1-En-EEM - O3.5 EXP5c Building Heat Transfer

Building Heat Transfer
O3 Course
Why is it interesting to learn Building heat transfer ?
Convection between the

Conduction in the walls
house and the surrounding
Radiation with the surrounding

Building Heat Transfer
Overview
⮚ Chapter I : Introduction
⮚ Chapter II : Thermal comfort
⮚ Chapter III : Conduction
⮚ Chapter IV : Convection
⮚ Chapter V : Radiation
⮚ Chapter VI : Transient problems

INTRODUCTION
I Basics of Heat Transfer
In the simplest of terms, the discipline of heat transfer is concerned with

only two things :
• The temperature • The flow of heat
• Temperature represents the amount of thermal energy available
• The heat flow represents the movement of thermal energy from place to
place
INTRODUCTION
II The nature of heat
Heat transfer is energy in transit due to a temperature difference.
Heat transfer
INTRODUCTION
III Units and dimensions
The physical quantities of heat transfer are specified in terms of

dimensions, which are measured in terms of units.
4 basic dimensions :
• Length (L)
• Mass (M)
• Time (T)
• Temperature (θ)
INTRODUCTION
Dimension English system of S.I. Base Units
Units
Length (L) Foot (ft) Meter (m)
Mass (M) Pound mass (lbm) Kilogram (kg)
Time (t) Second (s) Second (s)
Temperature (θ) Fahrenheit (°F) Kelvin (K)
1 foot = 0.3048 m 1 pound mass = 0.4536 kg

INTRODUCTION
III.1 Temperature
Temperature refers to the average kinetic energy of

the atoms and molecules in a substance.
One fundamental property of temperature is that :
Heat will not flow between two substances at the same temperature
INTRODUCTION
There are 3 main temperature scales used in the world
- Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin.
These are compared in the following relations.
and
°C K °F
Water boils 100 373 212

Water freezes 0 273 32
Absolute zero - 273 0 - 459
Temperature scale comparisons

INTRODUCTION
One can see from this that the size of 1oC and 1 K is the same, while both
differ from the size of 1oF.
In fact, the difference between the Celsius scale and the Kelvin scale is
simply a shift by 273 o.
The Kelvin scale is more convenient to measure substances with very low
temperatures.
Moreover 0 Kelvin has a very deep physical significance: absolute zero, as

the name suggests is the lowest temperature that can, even in principle, be
achieved in Nature.
INTRODUCTION
III.2 Energy
Heat is a form of energy, it is measured in the standard unit of Joule, but it

is also commonly measured in the following units:
• calorie : this is the heat energy needed to raise 1 gm of water 1°C : 1

calorie is equal to 4.186 Joules
• Calorie : this is a common unit to measure the

energy content of food : 1 Calorie = 1000
calories.
• BTU : this is a British Thermal Unit, it is the energy needed to raise 1

pound of water 1°F : 1 BTU = 1 054 Joules
INTRODUCTION
III.3 Heat flux – heat rate
The amount of heat that is transferred across a surface of unit area in a

unit of time is called the heat flux.
1m
(J.s-1.m-2 or W.m-2)
Example : Solar flux ≈ 1200 W/m2

1m
Heat rate : (J.s-1 or W)

INTRODUCTION
IV Modes of heat transfer
Heat transfer is caused by :
• Conduction • Convection • Radiation
T1
T1 > T2 φ T2
T1 T2 T∞ Ts > T∞
1
φ Ts
φ φ
2
Conduction through a solid Convection from a surface Net radiation heat exchange
or a stationary fluid to a moving fluid between two surfaces
INTRODUCTION
Example : Heat transfer in a swimming pool
Tsurface= 35 °C
Water : 25 °C
Ground : 20 °C
Radiation Convection
Conduction
INTRODUCTION
Thermal infrared image of coffee cup filled with a hot liquid :
Showing heat traveling from

the hot liquid through the
metal cup
• Liquid at 170°F (76 °C)

• Coffee cup at 90°F (32 °C)
Metals are very good conductors of heat, while air is very poor conductor of
heat.
INTRODUCTION
Infrared image of a building
We can see that the heat transfer is more important through windows than
the wall of the building.
• red and yellow color correspond to high temperature

• violet color correspond to a low temperature
INTRODUCTION
V Energy balance
A heating system for building compensates the heat loss and maintains
comfort.
INTRODUCTION
VI Heat generation in houses
VI.1 Global household energy use

The household sector is responsible for about 15 to 25 percent of primary
energy use in OECD countries and for a higher share in many developing
countries.
Fluelwood/Charcoal
20 Coal
Petroleum Products
Gigajoules
15 Natural gas
Electricity
10
5
0
Sub-Saharan Africa East-South Asia Latin America E. Europe W. Europe N. America
INTRODUCTION
VI.2 Overview of Technologies
• Biomass
• Solar
⚫ Wind turbines
⚫ Geothermal
INTRODUCTION
VI.2.1 Biomass
Biomass, also referred to as Bioenergy or Biofuels

refers to the burning of organic matter, e.g. plants,
agricultural waste to make energy or heat.
Many different types of fuel can be used but for small-scale domestic
applications of biomass wood pellets, wood chips and wood logs are usually
used.
wood pellets wood chips wood logs

INTRODUCTION
VI.2.2 Solar PV
Solar PV (photovoltaic) uses the sun's

energy to create electricity to run
appliances and lighting.
This option uses solar cells, usually placed on the roof, and made up of layers
of semi conducting material.
An electric field is created when the sun shines

on the layers of the cells, causing electricity to
flow.
INTRODUCTION
VI.2.3 Small Wind Turbines
Most people are familiar with the sight of a

wind farm, but you can also generate energy
at home on a smaller scale with your own
wind turbine.
Electricity is produced by the wind turning the turbines blades, which then
turns a rotor.
INTRODUCTION
VI.2.4 Geothermal
This method of generation, also called ground

source heat pumps use the natural heat of the
earth.
A few meters down, the soil in maintains a heat of 11-12 °C and by feeding a
coil into the soil and transferring the heat from the ground into a building,
heating and hot water can be produced.
INTRODUCTION
VI.3 Electric heating
A space heater keeps the air and surroundings at a comfortable

temperature.
Konosuke Matsushita is known for creating the first electric heater in 1929
known as the foot warmer.
Space heaters are generally classified into two types.

INTRODUCTION
VI.3.1 Convective heaters
A fan circulates air around a heating elements in order to warm it.
This type of heater is useful for heating an area quickly.

INTRODUCTION
VI.3.2 Radiant Heaters
A radiator is a heating device which consists of a series of connected pipes

through which steam or hot water is circulated and radiates heat into the
surroundings.
In radiant heaters, liquids are used to produce heat and then radiates into
the room. These types of heaters are more efficient than convection type
of heaters.
INTRODUCTION
VII Zero-energy building
A zero energy building (ZEB) or net zero energy building is a general term
applied to a building's use with zero net energy consumption and zero carbon
emissions annually.
THERMAL COMFORT
I Definition
Thermal comfort is defined in British Standard BS EN ISO 7730 as:
That condition of mind which expresses satisfaction with the thermal

environment.
‘So the term ‘thermal comfort’ describes a person’s psychological state of

mind and is usually referred to in terms of whether someone is feeling too
hot or too cold.
THERMAL COMFORT
French Regulation RE2020 (Thermal and Environmental Regulation)
Summer Thermal comfort : The number of DH (degree.hour °.h)
Ti : Indoor operative temperature (°C)
Tref : Adaptive thermal comfort

temperature (between 26 and 28°C);
26°C during the night and 28°C during
the day.
Ni : Number of hours where Ti > Tref.

