Cassava (Manihot esculenta) Starch Powder and Pomelo (Citrus maxima) Peels

Extract as Bioplastic

A Research Proposal Presented to the

Faculty of the Science, Technology, and Engineering (STE) Program

BAAO NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL

Baao, Camarines Sur

In Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements in Research II

Raphael B. Bolante

Mark Kevin J. Bolalin

Researcher

Mrs. Grace Ann B. Contreras

Research Adviser
 CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Nowadays, our world is facing a huge pollution problem, and one of the major

contributors to this are plastic, a non-biodegradable material that is often used by

everyone as packaging materials by major industries like electrical industry, food,

automotive, agricultural and many more, and also itself is one of the biggest leading

industries in the world. These major industries use thousands of tons worth of plastic

every year and due to the fact, our world is slowly getting harmed by it.

Statista (2022) stated that in 2021 the global plastics market was valued at 593

billion U.S. dollars. The plastics market is projected to grow in the coming years to reach

a value of more than 810 billion U.S. dollars by 2030, registering a CAGR of 3.7 percent

during the forecast period of 2022 to 2030. However, extensive and excessive use of

plastic has created a problem worldwide (Gawami, 2015).

As we people keep using more and more plastic in reality were actually slowly

harming our environment and because of this it has now caught the attention of the world.

UNEP (n.d.) stated in a report that Approximately 7 billion of the 9.2 billion tonnes of

plastic produced from 1950-2017 became plastic waste, ending up in landfills or dumped.

Plastic pollution can alter habitats and natural processes, reducing ecosystems’ ability to

adapt to climate change, directly affecting millions of people’s livelihoods, food

production capabilities and social well-being. Nelson (2011) stated that plastic waste is
one of the worst forms of trash because it takes so long to degrade, thus overflowing our

landfills and polluting our oceans and waterways.

Kuo L. (2023) wrote in an article that the second Plastic Waste Makers Index,

compiled by the philanthropic Minderoo Foundation, found the world generated 139

million metric tons of single-use plastic waste in 2021, which was 6 million metric tons

more than in 2019, when the first index was released. The report found the additional

plastic waste created in those two years equates to nearly one 1 kilogram (2.2 pounds)

more for every person on the planet and was driven by demand for flexible packaging

like films and sachets.

Martinez (2019) stated that biodegradable plastics or commonly known as

Bioplastic, can ease these problems. Contributing to the goal of a “circular” plastic

economy in which plastics derive from and are converted back to biomass. Like standard

plastics derived from petrochemicals, biodegradable versions consist of polymers (long-

chain molecules) that can be molded while in their fluid state into a variety of forms.

There have now been a wide variety of materials used by people to produce

bioplastic such as starch, cellulose, biopolymers, fibers, oils and many more. Bioplastics

can also be made from food or plant residue.

Cassava (Manihot esculenta) starch powder is a white powder made from tapioca

that has been dehydrated and dried after being extracted. It is widely utilized in both the

food and non-food industries. It is a starch produced by leaching and drying the root of

the cassava plant, which is also the source of tapioca, a staple meal in the tropics.

Synonyms include cassava, manioc, and manioca. In 2020, the cassava flour market has
reached a production volume of 8.8 million tons globally. Out of these tons, China bags

the top exporter of cassava flour. Wang Z. (2022) presented that The Cassava starch

contains 0.03–0.29% ash, 0.06–0.75% protein, 0.01–1.2% lipid, 0.0029–0.0095%

phosphorous, and 0.11–1.9% fiber contents respectively. Like other starches, cassava

starch is composed of amylose and amylopectin.

Pomelo (Citrus maxima) from the family Rutaceae, is the largest citrus fruit, and

the principal ancestor of the grapefruit. It is a natural, non-hybrid, citrus fruit, native to

Southeast Asia. Similar in taste to a sweet grapefruit, the pomelo is commonly consumed

and used for festive occasions throughout Southeast Asia. China, the possible center of

origin of pomelo, is the largest producer of pomelo globally. In 2018/2019, China

produced 4.9 Mt of pomelo representing 70% of global production with 0.2 Mt (4% of

the total production). The peel of pomelo accounts for approximately 30% of the total

fruit weight and contains phytochemicals, including aroma-active volatiles, pectin,

flavonoids, phenolic acids, carotenoids, coumarins, and polysaccharides and some of

these are actually essential and very useful material in the production of bioplastics.

The researchers chose to conduct this study to successfully create bioplastic made

from Cassava (Manihot esculenta) Starch Powder and Pomelo (Citrus maxima) Peels.

