Evapotranspiration☆

Jan Pokorny, ENKI, O.P.S., Trě boň, Czech Republic

r 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Introduction

Water is one of the most important limited natural resources. Declining water resources and water quality problems have
resulted in dramatic increase in the need for water-conserving methodologies on a field, watershed, and regional scale and
this makes efficient use of freshwater resources an obligation of each user. During the 30-year period from 1950 to 1980, the
actual level of per capita water supply decreased significantly in many countries due to population increases. It has been
projected that in early year 2000 considerably low water availability per capita is anticipated in many regions of the world. As
water becomes increasingly scarce and the need becomes more pressing, newer and more complete methods of measuring and
evaluating techniques of handling water resources are necessary. In terms of agricultural production, approximately 17% of
the cropped area of the world is irrigated and contributes more than one-third of the total world food production. In the
United States, about 12% of the cropped area is irrigated and contributes about 25% of the total value of the United States
crops. In the United States and around the world, irrigated agriculture uses most of the water withdrawals from the surface
and groundwater supplies. Thus, accurate quantification of plant water use (evapotranspiration) is crucial for better man-
agement and allocation of water resources.
The process known as evapotranspiration (ET) is of great importance in many disciplines. Accurate quantification of ET in
agroecosystems is critical for better planning, managing, and efficient use of water resources, especially in arid or semiarid
environments where lack of precipitation usually limits plant growth and yield and negatively affects ecological balances.
Quantification of ET is also crucial in water allocation, irrigation management, evaluating the effects of changing land use on water
yield, environmental assessment, and development of best management practices to protect surface and groundwater quality.
ET can be defined as the loss of water from the ground, lake or pond, and vegetative surfaces to the atmosphere through
vaporization of liquid water. In agroecosystems, ET is the sum of two terms: (1) transpiration, which is water entering plant roots
and used to build plant tissue or being passed through leaves of the plant into the atmosphere in the vapor form, and (2)
evaporation which is water evaporating from soil and water surfaces, or from the surfaces of plant leaves. Evaporation from
buildings, streets, parking lots, etc., after a rain event also contributes to the total ET in the hydrologic cycle.
Evaporation and transpiration processes occur simultaneously and there is no easy method to separate these two processes.
Evaporation in the field can take place from crop canopies, from the soil surface, or from a free water surface. When the soil surface
is bare, evaporation will take place from the soil directly. In the absence of vegetation, and when the soil surface is subject to
radiation and wind effects, evaporation can result in considerable loss of water in both irrigated and nonirrigated agriculture, and
other ecological landscapes. In the semiarid and arid western regions of the United Sates, evaporation can be as high as 40% of the
total ET.
Transpiration increases with increasing leaf area until complete closure of the canopy occurs. For agricultural crops such
maximum transpiration is usually attained at a leaf area index (LAI) of about 3–3.5. In the transpiration process, stomata
opening and closure depends on water uptake rate which in turn depends on the density and distribution of roots and their
effectiveness to uptake water and nutrients from the soil. Stomata would close when roots cannot uptake water from soil
with sufficient rate to keep up with the transpiration. In irrigated agroecosystems, the goal should be decreasing the eva-
poration component of the total ET for optimum crop production because yield and transpiration are strongly related and
evaporation does not have any contribution to the crop growth and yield. Thus, the evaporation falls into the “unbeneficial
water use” category.
The ET rate and amount for different vegetation surfaces (i.e., agronomical crops, which are mostly “annual crops” vs. trees and
shrubs, which are mostly “perennials”) show significant variation from one location to another and are strong functions of
climatic, soil conditions, and management practices. For example, the seasonal crop ET for corn (maize, Zea mays) can range from
500 to 800 mm depending on climate. The ET for typical alfalfa (Medicago sativa) plant can range from 800 to 1600 mm per
growing period depending on climate and length of growing period. For a tropical plant such as banana (Musa spp.), this value is
between 1200 mm in the humid tropics and 2200 mm in the dry tropics. Water requirement of trees can also show wide variations
depending on climate, soil type, and root structures. For example, an orange tree (Citrus aurantium) can use as much as between
900 and 1200 mm of water per year whereas olive tree (Olea europea) can use only between 400 and 600 mm of water per year. The
expected water use of natural vegetations can also show significant variation. For example, the seasonal water use of cattail (Typha)

☆
Change History: March 2018. J Pokorný added Sections “Solar Energy Flux Between Sun and Earth,” “Main Fluxes of Solar Energy in Landscape,” “Cooling and
Air-Conditioning Effect of Evapotranspiration,” “Effect ET on Local Climate,” “Landscape Drying,” “Evapotranspiration of Forests (biotic pump)” together
with 6 new figures (Figs. 2–4 and 6–8).
This is an update of G. Katul and K. Novick, Evapotranspiration, In Encyclopedia of Inland Waters, edited by Gene E. Likens, Academic Press, Oxford, 2009,
pp. 661–667.