THERMAL COMFORT
Examples of threshold of DH for

cooled buildings.
Individual Housing Collective Housing
1850°.h 2100°.h for a surface higher

than 60 m2
2600°.h for a surface lower

than 20 m2
THERMAL COMFORT
Thermal comfort is very difficult to define because you need to take into
account a range of environmental and personal factors when deciding what
will make people feel comfortable.
These factors make up what is known as the ‘human thermal environment’.
I.1 The human thermal environment
The best that you can realistically hope to achieve is a thermal environment
that satisfies the majority of people in the workplace, or put more simply,
reasonable comfort.
THERMAL COMFORT
So thermal comfort is not measured by air temperature, but by the number
of employees complaining of thermal discomfort.
Local thermal discomfort
Draught Vertical Air temperature Differences
Radiation asymmetry Floor Temperature

THERMAL COMFORT
II The Six Basic Factors
The six factors affecting thermal comfort are

both environmental and personal.
These factors may be independent of each other,

but together contribute to a worker’s thermal
comfort.
THERMAL COMFORT
II.1 Environmental factors
1. Air temperature
2. Radiant temperature
3. Air velocity
4. Humidity
II.2 Personal factors
5. Clothing Insulation
6. Metabolic heat
THERMAL COMFORT
II.3 Air temperature
This is the temperature of the air surrounding the body.
II.4 Radiant temperature
Thermal radiation is the heat that radiates from a warm object. Radiant
heat may be present if there are heat sources in an environment.
Radiant temperature has a greater influence than air temperature on how

we lose or gain heat to the environment. Our skin absorbs almost as much
radiant energy as a matt black object.
THERMAL COMFORT
II.5 Air velocity
This describes the speed of air moving across the worker and may help cool
the worker if it is cooler than the environment.
Air velocity is an important factor in thermal comfort because people are

sensitive to it.
II.6 Humidity
If water is heated and it evaporates to the surrounding environment, the

resulting amount of water in the air will provide humidity.
THERMAL COMFORT
II.7 Clothing Insulation
Clothing, by its very nature, interferes with our ability to lose heat to the
environment.
Thermal comfort is very much dependent on the insulating effect of

clothing on the wearer.
II.8 Metabolic rate
The work or metabolic rate, is essential for a thermal risk assessment. It

describes the heat that we produce inside our bodies as we carry out
physical activity.
THERMAL COMFORT
The metabolic rate, or human heat production, is often measured in the unit
"Met". The metabolic rate of a relaxed seated person is 1 Met.
1 Met = 58 W/m2
The mean surface area of the human body is ≅ 1.7 m2
The total heat from a relaxed seated person with mean surface area would
be:
φ = 58 W/m2 x 1.7 m2 ~ 100 W
It depends on : degree of muscular activities.

THERMAL COMFORT
0.8
Met
A sitting person in thermal comfort
will have a heat loss of 100 W.
8
Met
1
Met
Average activity level for the last

hour should be used when evaluating
metabolic rate, due to body’s heat
capacity.
4
Met
THERMAL COMFORT
III Heat transfer in the human body
To maintain the life processes the internal temperature must be regulated

in the range 36 – 37 ºC.
37 oC 34 oC
• Heating mechanism:
– Reduced blood flow.
– Shivering.
• Cooling mechanism:
– Increased blood flow.
– Sweating (Evaporation).
Hot Cold
THERMAL COMFORT
III.1 Energy balance
Thermal Comfort can only be maintained when heat produced by metabolism

equals the heat lost from body.
Heat Heat
produced loss
THERMAL COMFORT
III.2 Heat exchange
M = metabolic rate of human body (W/m2)
W = mechanical work produced by human body (W/m2)
Surrounding heat exchange :
Conduction (C) Convection (H)

Evaporation (T) Radiation (R)
The temperature regulation implies the thermal equilibrium,

THERMAL COMFORT
These values are approximately (%) :
Radiation heat : 30%
Convection heat : 40%
Evaporation heat : 25%
Conduction heat : 5%
CONDUCTION
I Heat transfer by conduction
The flow of heat by conduction occurs via collisions between atoms and
molecules in the substance and the subsequent transfer of kinetic energy.
Let us consider two substances at different temperatures separated by a

barrier :
CONDUCTION
When the barrier is removed, the fast (``hot'') atoms collide with the slow
(``cold'') ones.
In such collisions the faster atoms lose some speed and the slower ones gain
speed; thus, the fast ones transfer some of their kinetic energy to the slow
ones.
This transfer of kinetic energy from the hot to the cold side is called a flow
of heat through conduction.
CONDUCTION
I.1 Conduction in Non-Metals
Atoms vibrate, and bonds between atoms are shaken.

CONDUCTION
I.2 Conduction in metals
Free electrons carry the heat energy too

CONDUCTION
II Fourier’s law
Law proposed by the french mathematician and physician J.B. Fourier.
Conduction heat transfer is described by the Fourier’s law :
• The heat flux vector
k • Thermal conductivity
• Temperature gradient
CONDUCTION
This law was obtained from empirical results.
Heat flux ϕ proportional to thermal gradient through the thermal

conductivity k.
The negative sign comes from the fact that the heat is naturally
transferred from high to low temperatures (negative gradient).
W.m-1.°C-1 or W.m-1.K-1 W.m-2
°C.m-1 or K.m-1
CONDUCTION
In a Cartesian coordinate system :
• Heat flux :
y
Each of these expressions relates the heat flux across a surface to the
temperature gradient in a direction perpendicular to the surface.
CONDUCTION
II.1 Fourier’s law in one dimensional condition
Cross sectional area : S
Heat flow
Hot Cold
L
φ : Heat flux (W.m-2) Φ : Heat rate (W)

S : area (m2) L : Length (m)
k : thermal conductivity (W.m-1.°C-1 or W.m-1.K-1 )
CONDUCTION
II.1.1 Numerical example : Wall of an industrial furnace
The wall of an industrial furnace is constructed from 0.15 m thick brick

having a thermal conductivity of 1.7 W/m.K.
Measurements made during steady

T1 = 1400 K
state operation reveal H = 0.5 m
temperatures of 1400 and 1150 K
at the inner and outer surfaces,
T2 = 1150 K
respectively.
W=3m
1/ What is the heat flux through this wall ? L = 0.15 m

CONDUCTION
Since heat transfer through the wall is by conduction, the heat flux may be
determined from Fourier’s law :
= 2833 W/m2
2/ What is the rate of heat loss through a wall that is 0.5 m by 3 m on a

side ?
The heat flux represents the rate of heat transfer through a section of
unit area, the wall heat loss is :
= 4250 W
CONDUCTION
II.1.2 Heat losses in a house Regenerate air
≈ 20 %
Roofing
≈ 30 %
Window glass
Walls ≈ 13 %
≈ 25 %
Thermal bridge Floor

≈5% ≈7%
CONDUCTION
II.2 Thermal conductivity
Thermal Conductivity depends on the material :

• Gases (at 20 °C) :
Substance Air Oxygen Helium Hydrogen
K (W. m-1.K-1) 0.0234 0.0238 0.138 0.172
• Nonmetals (Insulators at 25 °C) :

Substance Wood Paper Water Glass
K (W. m-1.K-1) 0.15 0.18 0.60 0.84
• Metals (at 25 °C):
Substance Iron Aluminum Gold Copper Silver
K (W. m-1.K-1) 80 238 314 397 427
CONDUCTION
II.2.1 Numerical example
Suppose a human could live for two hours I ♥ heat

transfer
unclothed in air at 7°C.
How long could he live in water at 7°C ?
At T = 7°C : kwater = 0.60 W.m-1.K-1

kair = 0.026 W.m-1.K-1
Water has 23 times the thermal conductivity that air has.
Homer would live for only 120/23 = 5.2 minutes.