The researcher was also concerned of food waste and plastic waste in their community,

the researchers planned a way to contribute into the lessening of food waste and residue

in their community. The researchers also aimed to slowly wipe out pollution in our world,

leading to the concept of producing bioplastic from Cassava (Manihot esculenta) Starch

Powder and Pomelo (Citrus maxima) Peels. The researcher sought this opportunity to
find a way to reduce the use of commercial plastics and promote bioplastics and also

renew the organic waste in our environment to be used as bioplastic.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The aim of the study is to create bioplastic made from Cassava (Manihot

esculenta) Starch Powder and Pomelo (Citrus maxima) peels. Specifically, this study

aims to answer the following.

1. What is the mean biodegradability of the different bioplastics? In different treatments

applied:

a. Treatment 1 (60 grams Pomelo (Citrus Maxima) Peels)

b. Treatment 2 (60 grams Cassava (Manihot esculenta) starch powder)

c. Treatment 3 (30 grams Pomelo (Citrus maxima) peels, 30 grams Cassava

(Manihot esculenta) starch powder)

2. What is the mean moisture absorption of the different bioplastics? In different

treatments applied:

a. Treatment 1 (60 grams Pomelo (Citrus Maxima) Peels)

b. Treatment 2 (60 grams Cassava (Manihot esculenta) starch powder)

c. Treatment 3 (30 grams Pomelo (Citrus maxima) peels, 30 grams Cassava

(Manihot esculenta) starch powder)

3. What is the mean Tensile strength of the different bioplastics? In different treatments

applied:

a. Treatment 1 (60 grams Pomelo (Citrus Maxima) Peels)

b. Treatment 2 (60 grams Cassava (Manihot esculenta) starch powder)

c. Treatment 3 (30 grams Pomelo (Citrus maxima) peels, 30 grams Cassava

(Manihot esculenta) starch powder)

5. Is there significant difference among the different treatments? In terms of:

a. Tensile strength

b. Moisture absorption

c. Biodegradability

ENGINEERING GOALS

The engineering goals of the study is focused on the feasibility of Cassava

(Manihot esculenta) Starch Powder and Pomelo (Citrus maxima) Peels Extract to be

made as Bioplastic. Wherein it aims to develop a sustainable and eco-friendly bioplastic

material that can replace conventional plastics made from non-renewable resources.
HYPOTHESES

H0

There is no significant difference among the 3 treatments. In terms of:

a. Tensile Strength

b. Moisture Absorption

c. Biodegradability

H1

There is significant difference among the 3 treatments. In terms of:

a. Tensile Strength

b. Moisture Absorption

c. Biodegradability

SCOPE AND THE DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY

This study entitled "Cassava (Manihot esculenta) Starch Powder and Pomelo

(Citrus maxima) Peels Extract as Bioplastic" is mainly focused on the production of

bioplastics made from organic materials. Specifically, the Cassava (Manihot esculenta)

starch powder and the Pomelo (Citrus maxima) peels extract. The focus behind the study

is to utilize organic materials and waste as the main ingredients for the production of

bioplastic as an eco-friendlier alternative for single use plastic. The goal of this study is to
address the ongoing problem of pollution caused by plastic and also reduce the amount of

single use plastics and promote the use of organically made plastic from organic material.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This study is valuable to the following:

Business Owners

Business owners can innovate and introduce a new eco-friendlier product in the

market, which is safe and eco-friendly. It can also benefit them because it has low energy

costs in manufacturing and production and is easy to store and export.

Students

It can give students ideas to innovate or create their own safe and eco-friendly

bioplastics made from abundant organic material.

The Community

It can provide the people with an eco-friendlier alternative for common plastics

that will help reduce the amount of waste and promote the use of bioplastics.

The School

It will help the school gain additional information on how to produce bioplastic

made from food and plant materials. It will also raise awareness to the school on creating

an eco-friendlier environment and to be aware of also pollution.

To Future Researchers

It can give the researchers more ideas about producing bioplastic or it can serve as

a reference for their own study.

NOTES

United Nations Environment Programme. (n.d.). Plastic pollution. Retrieved May

4,2023,fromhttps://www.unep.org/plasticpollution#:~:text=Plastic%20pollution%20can

%20alter%20habitats,capabilities%20and%20social%20well%2Dbeing.