292 Encyclopedia of Ecology, 2nd edition, Volume 2 doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-409548-9.11182-0

 Ecological Processes: Evapotranspiration 293

can range from only 890 mm to as much as 2500 mm. Water use for foxtail (Lycopodium clavatum) is about 140 mm and for pine
tree (Pinus) water use can range from 480 to 1190 mm. Water use of different natural vegetation and agronomical plants are
important and necessary for accurate determination of hydrologic balance components.

The Hydrologic Cycle and ET

ET is a major component of the hydrologic cycle. A major proportion of the total precipitation falling on the land surface is
returned to the atmosphere by ET. As a global average, 57% of the annual precipitation falling over the land is returned to the
atmosphere by ET. ET amounts to about 70% of the annual precipitation of the United States, and more than 90% of the
precipitation in the arid and semiarid areas of the western United States. Different components of a typical hydrologic cycle are
illustrated in Fig. 1. The hydrologic cycle can be defined as the pathways of water as it moves in its various phases through the
atmosphere, to the Earth, over and through the land, to the ocean, and back to the atmosphere. During this cycle, which has no
beginning or end, water molecules may assume various states, returning to a hydrologic pathway as new chemical compounds that
are mixed with various solid and liquid substances. In the cycle, water evaporates from the oceans, ponds, rivers, and various land
surface to become part of the atmosphere; water vapor is transported and lifted in the atmosphere until it condenses and
precipitates on the land or oceans. Precipitated water may be intercepted by vegetation, become overland flow over the ground
surface, infiltrate into the ground, flow through the soil as subsurface flow, or discharge into streams as surface runoff. In a given
watershed, discharge of water is primarily from groundwater withdrawals for irrigation, ET where the water table is near land
surface, overland flow (runoff), and seepage to streams and springs where the water table intersects the land surface. Recharge of
water is primarily from precipitation; other sources of recharge are irrigation return flow and seepage from streams, canals, and
reservoirs. Large amounts of the intercepted water and surface runoff return to the atmosphere through evaporation. Infiltrated
water may percolate to deeper soil layers to recharge groundwater, and later emerge in springs, or as seepage into streams, to form
surface flow. Finally, this water may flow to the larger rivers and, eventually to the sea and/or evaporate into the atmosphere.
Throughout this cycle, water is usually subject to evaporation of one kind. Types of vegetation, management and land use, and
climatic conditions significantly affect ET, and therefore determine the amount of water lost through ET from a watershed. In
agroecosystems, it is important to have a water balance to protect the sustainability and productivity of the agroecosystems. Water-
level declines may result in increased costs for groundwater withdrawals because of increased pumping lift and decreased well
yields. Water-level declines also can affect groundwater availability, surface water flow, and near-stream habitat (riparian) areas,

Solar
energy

Rainfall Reflection
from cloud

Irrigation Transpiration
Evaporation

Wat
er ta
ble
Pote
ntlom Infilt Runoff
etric ratio
n
Later
al gro
u
Surf ndwater
ic fl
Dee Sem ial aquife ow
p pe icon r
rcola finin Base
tion g lay flow
er

Aqu
ifer

Fig. 1 The hydrologic cycle showing different components of the hydrological process.
294 Ecological Processes: Evapotranspiration

and other ecological systems. Therefore developing efficient and effective management strategies is crucial for protecting sus-
tainability of efficient use of water resources, protecting habitat and environment, and preventing ground and surface water
degradation.

Solar Energy Flux Between Sun and Earth

For a mean distance between the Sun and the Earth, the intensity of solar radiation incident upon a surface perpendicular to the
Sun's rays measured above the atmosphere is approximately 1367 W m
2. This quantity is called the solar constant. The actual
direct solar irradiance at the top of the Earth's atmosphere fluctuates during a year from 1412 to 1321 W m
2 due to the Earth's
varying distance from the Sun. The maximum irradiance on Earth's surface commonly lies between 800 and 1000 W m
2 in the
tropics and subtropics and during the growing season in temperate zones. This indicates that approximately 25%–40% of energy
incident on the upper layer of the atmosphere is reflected, scattered, or absorbed in the atmosphere and does not reach the Earth's
surface (Fig. 2).
The amount of incoming energy differs significantly with weather conditions (Fig. 3). The amount of incoming radiation on a
clear day (e.g., 8.5 kWh m
2 and maximum flux 1000 W m
2) can be an order of magnitude higher than the amount of incoming
radiation on an overcast day (e.g., 0.78 kWh m
2, maximum flux 100 W m
2). Part of the energy is reflected straight away after
incidence.
The ratio of reflected to incident radiation is called albedo. Dark surfaces such as water, wet soil, and wet vegetation absorb
solar radiation whereas light surfaces like snow or sand are more reflective. The sum of incoming radiation minus all outgoing
radiation across a unit area of the plane is called net radiation.

Main Fluxes of Solar Energy in Landscape

There is a big difference between the distributions of net radiation in functioning natural ecosystems of high plant biomass well
supplied with water versus dry, nonliving physical surfaces (Fig. 4). In ecosystems, net radiation (Rn) is divided in varying
proportion into following four parts: latent heat flux (LE), sensible heat flux (H), ground heat flux (G), and storage of energy (S).

