From : Nunan (2003). Practical English Language Teaching
Reading processes
Understanding the process of reading has been the focus of much
research over the past 125 years. Models of how the printed word is under-
stood have emerged from this research (Goodman, 1976; Stanovich, 1980)
Understanding what happens from the moment our eyes meet the page to the
“click of comprehension” (Samuels & Kamil, 1984, p. 185) has only been
researched for the past 50 years. The models can be divided into three cate-
gories: bottom-up models, top-down models, and interactive models.
Bottom-up models typically consist of lower-level reading processes.
Students start with the fundamental basics of letter and sound recognition,
which in turn allows for morpheme recognition followed by word recogni-
tion, building up to the identification of grammatical structures, sentences,
and longer texts. Leiters, letter clusters, words, phrases, sentences, longer
text, and finally meaning is the order in achieving comprehension.
‘A phonics approach (o teaching reading supports a bottom-up model.
This approach is used in many reading series. Many teachers and researchers
suggest that for readers to be successful they must be able to break a word
down into its smallest parts, the individual sounds. When a reader comes to an
unknown word he or she can sound out the word because of the knowledge of
the individual units that make up the word. The blending together of the vari
ous sounds allows the reader to then move toward comprehension. Teachers
‘must remember that phonics is a method, not the goal for teaching reading,
‘One element of a bottom-up approach to reading is that the pedagogy
recommends a graded reader approach. All reading material is carefully
reviewed so that students are not exposed to vocabulary that is too difficult
or that contains sounds that they have not yet been introduced to.
Figure 2 is a graphic representation of a bottom-up approach to reading.
(See Helgesen, Chapter 2, this volume.) The reader begins with the smallest
elements and builds up to comprehension of what is being read.
Comprehension
Figure 2 Bottom-up approach to readingWithin a bottom-up approach to reading, the most typical classroom
focus is on what we call intensive reading. Intensive reading involves a
short reading passage followed by textbook activities to develop comprehen-
sion and/or a particular reading skill. Most textbooks used to teach first and
second language reading using an intensive reading approach.
‘Top-down models, on the other hand, begin with the idea that compre-
hension resides in the reader. The reader uses background knowledge, makes
predictions, and searches the text to confirm or reject the predictions that are
made. A passage can thus be understood even if all of the individual words are
not understood. Within a top-down approach to reading the teacher should focus
(on meaning generating activities rather than on mastery of word recognition.
Goodman (1976), a strong advocate of top-down models of reading, crit-
icizes bottom-up models because the readers become “word callers” who ean
read the words on the page but do not understand what they have read.
Goodman (1976) believes that teachers make leaning to read difficult “by
breaking whole (natural) language into bite-sized, abstract litle pieces” (p. 7),
Tagree somewhat with him. For example, I can read Spanish and pronounce
all of the words that I’m reading, and yet, depending on what I am reading,
I may have no comprehension of what I have read.
‘A meaning-based approach or a whole language approach to reading is
supportive of top-down models of reading. Four key features highlight a mean-
ing-based or whole language approach to teaching reading. Firs, it is a litera-
ture-based approach. Books are used which contain authentic language,
Readers are exposed to a wide range of vocabulary. Next, whole language is
student-centered; the focus is on the individual reader choosing what he or she
wants to read. Third, reading is integrated with writing, Classes work on both
skills simultaneously. Finally, emphasis is on constructing meaning. The focus
should be on meaning and keeping the language whole, as opposed to break-
ing it down into smaller units. Whole language is a method, not the goal
Figure 3 is a graphic representation of a top-down approach to reading.
(See Helgesen, Chapter 2, this volume.) The reader begins with the largest
elements and works down towards smaller elements to build comprehension
of what is being read.
Reading begins with
reader background knowledge
Figure 3 Top-down approach to reading
Reading nm72
Extensive reading plays a key role in top-down approaches to read-
ing. Extensive reading can be contrasted with intensive reading. Extensive
reading means reading many books (or longer segments of tex!) without a
focus on classroom exercises that may test comprehension skills
Interactive models of reading
‘The models that are accepted as the most comprehensive description of
the reading process are interactive models. This third type combines ele-
ments of both bottom-up and top-down models assuming “that a pattern is
synthesized based on information provided simultaneously from several
knowledge sources” (Stanovich, 1980, p. 35). Murtagh (1989) stresses that the
best second language readers are those who can “efficiently integrate” both
bottom-up and top-down processes (p. 102)
Figure 4 is a graphic representation of an interactive approach to reading.
‘The reader combines elements of both bottom-up and top-down models of
reading to reach comprehension.