Nelson, B. (2011). Orange peels could be made into Biodegradable plastic.

https://phys.org/news/2011-09-orange-biodegradable-plastic.html

Kuo, L. (2023, February 5). Single-use plastic volume projected to grow by a

fifth, worsening climate crisis. CNN. Retrieved May 4, 2023, from

https://edition.cnn.com/2023/02/05/energy/single-use-plastics-volume-grows-climate-

intl-hnk/index.html

Statista. (2021). Global market value of plastic from 2017 to 2027. Retrieved

May 4, 2023, from https://www.statista.com/statistics/1060583/global-market-value-of-

plastic/#:~:text=In%202021%2C%20the%20global%20plastics,at%20593%20billion

%20U.S.%20dollars.

Goswami, G., Goswami, M.G., & Purohit, P. Bioplastic from Organic Waste.

International Journal of Engineering Research and Technology 3 (23), 1-3, 2015.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/298791826_ORGANIC_WASTE_TO_BIOP

LASTICS

Martinez, J. (2019) Bioplastics Could Solve a Major Pollution Problem.

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.
 Wang, Z., Mhaske, P., Farahnaky, A., Kasapis, S., & Majzoobi, M. (2022).

Cassava starch: Chemical modification and its impact on functional properties and

digestibility, a review. Food Hydrocolloids, 129, 107542.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2022.107542
 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

Related Literature

On Pomelo (Citrus maxima)

Xiao L. et al. (2021) stated in his introduction that. The top five countries in

pomelo fruit yield include China (5.07 × 106 tons), Vietnam (6.58 × 105 tons), USA

(5.59 × 105 tons), Mexico (4.60 × 105 tons) and South Africa (4.45 × 105 tons), as shown

in Supplementary material 1 (FAO, 2018). Besides being as a table fruit, pomelo fruit is

often processed into juice, drinks and cans (Liu et al., 2016, Weng, 2011). In gross, these

consumptions result in a large amount of pomelo peels as a by-product, accounting for

approximately 30% ~ 50% (w/w) of the fruit. Roughly estimated, the total world

production of pomelo peels approached 2.8 million tons ~4.7 million tons in 2018. A

typical drawing of pomelo fruit is given in Supplementary material 2. The chemical

analysis showed that fresh pomelo peel is rich in various nutrients and functional

compounds such as dietary fiber, pectin, essential oils and various polyphenol-dominant

phytochemicals

Xiao L. et al. (2021) emphasized that Pomelo peel as a by-product from pomelo

consumption is rich in various nutrients and functional compounds, while most of the by-

product is disposed as wastes. The utilization of pomelo peels could not only result in

valued-added products/ingredients, but also reduce the environmental threats.

 Xiao L. et al. (2021) implied that functional components (essential oils, pectin,

polyphenols, etc.) could be extracted from pomelo peels and applied in food,

pharmaceutical and chemical fields. The extraction methods exerted important influences

on the composition, physicochemical properties, bioactivities and structures of the

resultant fractions. Furthermore, pomelo peel was exploited to make adsorbents,

bioethanol, etc. For the future investigations, the functionality- or bioactivity-oriented

regimes to recovery valuable components from pomelo peel should be developed in an

economic, effective and eco-friendly way and their applicability in large-scale production

should be addressed.

Tocmo R. et al. (2020) stated that the peel of pomelo accounts for approximately

30% of the total fruit weight and contains phytochemicals, including aroma-active

volatiles, pectin, flavonoids, phenolic acids, carotenoids, coumarins, and polysaccharides.

Recovery of these phytochemicals offers an opportunity for value-added utilization such

as the development of enriched or functional foods and nutraceuticals.

with range of 0 to 6% (wt/wt of MCC to starch). The results showed improvement

in tensile strength with higher MCC content up to 9, 12 mpa compared to non-reinforced

bioplastics. This could be mainly attributed to the strong hydrogen bonds between MCC

and starch. On the contrary, the addition of MCC decreased the elongation at break,

density and water uptake. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy showed the

functional groups of bioplastics, which the majority of O-H groups were found at the

bioplastics with reinforcing filler MCC that represented substantial hydrogen bonds. The

highest tensile strength value was obtained for bioplastic with MCC content 6% and

sorbitol content 20%. With good adhesion between MCC and starch the production of
bioplastics could be widely used as a substitute for conventional plastics with more

benefits to the environment.

On Cassava (Manihot esculenta) Starch Powder

Maggy S. (2015) published an article that stated: Cassava flour is one of the

most commonly used biopolymers as food packaging material because it is nontoxic,

biodegradable, biocompatible, low cost, renewable and abundantly available in nature. Its

major component is starch, but it may content small amount of lipid, protein, fiber and

ash. The starch plays important role in bioplastic forming. Today starch based bioplastic

dominates 66% of the global bioplastics market. Starch based bioplastic is made by

gelatinizing Starch In general, smaller starch granule needs longer time and higher

temperature to undergo gelatinization process.