Fig. 2 Energy flux between Sun and Earth. Outer layer of atmosphere gets 1412–1321 W m
2 during 1 year. At clear sky up to 1000 W m
2
comes to Earth's surface. Radiative forcing due to an increase of concentration of greenhouse gases is 1–3 W m
2 from year 1750. ET is most
powerful process of distribution of solar energy incoming to Earth's surface.
 Ecological Processes: Evapotranspiration 295

Fig. 3 Daily mean series of incoming solar radiation (W m
2) on five sunny and five cloudy days.

Fig. 4 Evapotranspiration, sensible heat flux, ground heat flux on drained surface, and plant stand well supplied with water.

Latent heat flux (LE) represents the energy that is released or absorbed from the surface during phase transition process.
Transition of liquid into a gas phase consumes energy and thus local cooling accompanies it. Latent heat flux is generally referred
to as evapotranspiration, which describes the total evaporation from land surface and transpiration by plants. Evapotranspiration
from wetlands use several hundred W m
2 on a sunny day.
296 Ecological Processes: Evapotranspiration

Sensible heat flux (H) represents the sum of all heat exchanges between the surface of landscape and its surroundings by
conduction and convection. The proportion of sensible heat in the energy balance of an ecosystem increases when water is not
present, since the capacity for evaporative cooling by latent heat is diminished. On dry surfaces, the sensible heat flux may reach
values of several hundreds of W m
2 at a sunny day.
Ground heat flux (G) is positive when the ground is warming, normally being positive during the day and negative at night.
During the plant-growing period in daylight hours, G can reach up to 100 W m
2.
The energy stored in vegetation (S) is the smallest part of Rn. There are two energy sinks within a plant stand: metabolic sink
(photosynthesis with consequent biomass production) and a physical sink (heating of the plant material itself). Energy stored flux
is a maximum of 30 W m
2 on a sunny day, that is, several percent of Rn and usually is neglected in the energy balance
calculations.
The transformation of solar energy in landscape is then expressed by the energy balance equation (1):

Rn ¼ LE þ H þ G ð1Þ

The greatest importance in the transformation of solar energy on the Earth's surface is the latent heat flux of the vapor and the
sensible heat flux. The latent heat of vaporization is related to the water vapor, in which, due to the change of phase process, energy
is consumed. Phase changes between liquid water and water vapor are linked with the consumption of a large amount of energy.
The enthalpy of liquid water is
2.5 kJ g
1. Evapotranspiration (ET) or latent heat flux represents large, invisible fluxes of water
and energy in the landscape; the scale of several hundred W m
2. The evaporation of water is not accompanied by temperature
increase, because energy is transformed in the change of phase that is acceleration of the kinetic movement of molecules, as a result
of which the liquid is converted into water vapor. Evaporation cools the environment. On the contrary, condensation of water
vapor (e.g., in the night hours) back to the liquid (e.g., dew formation, frost) releases the stored energy as heat and the surrounding
environment is heated.
The sensible heat flux is driven by the temperature differences between the surface and the overlying air. Heat is initially
transferred into the atmosphere by conduction. Then, with gradual heating of air, it circulates upwardly through convection. When
the surface is warmer than the overlying air, heat will be transferred upwards into the air as positive sensible heat transfer. If the air
is warmer than the surface, heat is transferred from the air to the surface creating a negative sensible heat transfer. Sensible heat is
therefore part of the energy that warms the environment. We feel increasing surface and air temperature and can measure it with a
thermometer.
Ground heat flux is less significant compared to the two previous components of the equation, it accounts for 5%–10% of net
radiation. It ranges in summer months from 10 to 100 W m
2 for growing crops. The magnitude of this flux depends on the
temperature gradient and the thermal conductivity that is affected by the mineral composition of the soil, its texture, and water
content.
Bowen ratio is an important variable when evaluating ecosystems in terms of transformation of solar energy. It is defined as the
ratio of sensible and latent heat flux. If a great portion of available energy at the surface is transformed into latent heat, the Bowen
ratio is less than one. This is usually observed at wet surfaces, vegetation (forests, wetlands) and open water during a day. When
major part of available energy becomes sensible heat flux, then Bowen ratio is equal or greater than one. This is typical for sealed,
vegetation-free, and dry surfaces.