Reader background knowledge
‘comprehension
Individual letters and sounds
Figure 4 Interactive approach to reading
An interactive approach to reading would include aspects of both inten
sive and extensive reading. We need to provide learners with shorter pas-
sages to teach specific reading skills and strategies explicitly. We also need to
encourage learners to read longer texts without an emphasis on testing their
skills. Extensive reading provides opportunities to practice strategies intro.
duced during intensive reading instruction.
“Teachers should be aware that a single classroom textbook will not meet
the needs for both intensive and extensive instruction. Materials will need to
be selected that engage the learners in both types of reading.
Chapter 43. Principles for teaching reading
74
1. Exploit the reader’s background knowledge.
A reader's background knowledge can influence reading comprehension
(Carrell, 1983, Carrell and Connor, 1991). Background knowledge includes
all of the experiences that a reader brings to a text: life experiences, educa
tional experiences, knowledge of how texts can be organized rhetorically,
knowledge of how one’s first language works, knowledge of how the second
language works, and cultural background and knowledge. Reading compre
hension can be significantly enhanced if background knowledge can be
activated by setting goals, asking questions, making predictions, teaching text
structure, and so on. If students are reading on an unfamiliar topic, you may
need to begin the reading process by building up background knowledge.
An interesting concept to consider related to the role of background know!
edge isthe negative influence it may have. Incorrect background knowledge ean
hinder comprehension. For example, some readers may have misconceptions
about how AIDS is contracted. Some may believe that you can get AIDS by
kissing or swimming in a pool. These misconceptions may interfere with a read
ing passage on AIDS, and you may have to correct the background knowledge
through a prereading activity before reading comprehension can be achieved.
2. Build a strong vocabulary base.
Recent research emphasized the importance of vocabulary to successful
reading, (See Nation, Chapter 7, this volume.) As I have developed my own
philosophy of the role of vocabulary in reading instruction, T have decided
that basic vocabulary should be explicitly taught and L2 readers should be
taught to use context to effectively guess the meanings of less frequent vocab-
ulary. I have arrived at my philosophy, in part, by reviewing the research on
vocabulary acquisition. Levine and Reves (1990) have found that “itis easier
for the reader of academic texts to cope with special terminology than with
general vocabulary” (p. 37). They stress the great need for a teaching pro-
gram that builds general, basic vocabulary.
Thave found my own vocabulary instruction enhanced by asking these
three questions from Nation (1990, p. 4):
1. What vocabulary do my learners need to know?
2. How will they learn this vocabulary?
3. How can I best test to see what they need to know and what they
now know?
Chapter 43. Teach for comprehension.
Tn many reading instruction programs, more emphasis and time may be
placed on testing reading comprehension than on teaching readers how to
comprehend. Monitoring comprehension is essential o successful reading.
Part of that monitoring process includes verifying that the predictions being
made are correct and checking that the reader is making the necessary adjust
‘ments when meaning is not obtained.
Cognition can be defined as thinking. Metacognition can be defined as
thinking about our thinking. In order to teach for comprehension, it is my
belief that readers must monitor their comprehension processes and be able
to discuss with the teacher and/or fellow readers what strategies they use to
comprehend. By doing this, the readers use both their cognitive and metacog-
nitive skills.
Questioning the author, developed by Beck, McKeown, Hamilton, and
Kncan (1997), is an excellent technique for engaging students in meaningful
cognitive and metacognitive interactions with text and for assisting students
in the process of constructing meaning from text, Beck et al. emphasize that
this activity is to be done during the reading process, not after reading. The
approach requires that the teacher model the reading behavior of asking
questions in order to make sense of what is being read. Students learn to
engage with meaning and develop ideas rather than retrieve information
from the text. This particular technique is the kind of activity that teachers of
reading should engage the class in, rather than asking them to read a passage
and then testing reading comprehension of the material. Use of this approach
engages the teacher and readers in queries about the text as the material is
being read. Examples of queries include “What is the author trying to say
here? What is the author's message? What is the author talking about? What
does the author mean here? Does the author explain this clearly?” (Beck et
al, 1997, pp. 34, 37)
Reading 754. Work on increasing reading rate.
One great difficulty in the second language reading classroom is that even
when language learners can read, much of their reading is not fluent. Often,
in our efforts to assist students in increasing their reading rate, teachers over-
emphasize accuracy which impedes fluency. The teacher must work towards
finding a balance between assisting students to improve their reading rate and
developing reading comprehension skills. It is very important to understand
that the focus is not to develop speed readers, but fluent readers. | define a flu-
ent reader as one who reads at a rate of 200 words-per-minute with at least
70 percent comprehension.