CONDUCTION
Range of thermal conductivity for various states of matter at normal
temperatures and pressure :
Zinc Silver
Pure metals
Nickel Aluminum
Alloys
Plastics Ice Oxides
Non metallic solids
Foams Fibers
Insulated
system
Oil Water Mercury
Liquids
Carbon dioxide Hydrogen
Gases
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Thermal conductivity (W/m.K)

CONDUCTION
III Heat diffusion equation
Temperature profile within a body depends upon the rate of :

• its internally-generated heat : Φg
• its capacity to store some of this heat : Φst
• its rate of thermal conduction to its boundaries (where the heat is

transferred to the surrounding environment) : Φin and Φout
Mathematically this is stated by the Heat Equation :
Φin + Φg - Φout = Φst

CONDUCTION
IV Examples and applications
IV.1 A simple wall
Assumptions : ● Steady state conditions

● One dimensional conduction through the wall
● No energy generation
• T1 > T2
H
T1
T2
k
W
x
L
CONDUCTION
heat flux :
heat rate : S = W*H
With T(x = 0) = T1
With T(x = L) = T2
The temperature profile is linear
T1
T2
CONDUCTION
IV.1.2 Thermal resistance and electrical analogy
Electricity (Ohm’s law) Heat transfer
Current : I Heat rate : f

Voltage Difference Temperature Difference
Electrical resistance is associated Thermal resistance is associated

with conduction of electricity with conduction of heat
CONDUCTION
We can also use the thermal conductance C
• Finally, the heat rate is given by :
T1 T2
CONDUCTION
IV.1.3 Node thermal method
It may be helpful in computing the conductors between two dissimilar

shaped or dissimilar material nodes :
Source Fixed temperature

P1 T∞
T1 T2 T3
L1 L2
For steady state problem, for each node i, we have :
CONDUCTION
The thermal conductance C is :
P1 T1 T2 T3 T∞
For node 1, we have :
With : C1-2 = C2-1 and C2-3 = C3-2

CONDUCTION
Numerical example :
C1-2 = 100 W/K C2-3 = 200 W/K C3-∞ = 5 W/K
P1 = 1000 W T∞ = 20 °C
• For node 1, we obtain : = 10 + T2
● For node 2, we obtain :
● For node 3, we obtain :

CONDUCTION
Finally :
T3 = 220 °C
T2 = 225 °C
T1 = 235°C
1000 W 225°C 20°C
235°C 220°C
CONDUCTION
IV.2 A composite wall
Useful tool for both conceptualizing and quantifying heat transfer problem :
T1
T2
k1 k2 kn-1 kn
H
x
L1 L2 Ln-1 Ln
T1 R1 R2 Rn-1 Rn T2
Resistances in series
CONDUCTION
IV.2.1 Equivalent thermal circuit
T1
Total thermal resistance :
R T, wall = R1 + R2 + … + Rn-1 + Rn k1 k2 kn-1 kn
T2
L1 L2 Ln-1 Ln
CONDUCTION
IV.2.2 Conduction through a brick wall
A wall made up with a 0.20 m thick fireclay brick; it is 4 m long and 3 m

high.
1/ Determine the thermal conductance and the

thermal resistance then the wall heat loss when
the temperature at the inner surface is 20°C and
the temperature at the outer surface is 10°C.
Thermal conductance and resistance for conduction :
= 50 W/K = 0.02 K/W
Thermal conductivity : kbrick = 0.836 W/m°C, kair = 0.025 W/m°C, kcork = 0.29
W/m°C
CONDUCTION
Then the heat rate : = 500 W
2/ In order to decrease the heat loss through this wall, we put a cork plate
2 cm thick, what is the new thermal resistance and conductance and the new
heat flow through this wall ?
The total thermal resistance and conductance :
= 2.58 10-2 K/W CT = 38.76 W/K
Then the new heat rate is : = 388 W

CONDUCTION
3/ What would be the thermal conductance and resistance and the heat
flow if the wall consisted of 2 walls in 8 cm thick bricks each one separated
by a 4 cm layer of air between the 2 walls.
The new total thermal resistance :
= 0.149 K/W
= 6.71 W/K
It follows that the new heat rate is : = 67 W

CONDUCTION
IV.2.3 A series-parallel composite wall
A wall is made up with aerated brick as shown in the figure.

The width of a brick is w = 20 cm.
e1 = 5 cm e2 = 15 cm L1 = 5 cm L2 = 20 cm
e1 e2 e1
Air L1
Tin = 18 °C Brick L1 T = 10 °C
out
Air L2
L = 2 L 1 + L2
kbrick = 0.84 W.m-1.°C-1 kair = 0.023 W.m-1.°C-1
CONDUCTION
1/ Draw the equivalent thermal circuit for this system.
R2
Air
R1 R3 R1 Brick
Tint Tout
Air
R4
2/ Give the expression and compute of all the thermal resistances

CONDUCTION
= 1 °C/W = 652 °C/W
= 18 °C/W = 163 °C/W
3/ Give the expression and then calculate the total thermal resistance for
this system.
≈ 18 °C/W
CONDUCTION
4/ The wall is made up with 200 bricks, determine the heat loss through
this wall.
The thermal resistance for 1 brick corresponds to :
Rbrick = 9 °C/W
The thermal resistance for the wall corresponds to :
Rwall = 0.045 °C/W = 178 W

CONDUCTION
IV.3 Contact resistance
In a composite system, the temperature drop across an interface between

materials may be appreciable.
This temperature change is attributed to what is known as the thermal

contact resistance Rt,c.
For a unit area of the interface, the resistance is defined as :

CONVECTION
I Heat transfer by convection
Convection is the flow of heat through macroscopic movement of matter

from a hot region to a cool region, as opposed to the microscopic transfer
of heat between atoms involved with conduction.
Convection is heat transfer by mass motion of a fluid such as air or water

when the heated fluid is caused to move away from the source of heat,
carrying energy with it.
CONVECTION
I.1 Convection in air
Convection above a hot surface occurs because hot air expands, becomes
less dense, and rises.
● Air ~ Ideal Gas
● Ideal gas law :
T ρ
CONVECTION
I.2 Convection in rooms
The convector heater warms the air in contact with it. This becomes less
dense, and rises.
The ceiling forces this air to circulate as shown, warming the air around it.
Finally, when the air has cooled, it falls downwards, completing the cycle.
CONVECTION
I.3 Convection in water
Convection can also lead to circulation in a liquid, as in the heating of a pot
of water over a flame.
Heated water expands and becomes more buoyant. Cooler, denser water
near the surface descends and patterns of circulation can be formed.
CONVECTION
I.4 Free convection
When heat conducts into a static fluid it leads to a local volumetric

expansion.
Air
Hot components on printed circuit boards
Buoyancy-driven flow
Such heat-induced fluid motion in initially static fluids is known as free

convection.
CONVECTION
I.5 Forced convection
For cases where the fluid is already in motion, heat conducted into the fluid
will be transported away by fluid convection.
Air
Forced flow Hot components on printed circuit boards
These cases, known as forced convection, require a pressure gradient to

drive the fluid motion, as opposed to a gravity gradient to induce motion
through buoyancy.
CONVECTION
II Newton’s law
In general terms, heat transfer is quantified by Newton's Law of Cooling,

where h is the heat transfer coefficient :
h represents the heat flow per unit area per unit temperature difference.
h is not a property, it depends on the external conditions
The larger h is, the larger the heat transfer f is.