ET Terminology

Potential ET (ETp)
Many methods have been developed for direct and indirect measurement of ET. The water loss (evaporative losses) from different
surfaces such as turf, bare soil, and water was originally measured in large tanks (lysimeters). The term “lysimeter” was derived
from the Greek words “lysis” and “metron” meaning dissolving and measuring, respectively. The term is applicable to any device
utilized that measures the rate, amount, and composition of percolation of water through soil. In a simple term, the lysimeter can
be defined as large containers packed with soil located in the field to represent field and environmental conditions, with bare soil
or vegetated surfaces (field crops, trees, shrubs, grass, etc.) for measuring the ET of plants or evaporation from bare soil through a
mass-balance approach. Lysimeters are expensive and labor-intensive tools to measure evaporation or ET. Thus, other meteor-
ological approaches have been developed over the years to simplify the measurements of ET. One of the commonly used
methodologies to determine ET will be discussed later.
The original ET equation was based on evaporation from free water surface as measured with lysimeters. The definition of
potential ET that emerged from an earlier work implied a maximum value of ET when there was adequate amount of water to be
transpired or evaporated. Formally, potential ET has been defined as “the evaporation from an extended surface of short green crop
which fully shade the ground, exerts little or negligible resistance to the flow of water and is always supplied with water.” Potential
ET cannot exceed free water evaporation under the same weather conditions. However, in the definition of potential ET, the
condition of nonlimiting supply of water is never achieved because the resistance of water flow through plants and soil has a finite
value greater than zero. Another problem with this definition is the phrase “short green crop.” The short green crop has been
defined as 8–15 cm tall grass cover, but it has also been defined as a 30–50 cm tall crop of alfalfa. It is important to distinguish
 Ecological Processes: Evapotranspiration 297

between the short green vegetations because the ET rates from well-watered agricultural crops may be as much as 10%–30% greater
than that occurring from short green grass. This dichotomy in the definition of a “short green crop” has led to the use of the term
“reference crop ET (ETref).” To eliminate the confusion, in late 1970s and early 1980s, engineers and practitioners introduced and
started using the “reference ET” concept rather than “potential ET.” The use of the term “potential ET” is diminishing rapidly and
the term “reference ET” has been gaining significant acceptance by the water resources community.

Reference Evapotranspiration (ETref)

The reference ET (ETref) concept was introduced by irrigation engineers and researchers to avoid the confusions that existed in the
definition of potential ET. By adopting a reference crop (grass or alfalfa), it became easier and more practical to select consistent
crop coefficients and to make reliable actual crop ET estimates in new areas. Introduction of the reference ET concept also helped to
enhance the transferability of the crop coefficients from one location to another. Two reference crops have been used to represent
the reference ET: grass and alfalfa.

Grass Reference Evapotranspiration (ETo)

Grass reference ET is defined as “the rate of ET from a hypothetical reference crop with an assumed crop height of 0.08—0.12 m, a
fixed surface resistance of 70 s m
1, and an albedo of 0.23, closely resembling the ET from an extensive surface of green grass of
uniform height, actively growing, well-watered, and completely shading the ground.” In the grass reference ET definition, the grass
is specifically defined as the reference crop and this crop is assumed to be free of water stress and diseases.

Alfalfa Reference Evapotranspiration (ETr)

Alfalfa reference ET is defined as the ET rate from an extensive, uniform surface of dense, actively growing alfalfa, 0.30–0.50 m tall
and not short of soil water. In the literature, the terms “reference ET” and “reference crop ET” have been used interchangeably and
they both represent the same ET rate from a short, green alfalfa or grass surface. Unlike the potential ET definition, in the alfalfa
reference ET definition, an alfalfa crop is specifically noted as the reference crop.
One of the other important differences between potential and reference ET is that the weather data collection site is well defined
in the reference ET definition. It is important to note in the reference ET definition that the climate data that are used to estimate
reference ET need to be collected in a well-watered and has certain characteristic (reference) environment. Therefore, based on the
definition, the weather data for the reference ET estimations should be collected in a well-irrigated and well-maintained grass or
alfalfa field. The irrigated grass area of the weather data collection site should be fairly large (e.g., at least 4 ha) to have enough
fetch distance between the instrumentation to measure the climatic variables and the edge of the field because the quality of the
weather data will ultimately affect the final estimated reference ET value. Enough fetch distance allows the air to travel on the
reference crop surface and represent the aerodynamic, humidity, and temperature characteristics of the reference crop before it is
sampled at the weather station. In a hot, dry month the average air temperature may be as much as 51C–61C higher in a dryland
(nonirrigated) area than for a nearby well-irrigated area. The differences in the air temperature will also affect the relative humidity
and vapor pressure deficit values, and these differences will ultimately cause differences in the reference ET calculated using the
weather data collected from the two sites (dry vs. well-irrigated).

Determination of Crop ET (Plant Water Use) in Agroecosystems Using Climate Variables

In irrigated agroecosystems, a large part of the irrigation water applied to agricultural lands is consumed by evaporation and
transpiration. In practice, in field measurements, it is hard to separate evaporation from transpiration, and the two processes are
usually considered as one component. Crop ET can be measured directly using precision weighing lysimeters, Eddy correlation
system, Bowen ratio energy balance system, atmometers, including evaporation pans, soil water balance by measuring soil water
status continuously, etc. However, because direct measurement of crop ET (ETc) is difficult, time consuming, and costly, the most
common procedure is to estimate ETc using climatic data. Currently, most commonly practiced way of estimating the crop ET rate
(or crop water use rate) for a specific crop or vegetation surface requires first calculating reference ET (ETref) and then applying the
crop coefficients (Kc) to estimate actual crop ET (ETc) as Eq. (2).
ETc ¼ ETref  K c KTc ¼ ET ref  K c ð2Þ