Oluwasina O. & Awonyemi I. (2021) stated that Starch is readily available, non-

toxic, easy to process and relatively cheap, with its widespread propagation ability, is

becoming the mostly used biopolymer raw material. However, poor mechanical

properties, high moisture absorption, microbial sensitivity, water vapor- and

oxygen-permeabilities limit the use of starch bioplastic film.

Sriroth, K., & Sangseethong, K. (2006) stated that the last group of starch-based

plastics is polyesters that are produced from starch. The major starch-derived polyesters

in the market now are polylactic acid and polyhydroxyalkanoate. Experimental studies

have demonstrated that cassava starch could be used for making various types of
packaging products. As a major source of starch in tropical and subtropical regions,

cassava is a promising raw material for the development of biodegradable plastics in

these areas. 

Maulida, M. et al. (2016) stated that the production of starch-based bioplastics from

cassava peel reinforced with microcrystalline cellulose using sorbitol as plasticizer were

investigated. Physical properties of bioplastics were determined by density, water uptake,

tensile strength and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy. Bioplastics were prepared

from cassava peel starch plasticized using sorbitol with variation of 20; 25; 30% (wt/v of

sorbitol to starch) reinforced with microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) Avicel PH101 fillers

Related Studies

On Pomelo (Citrus maxima)

Ziyou Zhang et al (2022) explained in their study that the Density measurements

revealed the gradient structure of the pomelo peel, which contributed to its mechanical

properties. Step-by-step drying revealed two types of water in the peel. Both uniaxial

compression and low-strain hysteresis tests were conducted, and the results showed that

fresh pomelo peel exhibits soft elastomer-like behavior, while dried pomelo peel behaves

more like conventional synthetic polymer foam. Compared to fresh pomelo peel, dried

peel samples showed higher compressive modulus and energy loss in 6, 8 and 10% strain

hysteresis tests. The rehydration process was studied using hysteresis tests at three

different strains. In addition, multilayer gradient EO/EO and LDPE/LDPE film/foams

with 16 alternating layers were produced using the microlayer coextrusion technique.
 Choudhary, P. et al. (2022) explained in their abstract that high cellulose, pectin

and starch content of agro waste justify it to be processed for bioplastic production.

Besides agro waste, algae biomass is another economic and efficient feedstock for green

plastic synthesis. Bioplastics can be effectively utilized in food packaging, agriculture,

horticulture and manufacturing of numerous products; however, the commercial

production and practical application of bioplastic are challenged by its durability,

elasticity, tensile strength and biodegradability. The present review is a comparative

study of different substrates and methods reported for synthesis of bioplastic along with

their associated benefits and drawbacks.

Methacanon, P. et al. (2022) explained that Among polysaccharides extracted

from plant materials, pectin, an extremely complex polysaccharide found in cell walls

and middle lamellae of higher plants, is widely employed as a functional ingredient in

food and pharmaceutical applications due to its valuable gelling and stabilizing

properties. The worldwide annual consumption of pectin is approximately 45,000 tonnes,

occupying the global market value of at least 400 million Euros

Methacanon, P. et al. (2022) stated that pomelo (Citrus maxima or Citrus

grandis), a citrus fruit native to South East Asia with a considerable quantity of peel

waste generated in both Thailand and Malaysia – due to the high domestic consumption

and export demand, has recently been considered as a potential source of pectin. It is also

worth mentioning that the pomelo albedo (spongy white peel) is accounted for

approximately 30% of pomelo fruit weight, thus, being a promising source for pectin

extraction.

On Cassava (Manihot esculenta) Starch Powder

 Suryanto, H. & Wahyuningtiyas N. (2017) explained in their study that Cassava

contains a large amount of starch, which can be suitably used for the production of

bioplastics. This potential is a great opportunity to add value to cassava as the raw

material in the manufacture of eco-friendly plastics. In fact, cassava holds huge potential

for the production of bioplastics since Indonesia is the third-largest producer of cassava

in the world. Nonetheless, there has been a lack of attention and appropriate treatment

towards it, and indeed further exploration should take place. Thus, this paper takes a

closer look at the degradation of bioplastics composed from cassava starch added with

glycerol as a plasticiser.

Sriroth, K., & Sangseethong, K. (2006) emphasized that several starch-based

plastics have been introduced into the market, and are used in some applications now.