CONVECTION
II.1 Heat transfer coefficient
● Typical values of the convection heat transfer coefficient

Process h (W/m2.K)
Free convection
Gases 2 – 25
Liquids 50 – 1000
Forced convection
Gases 25 - 250
Liquids 50 – 20,000
Convection with phase
change
Boiling or 2,500 – 100,000
condensation
CONVECTION
III Examples and applications
III.1 Conduction and convection for a simple wall

● Steady state conditions
Assumptions :
● One dimensional conduction through the wall
● One dimensional convection through the fluid
● No energy generation
T 1∞
T1 T2
Fluid 2
T1 ∞ > T 2 ∞
Fluid 1 k
T 2∞
x
L
CONVECTION
III.1.1 Heat rate
● Heat rate through the fluid 1 (convection) :
● Heat rate through the wall (conduction) :
● Heat rate through the fluid 2 (convection) :

CONVECTION
III.1.2 Equivalent thermal circuit
Thermal resistance associated with convection of heat
Thermal resistance associated with conduction of heat
T1∞ R conv,1 T1 R cond Rconv,2 T2∞

T2
Resistances in series
CONVECTION
Total thermal resistance
Heat rate for this wall
Where T1∞ - T2∞ is the overall temperature difference.

CONVECTION
III.1.3 Numerical example
Heat transfer in a shelter garden

Wood : hi = 10 W.m-2.K-1
k1 = 0.15 W.m-1.K-1 ho = 15 W.m-2.K-1
e1 = 2 cm
Pane : 2.5 m Tile :
k2 = 1.2 W.m-1.K-1 k3 = 10 W.m-1.K-1
e2 = 1 cm e3 = 4 cm
4m
2m
To = 10°C
This shelter garden is made up of wood with two 50x50 cm2 windows and a
tile roof .
CONVECTION
We want to know the inner temperature in a shelter garden if we get a
heating coil (needed to maintain the inner temperature constant) whose
power is 1 kW.
Assuming that there are no heat transfer through the floor.
1/ We want to estimate the conduction heat transfer through the walls

(except the windows), give the expression of the thermal resistance R1 of
the walls, therefore calculate it.
The surface exchange of the shelter’s wall is : S1 = 29.5 m2
= 4.52 10-3 °C/W

CONVECTION
2/ We want to estimate the conduction heat transfer through the 2
windows, give the expression of the thermal resistance R2 of the windows,
therefore calculate it.
The surface exchange of the 2 windows is : S2 = 0.5 m2
= 1.67 10-2 °C/W
3/ We want to estimate the conduction heat transfer through the roof, give
the expression of the thermal resistance R3 of the roof, therefore calculate
it.
CONVECTION
The surface exchange of the shelter’s roof is : S3 = 8 m2
= 5 10-4 °C/W
4/ Give the expression and calculate the equivalent conduction thermal

resistance of this shelter garden.
There are 3 resistances in parallel then :
= 4.384 10-4 °C/W

CONVECTION
5/ What is the inner temperature in the shelter?
= 2.63 10-3 °C/W

Rhi R1 Rho
Ti To
= 1.75 10-3 °C/W R2
= 38 m2 R3
= 4.82 10-3 °C/W
= 14.82 °C
CONVECTION
6/ What are the values of the different heat rate ?
= 97.34 W (wall) = 12.19°C
= 11.75°C
= 26.35 W (window)
= 880 W (roof)
CONVECTION
III.2 Conduction and convection for a composite wall
Equivalent thermal circuits are used for complex systems, such a composite
wall.
Such walls may involve any number of series thermal resistances due to
layers of different materials.
h2,T2∞
h1,T1∞
Fluid 2
T1
k1 k2 kn-1 kn T2
Fluid 1
L1 L2 Ln-1 Ln
CONVECTION
III.2.1 Equivalent thermal circuit
T1∞
Fluid 2
k1 k2 kn-1 kn T2
T1
Fluid 1
T2∞
L1 L2 Ln-1 Ln
Equivalent thermal circuit for a composite wall :
T1∞ T2∞
CONVECTION
III.2.2 Overall coefficient
Total thermal resistance :
R T, wall = Rconv1 + Rcond1 + … + Rcondn + Rconv2
Where T1∞ - T2∞ is the overall temperature difference.
With composite systems it is often convenient to work with an overall heat

transfer coefficient U :
CONVECTION
III.2.3 Example - Heat rate through a wall and a window
A wall is made up of an outer roughcast, a layer of brick and an inner coat.

In this wall, there is a window made up of firstly by a simple glazed window,
then by a double glazed window (two glasses of the same thickness
separated by a layer of air).
1.5 m
Outer heat transfer coefficient :
ho = 15 W.m-2.°C-1
Inner heat transfer coefficient : 2.40 m 1m
hi = 10 W.m-2.°C-1
Inner temperature : Ti = 18°C 6m
Outer temperature : To = 5°C
CONVECTION
Known : Roughcast : e1 = 1 cmk1 = 1.15 W.m-1.°C-1
Brick e2 = 15 cm k2 = 0.52 W.m-1.°C-1
Coat e3 = 0.5 cm k3 = 0.46 W.m-1.°C-1
Pane e4 = 4 mm k4 = 1.12 W.m-1.°C-1
Air e5 = 16 mm k5 = 0.025 W.m-1.°C-1
1/ What is the thermal resistance Rw of the wall (conduction) ?
Swall = 12.9 m2 = 2.39 10-2 °C/W
2/ What is the thermal resistance Rwin1 for the simple glazed window
(conduction)?
CONVECTION
Swindow = 1.5 m2 = 2.38 10-3 °C/W
3/ What is the thermal resistance Rwin2 for the double glazed window
(conduction)?
= 0.431 °C/W
4/ Draw the equivalent thermal circuit and give the total thermal resistance
for the complete system (RT1 simple and RT2 double glazed window) including
convection. Explain this result.
CONVECTION
To Rwall
Rhi Rho
φwall Ti To
φwindow
Ti Rwindow
φT = φwall + φwindow
ST = 14.40 m2
= 6.94 10-3 °C/W = 4.63 10-3 °C/W

CONVECTION
Expression of RT1 : = 1.37 10-2 °C/W
Expression of RT2 : = 3.42 10-2 °C/W
5/ Deduce the value of φT1 and φT2 the heat loss through this wall for these
two configurations.
= 950 W = 380 W
CONVECTION
III.3.2 Temperature in a non-heated room
In this house the temperatures in rooms I, III, IV and V are known, but we
want to know the temperature in room II.
For each material, the overall coefficient U per unit surface area is known,
including heat transfer by conduction, convection and radiation.
+ 20°C III
V IV
- 3°C + 20°C
1.00 1.00
0.40 II + 20°C I 4.90 2.50 2.50
II I
1.10 2.70
T? + 20°C
1.20 T? 2.20
2.50 2.50
+ 5°C
4.50 4.40
CONVECTION
Known : Outer temperature: - 7°C
Temperature in room V: - 3°C
Temperature in rooms I, III, IV: + 20°C
Basement temperature: + 5°C
Internal walls Brick wall with plaster U = 1.95 W/m2 K