1
1
1
where ETc is the crop ET (crop water use) in units of water depth (inches day , cm day , or mm day ), ETref (ETo or ETr) is the
reference ET in unit of water depth (inches day
1, cm day
1, or mm day
1) as calculated from the basic weather variables (solar
radiation, air temperature, wind speed, and relative humidity) measured with a weather station in reference conditions.
Although the first equation by Penman for potential ET, (ETp), was introduced almost 60 years ago; it still provides funda-
mental principles for the calculation and/or modification of ET models today. Numerous methods have been introduced for
computing ETref causing confusion among users, decision- and policymakers as to which method to select for ETref estimation.
Recently, the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) Evapotranspiration in Irrigation and Hydrology Committee established a
298 Ecological Processes: Evapotranspiration

Task Committee on “Standardization of Reference Evapotranspiration Calculation.” Based on extensive research and data analyses
and comparison of lysimeter-measured reference ET across various climates and Task Committee experience, the Task Committee
recommended the use of the ASCE-Penman–Monteith (PM) method as the representation for reference ET. A reduced form of the
ASCE-PM was used as the basis for “standardized” ETref computation. Equation parameters differ for hourly and 24-h data.
Coefficients and parameters for a taller, rougher crop surface (0.5 m tall, like alfalfa) were also developed. The ASCE standardized
ETref equation based on a surface resistance of 50 s m
1 during daytime and 200 s m
1 during nighttime provided the best
agreement with the full form of the ASCE-PM method applied on a daily basis. The advantages of adapting a specific procedure as
a standardized method are (1) it provides commonality to computing ETref, and (2) the use of a standardized method enhances
the transferability of crop coefficients.
The standardized ASCE-PM equation is intended to simplify and clarify the application of the method and associated equations
for computing aerodynamic and bulk surface resistance (ra and rs, respectively). Equations were combined into a single expression
for both grass and alfalfa reference surfaces and for a 24-h or an hourly time step by varying coefficients. Computation of
standardized short grass ETo with a 24-h time step uses a grass height of 0.12 m and an rs value of 70 s m
1, which is the same as
for the FAO56-PM equation. For hourly time steps, rs is set to 50 s m
1 for daytime hours and to 200 s m
1 for nighttime hours.
The standardized ASCE-PM equation is Eq. (3).

0:408DðRa ¼ GÞ þ gðCn =ðT þ 273ÞÞ U 2 ðea ¼ ea Þ

ETref ¼ ð3Þ
½D þ gð1 þ Cd U 2 Þ

where ETref is the standardized reference ET (mm day
1 or mm h
1), D is the slope of saturation vapor pressure versus air
temperature curve (kPa1C
1), Rn is the calculated net radiation at the crop surface (MJ m
2 day
1 for 24-h time steps or MJ
m
2 h
1 for hourly time steps), G is the heat flux density at the soil surface (zero for 24-h time steps or MJ m
2 h
1 for hourly time
steps), T is the mean daily or hourly air temperature at 1.5–2.5 m height (1C), U2 is the mean daily or hourly wind speed at 2 m
height (m s
1), es is the saturation vapor pressure (kPa), ea is the actual vapor pressure (kPa), es
ea is the vapor pressure deficit
(kPa), g is the psychrometric constant (kPa1C
1), Cn is the numerator constant that changes with reference surface and calculation
time step (Cn ¼ 9001C mm s3 Mg
1 day
1 for 24-h time steps, and Cn ¼ 371C mm s3 Mg
1 h
1 for hourly time steps for the grass
reference surface), Cd is the denominator constant that changes with reference surface and calculation time step (Cd ¼ 0.34 s m
1
for 24-h time steps, Cd ¼ 0.24 s m
1 for hourly time steps during daytime, and Cd ¼ 0.96 s m
1 for hourly nighttime for the grass
reference surface), and 0.408 is the coefficient having units of m2 mm MJ
1. The values of Cn and Cd for the grass and alfalfa
reference surfaces for daily and hourly time steps are given in Table 1.

Crop Coefficient Concept

The Kc is the crop coefficient for a given crop and is usually determined experimentally. The Kc values represent the integrated
effects of changes in leaf area, plant height, crop characteristics, irrigation method, rate of crop development, crop planting date,
degree of canopy cover, canopy resistance, soil and climate conditions, and management practices. Each crop will have a set of
specific crop coefficient and will predict different water use for different crops for different growth stages. An example of a Kc curve
as a function of days or weeks after planting for a plant for initial, development, mid-season, and end-season stages is given in
Fig. 5.
In general, crop growth stages can be divided into four main growth stages: initial, crop development, mid-season, and late
season. The length of each of these stages depends on the climate, latitude, elevation, planting date, crop type, and cultural
practices. Local field observations are best for determining the growth stage of the crop and adjust the empirical Kc values
accordingly. Early in the growing season, during the crop germination and establishment stage, most of the ET occurs as eva-
poration from the soil surface. As the crop canopy develops and covers the soil surface, evaporation from the soil surface decreases
and transpiration component of the ET increases.
Early in the season when plant is small, the water-use rate and Kc value are also small (Kc initial stage) and the crop ET rate
increases as the plant develops (Fig. 5). For agronomical plants, the crop ET rate is at the maximum level when plant is fully
developed (Kc mid-season). The ET rate decreases again when plant completes development and reaches physiological maturity
toward the end of the season (Kc end season).