Starch foam is one of the major starch-based packaging materials. It is produced by

extrusion or compression/explosion technology. This product has been developed as a

replacement for polystyrene which is used to produce loose-fillers and other expanded

items. Another type of starch-based plastics is produced by blending or mixing starch

with synthetic polyester. For this type of biodegradable plastics, granular starch can be

directly blended with polymer, or its granular structure can be destructurized before being

incorporated into the polymer matrix. The type of starch and synthetic polymer as well as

their relative proportions in the blends influence the properties of the resulting plastics.

The last group of starch-based plastics is polyesters that are produced from starch. 

On Drying Procedure
 While you can dry the molds in the open air, drying the molds in a controlled

temperature environment is faster and gives more repeatable results. Good drying

methods are to set an oven at 150° F or use a food dehydrator.

SYNTHESIS OF THE STATE – OF – THE - ART

After reviewing the related literature and studies it shows that Pomelo (Citrus

maxima) peel and Cassava (Manihot esculenta) starch powder are both promising

components for the production of bioplastic, based on the reviewed related literatures of

it stated Cassava (Manihot esculante) starch is a popular choice for making bioplastics

due to its high starch content and low cost. Pomelo (Citrus maxima) peels extract is

also a promising natural additive for improving the mechanical and thermal properties

of bioplastics. Pomelo peels extract contains natural compounds such as flavonoids and

phenolic acids, which have antioxidant and antibacterial properties and can improve the

durability and stability of bioplastics.

Suryanto, H. & Wahyuningtiyas N. (2017) explained in their study that Cassava

contains a large amount of starch, which can be suitably used for the production of

bioplastics. This potential is a great opportunity to add value to cassava as the raw

material in the manufacture of eco-friendly plastics.

Tocmo R. et al. (2020) stated that. The peel of pomelo accounts for approximately

30% of the total fruit weight and contains phytochemicals, including aroma-active

volatiles, pectin, flavonoids, phenolic acids, carotenoids, coumarins, and polysaccharides.

Recovery of these phytochemicals offers an opportunity for value-added utilization such

as the development of enriched or functional foods and nutraceuticals.

 Overall, the state of the art suggests that cassava starch powder and pomelo

peels extract can be promising materials for the production of bioplastics. Further

studies are needed to further the optimization of concentration levels of cassava starch

powder, pomelo peels extract, and glycerol to achieve the moisture absorption, tensile

strength, biodegradation and thermal properties of the bioplastics. The development of

cassava starch-based bioplastics with pomelo peels extract can contribute to the

production of sustainable and environmentally friendly materials with potential

applications in various industries.

RESEARCH GAPS

Based from our gathered related literature and studies we found that both

Pomelo (Citrus maxima) peel and Cassava (Manihot esculenta) starch powder separately

have already been used to produce different types of bioplastics, but there are only a few

limited studies done in actually creating a bioplastic with both materials together and it

showed that some bioplastics made from these materials sometimes get a outcome of

having some minor side effects in the properties of their bioplastics

Nevertheless, there are still many numerous studies and literature that prove that

this study about Cassava (Manihot esculenta) Starch Powder and Pomelo (Citrus

maxima) Peels Extract as Bioplastic is possible to conduct and get a good outcome out of

it.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
IV DV

Cassava (Manihot Physical properties of

esculenta) Starch Powder Cassava (Manihot

esculenta) Starch Powder

Pomelo (Citrus maxima)
and Pomelo (Citrus
Peels Extract
maxima) Peels

EV

Machine performance
Temperature
Humidity
 Figure 1. The Conceptual Paradigm of the study.
The figure above illustrates the conceptual framework of the study. The figure

shows and discusses us the different variables that will be present in the study. The

independent variable in this study will be Cassava (Manihot esculenta) Starch Powder

and Pomelo (Citrus maxima) Peels Extract. The dependent variable will be Physical

properties of Cassava (Manihot esculenta) Starch Powder and Pomelo (Citrus maxima)

Peels. And lastly the Extraneous variable will be the humidity, Machine performance and

temperature.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Bioplastic, conceptually is a biodegradable material that come from renewable sources

and can be used to reduce the problem of plastic waste that is suffocating the planet and

polluting the environment. Operationally it the thing that we are going to create in this

experiment.

Limonene, conceptually is a colorless liquid aliphatic hydrocarbon classified as a cyclic

monoterpene, and is the major component in the oil of citrus fruit peels. Operationally it

is the essential oil that will be used in the creation of our bioplastic.

Cellulose, conceptually is a molecule, consisting of hundreds – and sometimes even

thousands – of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms. cellulose is the main substance in the

walls of plant cells, helping plants to remain stiff and upright. Operationally it will be

used as one of essential substance in our bioplastic.