Door U = 1.90 W/m2 K
Parquet floor U = 1.30 W/m2 K
Tiled floor U = 2.70 W/m2 K
External walls Double glazed window U = 2.60 W/m2 K

Concrete wall U = 1.25 W/m2 K
CONVECTION
1/ Determine the heat rate received by room II in terms of its temperature
T.
a/ Heat rate received from room I.
From room I :
φ1 = 4.90 x 2.70 x 1.95 (20 – T) = 516 – 25.8 T
b/ Heat rate received from room III.
From room III :
φ3 = (4.50 x 2.70 – 2.20 x 1.0) x 1.95 (20 – T)

+ 2.20 x 1.0 x 1.90 (20 – T)
φ3 = = 471.6 – 23.6 T
CONVECTION
c/ Heat rate received from the basement.
From the basement :
φb = 4.50 x 4.90 x 1.30 (5 – T) = 143 – 28.7 T
The heat rate received by room II :
φ1 + φ3 + φb = 1131 – 78 T
2/ Determine the heat rate lost by room II in terms of its temperature T.

a/ Heat lost through the windows.
CONVECTION
Lost through the windows :
φw = 2 x 2.50 x 1.10 x 2.60 (T + 7) = 100.1 + 14.3 T
b/ Heat lost through the walls.
Lost through the walls :
φwalls = [(4.90 x 2.70 – 2.50 x 1.10) +

(4.50 x 2.70 - 2.50 x 1.10) ] x [1.25 (T + 7) ]
φwalls = 174 + 24.9 T

CONVECTION
c/ Heat lost through the ceiling (room V).
Lost through the ceiling :
φc = 4.50 x 4.90 x 2.70 (T + 3) = 178.6 + 59.9 T
2/ The heat lost by room II : φw + φwalls + φc = 452.7 + 98.5 T
3/ Deduce the temperature T of the room II.
Energy balance : 1131 – 78 T = 452.7 + 98.5 T
T = 3.84 °C
RADIATION
I Heat transfer by radiation
The energy of radiation field is transported by electromagnetic waves.
wavelength
distance
• λ = wavelength of an electromagnetic wave (m)

• c = speed of light in vacuum = 299,792.458 km/s
• f = frequency of the wave (Hz)
RADIATION
All bodies constantly emit energy by a process of electromagnetic radiation.
The intensity of such energy flux depends upon the temperature of the
body and the nature of its surface.
RADIATION
I.1 Spectrum of electromagnetic radiation
Visible
Yellow
Green
Violet
Blue
Red
X rays Ultraviole
t Infrared
Microwave
Gamma
rays
0.38 Thermal radiation
0.76
10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 1 10 102 103 104

λ (μm)
RADIATION
I.2 Forms of electromagnetic wave spectrum
Characterization Wavelength λ
Cosmic rays < 0.3 pm
Gamma rays 0.3 – 100 pm
X rays 0.01 – 30 nm
Ultraviolet light 1 – 380 nm
Visible light 0.38 – 0.76 μm Thermal radiation
Near infrared radiation 0.76 – 30 μm 0.1 – 100 μm
Far infrared radiation 30 – 100 μm
Millimeter waves 0.1 – 10 mm
Microwaves 10 – 300 mm
Shortwave radio & TV 300 mm – 100 m
Long wave radio 100 m – 30 km
RADIATION
II Emissive power
Thermal radiation is an energy emitted.
Conduction and convection requires the presence of a material medium,

radiation does not.
Radiation transfer occurs most efficiently in a vacuum.
The rate at which energy is released per unit area (W/m2) is termed :
The surface emissive power : E
TS
RADIATION
III Irradiation from surrounding
Radiation may also be incident on a surface from its surroundings.
The radiation may originate from a special source, such as the sun, or from
other surfaces to which the surface of interest is exposed.
The rate at which all such radiation is incident on a unit area (W/m2) is :
The irradiation : G
Tsur
G
E
TS
RADIATION
This irradiation G represents the rate at which radiation is incident per unit
area from all directions at all wavelengths, it follows that :
Example :
The spectral distribution of surface irradiation is as follows :
1000
Gλ (W/m2.μm)
500
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
λ (μm)
RADIATION
What is the total irradiation ?
The integral is evaluated by breaking it into parts, that is :
Hence :
G = 20,000 W/m2
RADIATION
III.1 Absorptivity α
A portion of the irradiation may be absorbed by the surface, thereby

increasing the thermal energy of the material.
The rate at which radiant energy is absorbed per unit surface area may be
evaluated from knowledge of the surface radiative property termed :
The absorptivity : α
Gabs = α.G 0<α<1

RADIATION
III.2 Radiation exchange
Portions of the irradiation may be :
• Absorbed (absorptivity : α) 0<α<1

• Transmitted (transmitivity : τ) 0<τ<1
• Reflected (reflectivity : ρ) 0<ρ<1
Emissive power : E Heat received by surface : G

Reflected irradiation : ρ.G (Irradiation)
α+ρ +τ=1 Absorbed irradiation : α.G
Transmitted irradiation : τ.G

RADIATION
III.2.1 Example with typical glazing characteristics
1
τ1 =
Transmitivity : τ 0.95
τ2 = 0.05
0 λ in μm
0.1 1 10
1
α2 = 0.65
Absorptivity : α
0 α1 = 0 λ in μm
0.1 1 10
1
Reflectivity : ρ ρ2 = 0.30
ρ1 = 0.05
0 λ in μm
0.1 1 10
RADIATION
III.3 Absorption and reflection
Radiation heat transfer must account for both incoming and outgoing
thermal radiation.
Incoming radiation can be either absorbed, reflected, or transmitted. This

decomposition can be expressed by the relative fractions :
α+ρ +τ=1
Since most solid bodies are opaque to thermal radiation, we can ignore the
transmission component and write :
α+ρ=1
RADIATION
Radiant flux from surrounding : G
G G
0.03.G reflected 0.90.G reflected
E E
0.97.G absorbed 0.10.G absorbed
Lampblack-coated block Silver-coated block

III.4 Radiosity
RADIATION
The radiative flux radiosity accounts all the radiant energy leaving a
surface. This radiation includes the reflected portion of the irradiation, as
well as direct emission.
J
J = E + ρ.G
Irradiation : G
ρ.G
E
If the body is opaque : J = E + (1 - α).G

RADIATION
III.5 Blackbodies
Solid bodies can absorb all the thermal irradiation :
α=1
Blackbody’s
Heat received by surface : G
emissive power : Eb
(Irradiation)
Absorbed irradiation : G
Such a surface is called an ideal radiator or blackbody

RADIATION
Temperature Temperature
rises rapidly rises slowly
Lampblack-coated block Silver-coated block

RADIATION
IV Emissivity of a surface
A real surface can also be characterized by a coefficient ε , it can be

expressed through the following equation :
ε : Emissivity of the surface (0 < ε < 1)
This property provides a measure of how efficiently a surface emits energy

relative to a blackbody.
It depends strongly on the surface material and finish.