Table 1 Values for Cn and Cd in Eq. (3)

Grass reference (ETo) Alfalfa reference (ETr)

Units for ETo and ETr Units for Rn and G
Time step Cn Cd Cn Cd

Daily 900 0.34 1600 0.38 mm day
1 MJ m
2 day
1

Hourly during daytime 37 0.24 66 0.25 mm h
1 MJ m
2 h
1
Hourly during nighttime 37 0.96 66 1.7 mm h
1 MJ m
2 h
1
 Ecological Processes: Evapotranspiration 299

Fig. 5 Schematic representation of increase and decrease in crop coefficient based on different plant development stages.

For perennial crops a similar pattern can occur as the plant starts to develop canopy area, grow new shoots, and develop fruit.
The percentage of leaf area, soil water status, and climatic conditions will drive the rate of crop (ET) at a given growth stage.
Usually, the maximum canopy cover coincides with the time of year when the solar radiation and temperature are at their peak
values (usually mid-season) and the maximum ET therefore occurs during that period. The Kc values for many different crops have
been published in numerous literatures.

Cooling and Air-Conditioning Effect of Evapotranspiration

Transpiration by plants can be seen as a water loss in such cases as water scarcity; managers of water reservoirs that supply drinking
water would usually see it as a loss. Transpiration is sometimes even called an unavoidable evil, in the sense that water is sacrificed
for the sake of enabling intake of CO2 for photosynthesis. For a plant, however, transpiration is a necessity by which a plant
maintains its inner environment within the limit of optimal temperatures. It can be shown on basis of elementary physics that at
the level of landscape, evapotranspiration is the most efficient air conditioning system developed by nature. In addition to
optimizing temperature, through evapotranspiration plants control the optimum water balance in their root zone. Water, thanks
to its high heat carrying capacity, is able to redistribute much of the solar heat energy received by the Earth through the water cycle:
by evapotranspiration and condensation. Water evapotranspiration and condensation therefore plays an instrumental role in
climate control with regard to temperature distribution in time and space, that is, reducing the peaks and modulating the
amplitudes of high and low temperatures on the land surface—making conditions on Earth suitable for life. Just compare daily
temperature fluctuation in desert and in forest in the same latitude.
Water has a unique feature. It exists in three aggregate states in our living environment: solid, liquid, and vapor. Phase
transition from liquid into vapor is associated with changes of volume (18 mL of liquid forms 22,400 mL of vapor) and
consumption or release of energy (0.68 kWh, 2.45 MJ kg
1 at 201C), which is a cooling or heating environment. Water has high
heat capacity, so its transformation involves exchange of energy, thus equalizing the temperature differences in time (day and
night) and space (between different spaces).
Let us imagine a tree with a crown of 5 m in diameter covers an area of ca. 20 m2. On a sunny day, at least 150 kWh of solar
energy fall on the crown. What happens with this energy? 1% is used for photosynthesis, 10% is reflected in the form of light
energy, 5%–10% is released as sensible heat and the same percentages transferred as ground heat flux into soil. The largest
percentage enters the process of transpiration whereby water vapor is released from the tree. If a larger tree has a sufficient water
supply, it can evaporate more than 100 L of water a day. In order to evaporate 100 L of water, approximately 70 kWh (250 MJ) of
solar energy is needed. This energy is hidden in water vapor as latent heat and is released again during the process of condensation
to liquid water.
The tree transpired around 100 L of water, thus cooling its environment by c. 70 kWh; during a 10-h period the tree cools its
environment with a 7 kWh power output. Energy of 70 kWh did not appear as sensible heat, it stayed in form of water vapor and
was released in cool places or during a night. Such a tree has a cooling capacity comparable with several technological air-
conditioning system used in households, hotels, offices. Transpiring tree has a double air-conditioning effect: it cools when water
evaporates and water vapor passes energy to cool places where latent heat is released when water vapor condensates back to water
liquid.
From thermodynamic point of view, trees reduce gradients of energy between the Sun and outer space, they degrade incoming
solar radiation through life processes. Sagan, Schneider imagine tree as a giant dissipative structure capturing sunlight and
300 Ecological Processes: Evapotranspiration

degrading most of that energy as respiration and “low grade” latent heat via transpiration. Tree is like a giant water fountain
spewing water in the form of latent heat. Trees well supplied with water reduce gradients which would realize as strong wind,
torrential rain, etc.