Fiber, conceptually is a dietary fiber or roughage is the portion of plant-derived food that

cannot be completely broken down by human digestive enzymes. Dietary fibers are

diverse in chemical composition, and can be grouped generally by their solubility,

viscosity, and fermentability, Operationally it can be used as a essential substance in our

bioplastic that will help further improve it.

Pectin, conceptually is a type of structural fiber found in the primary cell wall and

intracellular layer of plant cells mainly in fruits, such as apples, oranges, lemons, and so

on. Citrus fruit contains 0.5%–3.5% pectin which is largely present in peel portion of the

fruit. Operationally

Tensile strength can be defined as the maximum stress that a material can bear before

breaking when it is allowed to be stretched or pulled.

Biodegradability is the capacity for biological degradation of organic materials by living

organisms down to the base substances such as water, carbon dioxide, methane, basic

elements and biomass.

Moisture absorption is the capacity of a material to absorb moisture from its

environment. Plastics absorb water to a limited degree. The degree of moisture absorption

depends on the type of plastic and the ambient conditions such as temperature, humidity

and contact time.

Biopolymers are polymers that are produced by or derived from living organisms, such

as plants and microbes, rather than from petroleum, the traditional source of polymers.

The primary sources of biopolymers are renewable.

Glycerol a clear, colorless, viscous, sweet-tasting liquid belonging to the alcohol family

of organic compounds. The application of glycerol in bioplastic-based cellulose

will affect the tensile strength because glycerol aims to reduce the molecular bonding

power of cellulose so that the flexibility of bioplastics is increase.

NOTES

Suryanto, H. (2017). Analysis of biodegradation of bioplastics made of cassava

starch. Retrieved from

https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Heru-Suryanto/publication/318281509_Analysis_of

_Biodegradation_of_Bioplastics_Made_of_Cassava_Starch/links/

59601809aca2728c118b6fae/Analysis-of-Biodegradation-of-Bioplastics-Made-of-

Cassava-Starch.pdf
 Methacanon, P., Krongsin, J., & Gamonpilas, C. (2014). Pomelo (Citrus maxima)

pectin: Effects of extraction parameters and its properties. Food Hydrocolloids, 35383-

391. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2013.06.018.

Choudhary, P., Pathak, A., Kumar, P. et al. Commercial production of bioplastic

from organic waste–derived biopolymers viz-a-viz waste treatment: A minireview.

Biomass Conv. Bioref. (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-022-03145-1

Zhang, Z., Zhang, Y., Chen, L., Wang, K., Wang, Y., & Jiang, L. (2022).

Bioinspired, mechanically strong, and sustainable nanocomposites from cellulose

nanofibrils and chitin nanocrystals. Bioinspiration & Biomimetics, 17(5), 056004.

https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-3190/ac7d29

Suhartono, Maggy. (2015). Development of bioplastic based on Cassava flour and

its starch derrivatives for food packaging. Journal of Harmonized Research (JOHR).

125-132.

Li Xiao, Fayin Ye, Yun Zhou, Guohua Zhao (2021). Utilization of pomelo peels

to manufacture value-added products: A review. Food Chemistry, 351, 129247. ISSN

0308-8146.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.129247.

Oluwasina, O.O., Awonyemi, I.O. Citrus Peel Extract Starch-Based Bioplastic:

Effect of Extract Concentration on Packed Fish and Bioplastic Properties. J Polym

Environ 29, 1706–1716 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10924-020-01990-7

Tocmo, R, Pena-Fronteras, J, Calumba, KF, Mendoza, M, Johnson, JJ.

Valorization of pomelo (Citrus grandis Osbeck) peel: A review of current utilization,

phytochemistry, bioactivities, and mechanisms of action. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf.

2020; 19: 1969– 2012. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12561

Sriroth, K., & Sangseethong, K. (2006). Biodegradable plastics from cassava

starch. Acta Horticulturae, 703, 145-152. doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.2006.703.16.

Maulida, M., Hidayat, H., Prasetyo, B., & Yudha, S. (2016). Synthesis and

characterization of bioplastic from cassava starch and sorbitol. Journal of Physics:

Conference Series, 710(1), 012012. doi:10.1088/1742-6596/710/1/012012

 CHAPTER III

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This chapter presents the materials and methods used in the study. The

experimental design, management of the flock, gathering of data with respect to each

organ of concern and statistical tools used are also discussed in this chapter

RESEARCH DESIGN

This study utilized experimental method of an investigation in which the

researcher manipulated one or more variables, controls and measures any change in other

variables.

T1 T2 T3

R1 T1R1 T2R1 T3R1

R2 T1R2 T2R2 T3R2

R3 T1R3 T2R3 T3R3

R4 T1R4 T2R4 T3R4

Table 1. The Research Design of the study.