IV.1 Emissivity ε
RADIATION
Description Emissivity at 300 K
Asphalt pavement 0.85 – 0.93
Brick red
0.93 – 0.96
Wood
0.82 – 0.92
Pyroceram
0.85
Sand 0.90
Aluminum (highly polished)
0.04
Aluminum (foil, bright)
0.07
Aluminum (anodized) 0.82
RADIATION
V Radiation heat transfer
The net heat transfer from a body at absolute temperature Ts with surface
emissivity ε to a enclosing body at absolute temperature Te is given by :
Tsur = 290 K
S = 120 m2
ε=
0.85
h = 10 W/m2.K
Ts = 292 K
The house losses thermal by radiation : = 1 140W

The house losses thermal by convection : = 2 400 W
φ = 3 540
W
RADIATION
V.1 Standing outdoors on a cold February morning
Air temperature = 0 °C = 273 K
Body temperature = 37°C = 37 + 273 = 310 K
How many food Calories of energy will be lost in

one hour?
= 219 W
The net heat loss is 219 Joules per second. S = 1.5 m2 ε = 0.70
1 Calorie = 1000 cal 4186 J = 1 Cal
One hour = 3600 seconds Q = 219 x 3600 = 7.88 x 105 J
Number of Calories burned to replace that energy : 188 Cal

RADIATION
VI Radiation heat exchange coefficient
The net rate of radiation heat transfer from the surface :
There are many applications for which it is convenient to express the net
radiation heat exchange in the form :
The radiation heat transfer coefficient hr :

TRANSIENT CONDUCTION
Many heat transfer problems are time dependent.
Under conditions for which temperatures gradients within the solid are
small, a simple approach may be used.
I The lumped capacitance method
This method is used when a solid experiences a sudden change in its thermal
environment.
A hot metal is initially at a
t=0 uniform temperature Ti
Ti
T = Ti T(t) t > 0 T∞ < Ti
Liquid T = T(t)
The essence of this method is the assumption that the temperature of the
solid is spatially uniform at any instant during the transient process.
The temperature of the solid will decrease for time > 0, until it reaches T∞.
This reduction is due to convection heat transfer at the solid-liquid

interface.
By using the conservation of Energy :

Introducing the temperature difference :
with :
Separating variables and integrating from the initial condition.
where :
It follows that : or :
Finally : with :
Example : 1
τ1 < τ2 < τ 3 < τ4
0 τ1 τ2 τ3 τ4
Temperature response corresponding to different thermal time constant τ.
Resistance to convection
Heat capacity
II Validity of the lumped capacitance method
To develop a suitable criterion, consider steady state conduction through a

plane wall of area S.
The temperature of this surface will be some intermediate value Ts,2, for
which T∞ < Ts,2 < Ts,1.
T
One surface is maintained at a φcon φcon
temperature Ts,1 T d v
s,1
Ts,2
The other surface is exposed to L
h, T∞
a fluid of temperature T∞ < Ts,1
x
Under steady state conditions, we have :
Rearranging, we can obtain :
The quantity h.L/k is a dimensionless parameter called the BIOT number.

If Bi << 1, the resistance to conduction within the solid is much less than
the resistance to convection.
Hence, the assumption of a uniform temperature distribution is reasonable.
Bi << 1
Ts,1 Ts,2
Bi ≈ 1
Ts,2
Bi >> 1 h, T∞
Ts,2
Effect of BIOT number on temperature distribution

If the following condition is satisfied :
The error associated with using the lumped capacitance method is small.
II.1 The thermocouple
A thermocouple junction, which may be approximated as a sphere, is to be

used for temperature measurement in a gas stream.
Determine the junction diameter needed for the thermocouple to have a
time constant of 1 s and the corresponding BIOT number.
Leads
Thermocouple junction Ti = 25°C
k = 20 W/m.K T∞ = 200°C
cp = 400 J/kg.K h = 400 W/m2.K
ρ = 8500 kg/m3 Gas stream
D
For a sphere :
then : = 7.06 10-4 m

The characteristic length is : = 1.18 10-4 m
The BIOT number is : = 2.36 10-3
The lumped capacitance method may be used.
If the junction is at 25°C and is placed in a gas stream that is at 200°C, how
long will it take for the junction to reach 199°C?
= 5.2 s ≈ 5 τ
II.2 The death of Homer Simpson
Homer Simpson was resting in his swimming pool (his

temperature at that time was Ti = 37°C), when he was
pushed in the water and drowned immediately.
The water temperature was Tw = 15°C (winter in

Springfield) and he was found dead at 6 PM by the chief
of police, lover of donuts: Chief Wiggum.
Properties: The average human body is 72 % water by mass, and thus we can
assume the body to have the properties of water which are:
k = 0.62 W/m.°Cρ = 103 kg/m3 Cp = 4180 J/kg.°C
His body temperature is measured to be 20°C when found, and the water
heat transfer coefficient is estimated to be hw = 100 W/m2.°C.
Modeling Homer’s body as a 20 cm radius r0, 1.60 m-long L cylinder we want

to estimate the time of death of Homer and find the guilty.
1/ Give the expression of the characteristic length of the body Lc in terms

of L and r0. Compute Lc.
= 0.089 m
2/ Find the corresponding BIOT number
The BIOT number is = 14.35
3/ By using the lumped method (even if the BIOT number is greater than
0.1) estimate the time of death.
To get a “rough” estimate of the time of death :
= 3720 s = 5511 s ≈ 1 h 32 mn
We know that Ned Flanders was at Homer’s home between 3 and 5
PM:
We know that Moe was at Homer’s home between 1 and 3 PM:
We know that Barney was at Homer’s home between 10 and 12 AM:
4/ Who is the guilty and in your opinion, why does he kill Homer?
6 PM – (1 h 32) ≈ 4 h 30 , Ned Flanders kills Homer (Jealousy for Marge ?)

Exercises Thermal comfort
I Human skin temperature of the diver
Under certain environmental conditions, the human skin temperature Ts is

lower than the body core temperature (Tc = 37 °C).
The transition between those two temperatures occurs across a sub skin
layer with an approximate thickness: e1 = 1 cm. The thermal conductivity of
this living tissue is k1 = 0.42 W.m-1.K-1
A diver wears a wetsuit with a thickness e2 = 5 mm,

the thermal conductivity of his neoprene wetsuit is
k2= 0.15 W.m-1.K-1.
He dives at a depth of 30 meters where the water
temperature is Text = 17 °C and the convection
coefficient hwater = 500 W.m-2.K-1
II Human skin temperature of the diver
1/ Draw the equivalent thermal circuit of this system.
Rcond1 = e1/k1 Rconv = 1/h
Tc Ts Text
Rcond2 = e2/k2
2/ Compute this human skin temperature Ts and the heat flux.

= 28.95 °C
= 339 W/m2
We consider that the diver produces 3 Met during his dive for a human
surface of S = 1.8 m2.
3/ Compute this heat rate produced by the human body and the heat rate
dissipated through the water. Compare those results and conclude.
φproduced = 3 Met x S = 313.2 W
φlost = ϕ x S = 610.2 W
φlost > φproduced : the temperature will decrease.

4/ What is the thickness of his wetsuit he needs to have energy balance?
We are looking for e2 to obtain : φlost = φproduced
ϕproduced = ϕlost = 3 Met
= 13.4 mm
Exercises Convection-Conduction
I An oven insulation
An Oven is made up of a steel wall (k1 = 100 W/m.K,

thickness e1 = 5 mm) and a insulated fiber glass wall (k2
= 5 10-2 W/m.K, thickness e2 ≈ e1 ) .
We want to know this thickness e2 needed to guarantee
that the oven outer temperature Text of 52°C.
Rk , Rh1 et Rh2 are respectively the thermal resistances of the wall, of the
inside air and the outside air per unit surface.
I Oven insulation
The maximal temperature inside the oven is

maintained at Ti = 270°C. The temperature inside
the kitchen Ta is 18°C.
The heat transfer coefficient between in the inner wall of the oven and the
air inside the oven is hi = 40 W/m2 °C, the one between the outer surface of
the oven and the surroundings is ho = 10 W/m2 °C.
1/ What is the expression of the thermal resistance Rk in terms of e2 ?