Effect of ET on Local Climate

Climate change and global warming are widely believed to be caused only by an increase in CO2 concentration from 250 to
390 ppm. Novel recent research, however, highlights the dynamic role of water vapor in climate change, with its concentration two
orders of magnitude higher than that of other greenhouse gases. The implication of this research is that human landscape
management affects the behavior of water vapor and its role in the dissipation of solar energy, in a much more important way than
formerly appreciated.
This research has focused on wet meadows in the Czech Republic, which evapotranspirated about 7 mmol m
2 s
1 (i.e.,
126 mg m
2 s
1) during a sunny afternoon, converting about 315 W of energy per square meter of its surface into latent heat flux.
The wetland, which covered an area of about 4 km
2, evapotranspirated about 500 kg of water per second, which is equivalent to
the flow rate of a small river. This invisible stream represents the latent heat flux of approximately 1260 MW. Thus, this ecosystem
regulates the temperature through energy and water fluxes with a power equivalent to that of a moderately large power station. In
drained or dry landscapes, wetland ecosystems thus act as “wet islands,” important both for their conservation value and for their
important hydrological function (in addition to their hydrologically dependent nutrient processing).
The drainage of large areas of natural vegetation and the loss of their latent heat function causes surprisingly large amounts of
sensible heat to be released into the atmosphere. A drop in evapotranspiration by 1 L m
2 (equivalent to about 700 Wh) is
capable of increasing the daily flux of sensible heat about 40 times more effectively (by 70 W) than the quoted effect of greenhouse
gases [radiative forcing, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)]. For example, a drop in evapotranspiration of 1 mm
over the territory of the Czech Republic (79,000 km2) within a single day, releases an amount of sensible heat comparable to the
annual production of electric energy from all Czech power plants (about 60,000 GWh).
The Czech study also measured the daily dynamics of radiation surface temperature and air temperature of different land cover
types in a temperate, “cultural” landscape and their consequences for the local climate.
Typical rural area with seven localities with different land cover types were chosen in Trebon Biosphere Reserve, Czech
Republic, Central Europe. A combined method of airship thermal scanning of Ts (radiation surface temperature) and ground
measurement of thermodynamic Ta (air temperature measured in a meteorological screen at 2 m height) was used (Fig. 6). The
localities differed markedly in both the values and the dynamics of Ts and Ts
Ta. In the early afternoon, the difference in Ts
between the different land covers reached almost 201C. Ecosystems with nonfunctional or no vegetation largely resembled the
asphalt surface, whereas ecosystems covered with dense, bushy, or tree vegetation showed relatively well-balanced daily tem-
perature dynamics with low temperature extremes and a slow temperature morning increase or afternoon decrease. Ts
Ta at the
peak solar irradiance ranged between
11C at the forest and 141C–171C at the dry harvested meadow and the asphalt surface,
respectively (Fig. 7). Therefore surface radiation temperature (Ts) can be considered as a measurable indicator of ecosystem and
landscape functioning, and the importance of functional vegetation for local climate should also be considered.
Landscape drying: It should be pointed out that air heated by warm surface and ascending into atmosphere contains water vapor.
Landscape loses water with the upwards flowing warm air driven by sensible heat. The amount of water in the air transported by
sensible heat high into atmosphere can be substantially higher than that released by evapotranspiration. For example, air of 100%
relative humidity and temperature 401C contains 50 g of water vapor in 1 m3 that is, such air of 20% relative humidity contains
still 10 g of water vapor in m3. Air driven by sensible heat from 1 m2 at speed 1 m s
1 would transport into atmosphere 36 kg
water during 1 h. Common value of ET is several millimeters (several liters per m2 per day). Very high value of ET is about 10 mm.
From this point of view, ET can be considered as a process of slowing down evaporation water losses from landscape on regional
level. ET binds surplus of solar energy into latent heat of water vapor and reduces release/production of sensible heat, water vapor
is not driven up it stays close to the canopy.
Evapotranspiration of forests plays an extensive role in the transport of moisture from ocean in continents. It is evident that annual
precipitations are high in continents with large and continuous forest from coast inside of continents (West Africa, Amazonia). The
biotic pump theory (Makarieva and Gorshkov) suggests the atmospheric circulation that brings rainfall to continental interiors is
driven and maintained by large, continuous areas of forest beginning from coasts. The theory explains that, through transpiration
and condensation, forests actively create low pressure regions that draw in moist air from the oceans, thereby generating prevailing
winds capable of carrying moisture and sustaining rainfall far within continents. Moreover, considerations of the surface pressure
gradients created by the processes of evaporation and condensation, as highlighted in the biotic pump concept, may lead to
improved predictions of large-scale climates compared to atmospheric circulation models which only consider temperature effects.
The biotic pump concept explains why moist winds blow readily from ocean to well forested land and how this flow can decline
and reverse when forest cover is absent or depleted.
How does the biotic pump work? Natural forests maintain high transpiration fluxes which exceed the evaporation fluxes over
the ocean. This moisture condenses as it rises. The resulting low-pressure zone draws in moist air from the ocean. Deforestation
reduces evapotranspiration, condensation and hence this pressure difference, thus weakening or removing the coast-to-interior
moisture transport (Fig. 8).
 Ecological Processes: Evapotranspiration 301

Fig. 6 Surface temperature of a “cultural” landscape on summer sunny day in T�ebo� Biosphere Reserve (Czech Republic) at 2 pm, taken by
thermographic and visible cameras carried by an airship.