The researchers used Completely Randomized Design. The treatment 1 is (60g of

Pomelo (Citrus Maxima) Peels), while the treatment 2 is (60g of Cassava (Mahinot

esculenta) starch powder), and treatment 3 is (30g of Pomelo (Citrus Maxima) peels, 30g

of Cassava (Mahinot esculenta) starch powder).

MATERIALS AND APPARATUSES

Materials/Apparatuses Quantity

Pomelo (Citrus Maxima) peels 360 grams

Cassava (Mahinot esculenta) starch 360 grams

Glycerol 48 ml

Sorbitol 48 ml

Lemon juice 72 ml

Vinegar 72 ml

Baking soda 60 grams

Graduated cylinder 1

Stirring Rod 1

Spring Scale 2

Pot 1

Microwave Oven 1

Triple Beam Balance 1

Beaker 3

Petri Dish 12

Weighing Scale 1

Blender 1

Table 2. The Materials and Apparatuses and its quantity used in the study.
 The table above shows the materials and apparatuses used in the study. The

researchers used different materials and apparatuses in the study. The researchers used

360 grams of Pomelo (Citrus maxima) peels, 360 grams of Cassava (Manihot esculenta)

starch powder, 48 ml of glycerol, 60 grams of baking soda, 72 ml of lemon juice, 72 ml

of vinegar, 360 ml of water and 48 ml of sorbitol.

The researchers also made use of laboratory apparatuses such as, a graduated

cylinder, a stirring rod, a pot, a microwave oven, a triple beam balance, 2 spring scales, 3

beakers, 12 petri dishes, thermometer hot plate and a weighing scale.

PROCEDURE

Gathering and Preparation of Materials/Apparatuses

The researchers gathered the laboratory apparatuses from the Science laboratory

of Baao National Highschool main campus. While the Pomelo peels, Cassava starch

powder, glycerol, baking soda, lemon juice, vinegar, and sorbitol will be gathered from

various markets and establishments located in Iriga City and some might be acquired via

online.

The said materials were cleaned, washed and dried properly. They were tested

beforehand to ensure the safety and health of the researchers and the materials itself. The

machine’s that will be used will also be double checked if it is functioning properly and

according to its purpose and proper calibration of apparatuses. The researchers will

ensure the freshness of the raw materials before conducting the experiment.
Preparing the Pomelo (Citrus maxima) peels
After the collection of the Pomelo (Citrus maxima) peels, it will be cleaned and

chopped into small pieces. Then the peels will be placed in a glass beaker filled with

distilled water. Next, the pomelo peels will be put in a blender until smooth and it will be

filtered to remove ant solid particles. Afterwards, the peels will be set aside for later use.

Preparing Treatment 1 (60g of Cassava (Manihot esculenta) starch powder)

For the first treatment 60g of Cassava (Manihot esculenta) starch powder), 60

grams of Cassava (Manihot esculenta) starch powder is placed in a beaker. Along with,

30 ml of water, 5g baking soda, 6ml lemon juice, 6ml vinegar, and 4ml of glycerol and

4ml of sorbitol. Stirred and mixed thoroughly with a stirring rod. After mixing, transfer to

a pot and heat it. Spread the treatment on a petri dish and put in a microwave oven at

150oF and is baked. After baking, let it completely dry under the sun.

Preparing Treatment 2 (60 Grams of Pomelo (Citrus maxima) peels extract)

For the second treatment (60 Grams of Pomelo (Citrus maxima) peels extract) 60

grams of pomelo peels extract is placed in a beaker. Along with, 30 ml of water, 2g

baking soda, 6ml lemon juice, 6ml vinegar, and 4ml of glycerol and 4ml of sorbitol.

Stirred and mixed thoroughly with a stirring rod. After mixing, transfer to a pot and heat

it. Spread the treatment on a petri dish and put in a microwave oven at 150 o F and is

baked. After baking, let it completely dry under the sun.

Preparing Treatment 3 (30 grams Pomelo (Citrus maxima) peels, 30 grams Cassava

(Manihot esculenta) starch powder)

For the third treatment (30 grams Pomelo (Citrus maxima) peels, 30 grams

Cassava (Manihot esculenta) starch powder) is placed in a beaker. Along with, 30 ml of

water, 2g baking soda, 6ml lemon juice, 6ml vinegar, and 4ml of glycerol and 4ml of

sorbitol. Stirred and mixed thoroughly with a stirring rod. After mixing, transfer to a pot

and heat it. Spread the treatment on a petri dish and put in a microwave oven at 150o F

and is baked. After baking, let it completely dry under the sun.