Explain this result and conclude.
I Oven insulation
with k1 >> k2 hence
We have :
2/ By using the conservation of the heat flux, give the expression of Rk in

terms of the different temperatures and other thermal resistances.
Text
Ti, hi
Ta, ho
oven
Rhi Rk Rho
Ti Text Ta
The heat flux :

I Oven insulation
Then :
3/ What is the minimum thickness of the insulated material ?
with = 0.025 °C/W = 0.1 °C/W and
Hence, e2 ≈ 3 mm
152
II The wall with windows and door
We want to determine the rate of heat transfer through this wall.
1/ Give the expression of the thermal resistance Rwin for a window

(conduction only) in terms of its dimensions and calculate it.
LWall
LWin
Hwall Hwin
HD
LD
Swin = 2*1.2 = 2.4 m2 Rwin = 4.167 10-3 °C/W
2/ Give the expression of the thermal resistance for the door RD

SD = 2 m 2 RD = 5 10-3 °C/W
3/ Give the expression of the thermal resistance for the wall RW

Sw = 53.2 m2 Rw = 0.75 10-3 °C/W
The convection heat transfer coefficient are respectively ho and hi.
4/ Give the expressions of the convection thermal resistances Rho and Rhi in
terms of its dimensions and calculate it.
ST = 60 m2 Rho = 8.33 10-4 °C/W

ST = 60 m2 Rhi = 1.67 10-3 °C/W
5/ Draw the equivalent thermal circuit for the system (convection +

conduction) and give the expression of the total thermal resistance for the
system RT (conduction + convection) in terms of the different resistances
and calculate it. Rw
Rwin
Rhi Rho
RD
Ti To
Rwin
= 3 10-3 °C/W
6/ What is the heat rate through this wall?
Inner temperature Ti = 18 °C, outer temperature T0 = - 5 °C
= 7667 W
I Heat flow through a caravan
This caravan can be schematized by a volume of 6m x 3m x 2m high.
The floor is assumed to be insulated,

preventing any thermal loss to the exterior.
For all others surfaces, a heat transfer by
convection exists, where outer and inner air
exchange coefficients are respectively ho
and hi
The panes represent 25% of side surfaces.

ε = 0.96 hi = 15 W/m2 K h0 = 20 W/m2 K

k1 = 1 W/m.K k2 = 0.05 W/m.K k3 = 0.2 W/m.K
k4 = 200 W/m.K e1 = 2 cm e2 = 1 cm
e3 = 4 mm e4 = 10 cm
ρair = 1.225 kg/m3 Cp air = 1000 J/kg K σ = 5.67 10-8 W/m2 K4
159
The temperature inside the caravan is maintained to Ti = 20°C, whereas

outside, it is To = 10°C.
1/ a/ The external wall temperature Tw is measured at 12 °C.

Compute the radiation heat transfer coefficient hr which allows to express
the radiation heat loss by: Φr = hr S (Tw – To).
= 5 W.m-2.K-1
1/b/ Compute the outer heat transfer coefficient (convection + radiation) :
hT
hence : hT = ho + hr = 25 W m-2 K-1 convection + radiation
2/ We focus our attention on transfer through the walls, except panes. The
composite wall is divided into three layers:
• A first layer of plywood (thickness: e1, conductivity: k1)
• A layer of fibreglass (thickness: e2, conductivity: k2)
• A second layer of plywood (thickness: e1, conductivity: k1)

Give the expression of the thermal resistance R1 of this composite wall.
= 8.89 10-3 K/W with S = 27 m2
2m
3m
6m
3/ We would like to estimate the heat transfer through the panes

(thickness: e3, Plexiglas conductivity: k3). Give the expression and calculate
the thermal resistance R2..
= 2.22 10-3 K/W with S’ = 9 m2
4/ The caravan has a composite roof made of thermal plywood (thickness:e1,

conductivity:k1), fibreglass insulation (thickness: e2, conductivity:k2) and an
aluminium board (thickness:e4, conductivity:k4). Calculate the thermal
resistance R3 of the roof .
= 12.25 10-3 K/W with S’’ = 18 m2
5/ Draw the equivalent thermal circuit. convection + radiation
R1
Rh,i Rh,0
Ti R2 T0
R3
6/ a/ Therefore, calculate the overall heat losses through the walls, the
panes and the ceiling.
= 1.23 10-3 K/W with ST = 54 m2
= 0.74 10-3 K/W
= 3.52 10-3 K/W
= 2841 W
b/ For hygiene reasons, the air must be renewed completely in two hours.
Calculate the calorific power needed to heat up this mass of air from 10°C
to 20°C.
Mass of air inside the caravan : m = ρ.V = ρ.[6x3x2 ] = 44.1 kg
Hence, the heat energy needed to increase this mass from 10°C to 20°C is :
Q = m cp ΔT = 441 kJ which correspond to a calorific power of 61.25 W
(for 2 hours).
c/ Calculate the total calorific power needed to maintain 20°C inside the
caravan.
φtotal = 2841 + 61.25 = 2902.25 W
d/ Knowing that the price of 1 kWh is invoiced at 0.2 € and that this family
spends 10 days on holidays with unchanged climatic conditions, what is the
cost of heating during their holidays ?
φ = 2902.25 W which corresponds to an energy of 2902.25 W.h. during 240

h.
The total energy produced during their holidays is : 696.5 kW.h so, the
heating cost will be about 140 €.
I Building heat transfer
We consider this building, in the following figure, in which in the north and
south facade there are 50 windows and in the east and west facade, there
are 20 windows.
The roof, the floor and the door (2 m x 2.5

m) are assumed adiabatic.
During summer, the surrounding

temperature is To = 45°C, and the air
conditioning is produced by a 8 kW heat
pump.
The walls are made up with concrete and aluminum. All the windows are
double glazed windows (4/16/4).
We want to know the inner temperature in this building.
1/ What is the thermal resistance Rw of the

walls (conduction)?
Sw = 2.(20x15 + 8x15) - (140x2x2.5) – 2x2.5 = 135 m2
Rw = 2.39 10-3 K/W
2/ What is the thermal resistance Rwin of the windows (conduction)?
Swin = 140x2x2.5 = 700 m2
Rwin = 9.245 10-4 K/W

3/ Give the expression of the total thermal resistance for this building: RT,
including convection. Compute RT.
Rhi Rw Rho To
Ti Rwin
= 1.49 10-4 K/W

ST = 840 m2
= 0.6 10-4 K/W

= 8.76 10-4 K/W
4/ What is the temperature in the building, if we consider that the COP of

the heat pump is 4.
P = 8000 W Φ = COP x P = 32000 W
Ti = TO – RT.Φ = 17°C
5/ What is the temperature in the building, if we consider that the COP of

the heat pump is 3.
Φ = COP x P = 24000 W Ti = TO – RT.Φ = 24°C

Exercises Conv-Cond-Rad
III Temperature of an electronic component
An electronic component has an internal thermal power generation (heating)
rate of φ = 1 kW/m2 and we want to know its surface temperature Ts
This component is subjected to an air

flow over its top surface, which is 1 cm
x 2 cm, resulting in a free convective
coefficient h of 10 W/m2.K
The emissivity coefficient ε of the component is 0.85, and the average

temperature is Tair = 25°C.
1/ Give the equation of Ts in terms of h, Tair, ε, σ and φ.
Tair = 298 K
2/ This equation has a form of : a.T4 + b.T +c = 0, give the values of the
coefficients a, b and c.
a = 4.82 10-8 b = 10 c = - 4360
3/ Draw the function f (Ts) = a.T4 + b.T +c for 83°C < Ts < 85°C (every 0.5°C)
and find Ts
Ts = 83°C = 356 K → f(Ts) = - 25.8
Ts = 83.5°C = 356.5 K → f(Ts) = - 16.5

