor Korczak Ziolkowski began
work on the memorial in 1948. (8) In the beginning, he
worked alone. (9) He worked diligently, and soon the
image of Crazy Horse began taking shape. (10)
Surprisingly, he then decided to carve the entire 600-foot
mountain instead of following his original plan to carve
only the top 100 feet. (11) Wow, Korczak worked on his
amazing sculpture for 32 years! (12) When he died
unexpectedly in1982 at the age of 74, he was buried in a
tomb about 500 yards from the base of the mountain. (13)
Ziolkowski's project continues under the supervision of
his wife. (14) The face portion of this gigantic sculpture
was dedicated in 1998. (15) The crew will work faithfully
until the project is finished. (16) Oh, it will be years
before the memorial is finished, but it will be well worth
the wait.

306
Next step: Write one word for each of the eight parts of
speech and exchange lists witi1 a. partner. Write a
sentence or two using all of each other's words.
Words to Describe People

Chapter Nine
Enrich Your Vocabulary

307
Look each word in an English-English dictionary and see
all their meanings and usages in contexts
Words To describe Personality
Affectionate: very loving
Aggressive: Physically and verbally threatening towards
others
Ambitious: keen to get on in life
Anxious: someone who worries a lot
Artistic: someone who is good at creative things
Bad-tempered: somebody who gets angry a lot
Big-headed: someone with very high opinions about
themselves
Boring: someone dull, not very interesting
Bossy: someone who tries to control others
Charismatic: someone who attracts other people
Creative: original thinker, with artistic skills
Courageous: brave
Dependable: reliable
Devious: someone who cheats and uses others
Dim: stupid
Extroverted: very outgoing
Introverted: shy

308
Egotistical: someone who feels and acts as if they are
more important than others
Gregarious: very sociable
Impulsive: someone who acts before thinking
Intelligent: very clever
Introverted: quiet and shy
Industrious: very hard working
Joyful: very happy
Sociable: someone who enjoys mixing with people
Sympathetic: someone who offers an ear to people with
problems
Talkative: someone who talks a lot
Upbeat: someone with a cheerful positive attitude to life

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Tall well-built Talented

309
Short overweight disobedient

Slim medium height corrupt

Thin well-dressed Obedient

Fat smart principled

obese scruffy unscrupulous

Old good-looking unfriendly

young attractive Modest

middle-aged beautiful Cowardly

Bald pretty Friendly

bald-headed handsome Conceited

Beard good-looking Brave

absent-
moustache fair-haired
minded

long hair blond-haired or

310
  blonde-haired arrogant

short hair brown-haired Happy

straight hair dark-haired Stupid

curly hair ginger-haired cautious

Ugly blonde Shy

Brunette redhead Extroverted

FEELINGS

happy sad Impolite

Miserable worried Polite

depressed Excited Witty

bored fed up Snobbish

Pleased delighted Unhappy

Surprised astonished Outgoing

Disappointed enthusiastic Adventurous

relaxed Stressed Introverted

311
Anxious tired Easy-going

Bad-
clothing Moody
mannered

exhausted Annoyed Emotional

angry furious Funny

Livid disgusted Boring

Emotional Characteristic

Confident sensitive Sophisticated

Calm hot-headed cheeky

impulsive Cheerful Crude

generous Kind Intelligent

Mean Crazy Intelligent

sensible Serious Lazy

Honest Dishonest Conscientious

312
 terrible bad-tempered hard-working

Able agile arid artificial

Acrid astounding adept astute

Anxious austere authentic adverse

Awkward apt affluent prosperous,

Bland blatant balmy flagrant

Barren blunt brisk benevolent

Bulky candid inept colossal

Gigantic competent controversial dogged

Dynamic vibrant exhaustive exhaustive

Fitting eligible extravagant flagrant

Eminent faint flimsy fragile

Foremost fatal faulty fraudulent

Feasible fundamental fragile futile

313
Gala garrulous gaudy grave

Genial gregarious harsh grim

Gorgeous gullible haphazard indifferent

Innate indigenous indispensable intense

Idle indispensable intense indistinct

Jagged imaginary inexorable immense

Ingenious impartial incessant lucrative

Massive memorable lavish lurid

Lax legendary legitimate luxurious

Lethargic magnificent probable murky

Mandatory compulsory lucid fictional

Negligible odd ominous notable

Notorious novel outgoing obscure

Obsolete exceptional pale luxurious

314
Peculiar prudent perpetual fed-up

Reckless treacherous reliable remote

Sheer slender sluggish cunning

Seasoned shrewd secluded sensational

Significant sound stable sundry

Superb spirited stern splendid

Stubborn swift Tolerant Thorough

Thrifty Thrilling Tough tedious

Timid telling Tiresome Trivial

Tender Trivial Trying vast

Unbearable urgent uncouth ungainly

Vigorous vivid variable widespread

Zealous witty wholesome well-to-do

315
III. Look the following verbs up in an English-English
dictionary and know at least ten meanings/usgaes for
each verb

Do

Take

Run

Do

Make

Play

Go

Come

Feel

See

Hear

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