Conducting the Spring Scale Test

The researchers will determine the tensile strength of the bioplastics by

conducting the spring scale test. The researchers will hook a small portion of the

bioplastic on the spring scale and pulled until it teared or breaks. While, measuring and

recording the results carefully.

Conducting the Moisture Absorption Test

The researchers will determine the moisture absorption of the bioplastics by

conducting the water absorption test. The researchers first take the initial weight and then

soaked the bioplastics into water for 24 hours, drying them with a cloth, and immediately

weighing them. The researcher analyzed and recorded the results carefully.
Conducting the Soil Burial Test

The researchers determined the biodegradability of the bioplastics by conducting

the soil burial test. First the researchers recorded the initial weights of each treatment and

then buried the bioplastics and left it for 7 days. After the waiting period has finished, the

bioplastics were weighed. The researchers analyzed and calculated the results carefully.

Compilation and Analyzation of the Gathered Data

The researcher compiled, analyzed, and carefully evaluated the gathered data. The

researcher used the said information to form a conclusive conclusion. Wherein the results

are used to test the hypothesis created by the researchers.

 Preparation of Chop the Pomelo
Mix the materials (Citrus maxima)
required peels into small
ingredients pieces and store in
per treatment beaker with water
and mix
thoroughly
with stirring Prepare the extraction
rod in a of Pomelo (Citrus
beaker maxima) peels
Afterwards blend
the peels in a
blender until it turns
Preparation of other
mushy and strain it
treatments
to remove excess
particles
Place the
treatment in a
Gathering and comparing of
pot and heat it
analysis of data from treatments
and spread
evenly on the
pot
Use the Triple
Beam Balance,
Spring Scale and
Weighing Scale
Place the heated treatment in and hot plate and
a petri dish and spread evenly
thermometer
and then bake it in a
microwave at 150oC.
Afterwards, that let it dry
under the sun
Determine the tensile
strength,
biodegradability, and
moisture absorption
Apply and of the different
repeat the treatments
process to all
treatments
 Figure 2. Flowchart of the Procedure
STATISTICAL TOOLS

The researchers used one-way-analysis of variance (ANOVA) as our statistical

tool in determining the significant differences among the different treatments in means of

tensile strength, moisture absorption and biodegrability of the bioplastics produced

among the different treatments.

ANOVA TEST

Where:

F = Anova Coefficient

MSB = Mean sum of squares between the groups

MSW = Mean sum of squares within the groups

MSE = Mean sum of squares due to error

SST = total Sum of squares

p = Total number of populations

n = The total number of samples in a population

SSW = Sum of squares within the groups

SSB = Sum of squares between the groups

SSE = Sum of squares due to error

s = Standard deviation of the samples

N = Total number of observations

The researchers also used mean in interpreting data. Mean was used to determine

the average tensile strength, moisture absorption, biodegradability and thermal ability or

melting point of the bioplastics among the different treatments.

Σx
X̄ =
n

Where:
X̄ = Sample Mean
Σ x = Sum of the sample observation
n = Sample size

Scheffe’s test was also used to further determine the significant difference of

each treatment from one another.

F’ = (X1 – X2)2
SW2 (n1 + n2)
n1 n 2

Where:

F’ = Scheffe’s Test
X1 = Mean of Group 1

X2 = Mean of Group 2

n1 = Number of samples in Group 1

n2 = Number of samples in Group 2

SW2 = Within Mean Squares

NOTES

LibGuides: SPSS Tutorials: One-Way ANOVA. (n.d.).

https://libguides.library.kent.edu/spss/onewayanova#:~:text=One%2DWay%20ANOVA

%20(%22analysis,One%2DFactor%20ANOVA

Dao, T. P., Kha, T., Huynh, P., & Tran, T. T. (2021, January 4). Extraction

process optimization and characterization of the Pomelo (Citrus grandis L.) peel essential

oils grown in Tien Giang Province, Vietnam. Journal Name, 7, 26-33. Retrieved from

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348235260_Extraction_process_optimization_a

nd_characterization_of_the_Pomelo_Citrus_grandis_L_peel_essential_oils_grown_in_Ti

en_Giang_Province_Vietnam/citation/download

Anova Formula in Statistics with Solved Example. (n.d.). BYJUS.

https://byjus.com/anova-formula/

Oregon State University. (n.d.). Interactive Plastic Fork Life Cycle Analysis

[PDF Document]. Retrieved from

https://agsci.oregonstate.edu/sites/agscid7/files/bioenergy/education/

plasticfork_interactive.pdf