Fig. 7 Temperature differences Ts–Ta between surface Ts and air temperature Ta (at 2 m above ground under white screen) at all the studied
localities. With permission from Hesslerová, P., Pokorný, J., Brom, J., Rejšková – Procházková, A. (2013). Daily dynamics of radiation surface
temperature of different land cover types in a temperate cultural landscape: Consequences for the local climate. Ecol. Eng. 54, 145–154. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2013.01.036.
302 Ecological Processes: Evapotranspiration

DRY AIR

Condensation

Water cycle on land

MOIST AIR
Evaporation

Runoff
OCEAN LAND

Fig. 8 How biotic pump ecology works.

Reliable rainfall in the continental interiors of Africa, South America, and elsewhere may thus be dependent on maintaining
relatively intact and continuous forest cover from the coast.
A corollary of the biotic pump theory has further crucial implications for planetary air circulation patterns: if airflow patterns
that move toward continental interiors are dependent upon the presence of forests, then their removal may foretell significant
changes or wind pattern reversals. Reforestation and the restoration of degraded forest landscapes on an adequate scale may
however reactivate such pumps, returning rainfall to continental interiors.

Acknowledgments

This article is a contribution of the University of Nebraska-Lincoln Extension, Journal Series No. 1037. The author expresses his
appreciation to Sheila Smith, illustrator in the Department of Biological Systems Engineering at the University of Nebraska-
Lincoln, for her excellent technical assistance in Figs. 1 and 5. In updated version figures from work by ENKI were used and results
of work supported by TE02000077. Gratitude is expressed to V. Gorshkov and A. Makarieva for picture and text on biotic pump.

See also: General Ecology: Microclimate; Plant Physiology. Global Change Ecology: Energy Flows in the Biosphere; Water Cycle

Further Reading

Aboukhaled, A., Alfaro, A., Smith, M., 1982. Lysimeters. In: FAO irrigation and drainage paper no. 39. Rome: FAO, p. 68.
Allen, R.G., Pereira, L.S., Raes, D., Smith, M., 1998. Crop evapotranspiration—Guidelines for computing crop water requirements. In: FAO irrigation and drainage paper no. 56.
Rome: FAO, p. 300.
ASCE-EWRI , 2005. The ASCE standardized reference evapotranspiration equation. In: Allen, R.G., Walter, I.A., Elliot, R.L., et al. (Eds.), Environmental and Water Resources
Institute (EWRI) of the American Society of Civil Engineers, ASCE, standardization of reference evapotranspiration task committee final report. Reston, VA: American Society
of Civil Engineers (ASCE), p. 213.
Burman, R.D., Cuenca, R.H., Weiss, A., 1983. Techniques for estimating irrigation water requirements. In: Hillel, D. (Ed.), Advances in irrigation,vol. 2. Orlando, FL: Academic
Press.
Ellison, D., Morris, C.E., Locatelli, B., et al., 2017. Trees, forests and water: Cool insights for a hot world. Global Environmental Change 43, 51–61.
Huryna, H., Pokorny, J., 2016. The role of water and vegetation in the distribution of solar energy and local climate: A review. Folia Geobotanica 51, 191–208.
Irmak, S., Howell, T.A., Allen, R.G., Payero, J.O., Martin, D.L., 2005. Standardized ASCE-Penman–Monteith: Impact of sum-of-hourly vs. 24-hr-timestep computations at
reference Weather Station sites. Transactions of the ASABE 48 (3), 1063–1077.
Itenfisu, D., Elliot, R.L., Allen, R.G., Walter, I.A., 2003. Comparison of reference evapotranspiration calculations as part of the ASCE standardization effort. Journal of the
Irrigation and Drainage Engineering 129 (6), 440–448.
Johns, E.L., 1989. Water use by naturally occurring vegetation including an annotated bibliography. ASCE Task Committee on Water Requirements of Natural Vegetation
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Kravčík, M., Pokorný, J., Kohutiar, J., Kováč, M., Tóth, E., 2008. Water for the recovery of the climate—A new water paradigm, People and Water NGO Slovakia. 122 pp.
Makarieva, A.M., Gorshkov, V.G., Li, B.-L., 2009. Precipitation on land versus distance from the ocean: Evidence for a forest pump of atmospheric moisture. Ecological
Complexity 6, 302–307.
Mays, L.W., 1996. Water resources handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Penman, H.L., 1948. Natural evaporation from open water, bare soil and grass. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A 193, 120–146.
Pokorný, J., Brom, J., Čermák, J., Hesslerova, P., Huryna, H., Nadezhdina, N., Rejskova, A., 2010. Solar energy dissipation and temperature control by water and plants.
International Journal of Water 5 (4), 311–336.
 Ecological Processes: Evapotranspiration 303

Rosenberg, N.J., Blad, B.L., Verma, S.B., 1983. Microclimate: The biological environment, 2nd edn New York: Wiley.
Shiklomanov, I., 1993. World fresh water resources. In: Gleick, P. (Ed.), Water in crisis. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 13–24. (Chapter 2).
United States Department of Agriculture , 1982. Food-from farm table 1982 yearbook of agriculture. US, Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.