‘One focus here is to teach readers to reduce their dependence on a dic-
tionary. Skills such as scanning, skimming, predicting, and identifying main
ideas get students to approach reading in different ways. Readers should
spend more time analyzing and synthesizing the content of the reading, and
not focusing on moving through the passage one word at a time. Part of the
joy of reading is being able to pick up a book and comprehend it, without
having (o struggle through the task of reading,
5. Teach reading strategies.
Strategies are “the (ools for active, self-directed involvement that is nec-
essary for developing communicative ability. Strategies are not a single event,
but rather a creative sequence of events that learners actively use” (Oxford,
jon underscores the active role that readers take in strate-
ve the desired results, students need to learn how to use
a range of reading strategies that match their purposes for reading. Teaching
them how to do this should be a prime consideration in the reading class:
room (Anderson, 1991; Chamot and O'Malley, 1994)
Some of the research that I have done indicates that “there is no single set
of processing strategies that significantly contributes to success ...” in second
anguage reading tasks. Strategic reading means not only knowing what strat
egy to use, but knowing how to use and integrate a range of strategies
(Anderson, 1991).
A good technique to sensitize students to the strategies they use is to get
them to verbalize (or talk about) their thought processes as they read.
Readers can listen (0 the verbal report of another reader who has just read
the same material, and it is often revealing to hear what other readers have
done to get meaning from a passage. I use this technique in my reading class-
es to get students to become more aware of their reading strategies and to be
able to describe what those strategies are.
Chapter 46. Encourage readers to transform strategies into skills.
‘An important distinction can be made between strategies and skills
(Kawai, Oxford, and Iran-Nejad, 2000), Strategies can be defined as con-
scious actions that learners take to achieve desired goals or objectives, while
a skill is a strategy that has become automatic. This characterization under-
scores the active role that readers play in strategic reading. As learners con
sciouly lean and practice specific reading suategies, the strategies move
from conscious to unconscious; from strategy to skill.
For example, guessing the meaning of unknown vocabulary from context,
can be listed as both a strategy and a skill in reading texts. When a reader is
first introduced to this concept and is practicing how to use context to guess
the meaning of unfamiliar vocabulary he or she is using a strategy. The use
of the strategy is conscious during the learning and practice stages. As the
ability to guess unfamiliar vocabulary from context becomes automatic, the
reader moves from using a conscious strategy to using an unconscious skill.
‘The use of the skill takes place outside the direct consciousness of the reader.
‘The goal for explicit strategy instruction is to move readers from conscious
control of reading strategies to unconscious use of reading skills
7. Build assessment and evaluation into your teaching.
Assessing growth and development in reading skills from both a formal
and an informal perspective requires time and training, Both quantitative and
qualitative assessment activities should be included in the reading classroom.
Quantitative assessment will include information from reading comprehen-
sion tests as well as reading rate data. Qualitative information can include
reading journal responses, reading interest surveys, and responses to reading,
strategy checklists. (See Brindley, Chapter 15, this volume.)
8. Strive for continuous improvement as a reading teacher.
‘The quality of the individual teacher is integral to success of second/foreign
language readers. Reading teachers need to be passionate about their work.
They should view themselves as facilitators, helping each reader discover what
‘works best. Integrating the key principles discussed above can lead to more
effective reading instruction in the second language classroom. While research,
studies conducted as early as the 1960s failed to support a single approach to
teaching reading as better than others, it did support the central role of the
teacher in students’ success in learning to read (Farstrup, 2002). The good read-
ing teacher actively teaches students what (0 do. To succeed, you need more
than classroom tips and techniques: you need to understand the nature of the
Reading 7reading process (Anders, Hoffman, and Dutly, 2000)
‘The International Reading Association gathers input from reading edu: |
cators around the world each year on what the “hot topics” are in reading.
For 2002 a hot topic that appeared on the list for the first time was teacher
education for reading (Cassidy and Cassidy, 2002). Just because you are a
reader does not mean that you are prepared to be a teacher of reading.
Aebersold and Field (1997) have entitled their text for teacher education in
reading, From Reader to Reading Teacher. What a nice title for cach of us as we
seek to improve our ability to teach reading!
‘eflection —
1. Which of the principles mentioned in Section 3 are you the most familiar
with already? Which are you least familiar with?
2. What is the difference between the terms strategies and skills?
3. Why does the teacher play such a central role to the success in a
reading classroom?
‘Are you aware of a reading passage with which readers may have miscon-
ceptions in their background knowledge that would need to be corrected |
prior to reading? Describe the passage and why readers may have incorrect,
‘schemata. j
2. Select an appropriate reading passage and practice the technique of ques-
tioning the author on page 78. What do you lear about your own compre-
hension processes as you read?
3. Read for five minutes and estimate your reading rate. What do you learn
about your own rate from this activity?
78 Chapter 4