Ts ≈ 84.5°C = 357.5 K
Ts = 84°C = 357 K → f(Ts) = - 7
Ts = 84.5°C = 357.5 K → f(Ts) = 2.32
Ts = 85°C = 358 K → f(Ts) = 11.7

4/ The surface temperature mustn’t exceed 60°C, find the convection

coefficient h at which you can obtain this surface temperature. Same
question for Ts < 50°C. Compare and conclude
Ts = 60°C = 333 K
1000 = 35h + 212.55 h = 22.5 W.m-2.K-1
Ts = 50°C = 323 K
1000 = 25h + 144.5 h = 34.2 W.m-2.K-1

Exercises Transient problem
I Cooling-off period
Initially a sphere (radius r0 = 5 mm) is placed in a furnace, its temperature

reaches (Ti = 400 °C). Then this sphere is cooling down, by putting it
through a flow of air at Tair = 20 °C for a period Δt until a temperature of
balance Tf = 335 °C is reached.
Tair = 20 °C Tair = 20 °C
Ti = 400 °C Ti = 400 °C
Tf = 335 °C Tf = 335 °C
hair = 10 W/m².K hair = 100 W/m².K

1/ If the free convection coefficient hair is 10 W/m2.K, verify that during

this process, one considers that the temperature remains uniform within
the sphere. Compute the time Δt1 needed to reach Tf.
1/ h = 10 W/m2.K = 5/6 10-3 < 0.1 → OK
= 500 s = 94 s
178
2/ h = 100 W/m2.K = 5/6 10-2 < 0.1 → OK
τ = 50 s = 9.4 s
179
I Transient problem for a ALGECO
In a typical ALGECO, the inner temperature is 18°C thanks to an electric

heater.
By using capacitance method and substituting the heat transfer coefficient
h by U (the overall heat transfer coefficient), we want to solve a transient
problem.
Considering first a very bad insulation with : U = 2.4 W.m-2.K-1
cp air = 1kJ.kg-1.K-1
ρ air = 1.25 kg.m-3

2.5 m
3m
4m
The outer temperature is T∞ = 5°C. A t = 0, we switch off the radiator,

assuming low BIOT number and no heat loss through the ground.
1/ How long will it take for the room to reach 6°C ?
Vair = 30 m3 and S = 47 m2
2.5 m
3m
= 332.45 s 4m
To reach 6°C, we need : = 853 s ≈ 14 mn
2/ How long will it take for the temperature in the ALGECO to reach the
temperature of 5.5°C ?
= 1083 s ≈ 18 mn
Insulating this building, we have now : U = 0.24 W.m-2.K-1
3/ Answer the same questions ?

= 3324.5 s
To reach 6°C, we need : = 8530 s ≈ 2 h 22 mn
To reach 5.5°C, we need : = 10830 s ≈ 3 h

Exercises Building Heat transfer
II Air conditioning in a classroom
A classroom is to be air-conditioned using 5 kW window air-conditioning
units. The cooling load is due to the 80 ICAM students (1 Met each) the
teacher (2 Mets because he thinks), lights (10 bulbs of 100 W) and heat
transfer through the wall and windows.
Assuming that the air temperature outside the

building is To = 35°C, in the classroom Ti = 28°C,
the brick wall is 20 m long, 2.5 m high, with a
thickness ewall = 15 cm. There are 4 windows in
this wall (4 m long by 1.5 m high, thickness : ewin
= 1 cm).
1/ Compute the thermal resistance of the system (wall + windows)

Rhi Rw Rho To
Ti Rwin
= 2.2 10-3 K/W Awall = 26 m2
= 3.7 10-4 K/W Awin = 24 m2

= 1.33 10-3 K/W = 2 10-3 K/W
= 3.64 10-3 K/W
2/ Deduce all the heat gained from the surrounding.
= 1907 W ϕpeople = (80 + 2)x 58 x 1.7 = 8085 W
ϕbulb = 1000 W ϕT = 10 992 W

3/ Determine the number of 5 kW air conditioning units required.
About 2 units needed
III Double and triple glazed windows
A wall is made up of an outer roughcast, a layer of concrete and an inner

coat. In this wall, there are two windows made up of firstly by a double
glazed window (4/16/4), then by a triple glazed window (4/16/4/16/4).
1m 2.4 m
2.5 m 2.5 m
8m
1/ What is the thermal resistance Rw of the wall (conduction)?
= 1.84 10-2 K/W Awall = 14.2 m2
2/ What is the thermal resistance Rwin1 for the double glazed windows
(conduction)?
= 1.29 10-1 K/W Awin = 5 m2
3/ What is the thermal resistance Rwin2 for the triple glazed windows
(conduction)?
= 2.58 10-1 K/W Awin = 5 m2
4/ Draw the equivalent thermal circuit and give the total thermal resistance
for the complete system (RT1 double and RT2 triple glazed window) including
convection. Explain this result.
Rhi Rwall Rho To
Ti Rwin
Rhi = 5.2 10-3 K/W Rho = 3.47 10-3 K/W

= 2.48 10-2 K/W
= 2.58 10-2 K/W
5/ The price for a double glazed window is 300 €, 400 € for a triple glazed
window, and 1 kWh costs 0.16 €, calculate the ROI (return on investment) if
you decide to install two triple glazed windows instead of two double ones
and conclude.
= 1048 W = 1008 W
During 1 hour : Q1 = 1.048 kWh then p1 = 0.16768 €

Q2 = 1.008 kWh then p2 = 0.16128 €
Δp = 0.0064 €/h and Δc = 200 €
1 h ─ Δp = 0.0064 €
Δh = 31 250 h = 1302 days = 3 years and 207 days
x h ─ Δc = 200 €
I Heat transfer in a house
This house is made up of concrete (thermal

conductivity k1 = 0.15 W.m-1.K-1, thickness e1
= 20 cm) and a tile roof (thermal
conductivity k2 = 5 W. m-1.K-1, thickness e2 =
6m
4 cm).
8m
There are 10 windows (thermal conductivity 12 m
k3 = 1 W.m-1.K-1, thickness e3 = 4 mm) with

the dimensions: 1.5 m x 1.8 m each.
We want to know the inner temperature in this house if the whole radiator
produces 5 kW (needed to maintain the inner temperature constant).
Assuming that there is no heat transfer through the floor and the door.
Known: Door dimension: 2 m x 1.2 m To = 12°C

hi = 10 W/m2.K ho = 15 W/m2.K
1/ We want to estimate the heat transfer through the walls, give the
expression of the thermal resistance R1 of the walls, including inner and
outer convection, calculate it.
= 7.12 10-3 K/W S1 = 210.6 m2
2/ We want to estimate the heat transfer through the roof, give the
expression of the thermal resistance R2 of the roof, including inner and
= 1.21 10-3 K/W S2 = 144 m2

For the dimension of the roof, multiply by 1.5 the area of a flat roof.
3/ We want to estimate the heat transfer through the windows, give the
expression of the thermal resistance R3 of the windows, including inner and
= 6.32 10-3 K/W S3 = 27 m2
4/ Give the expression and calculate the equivalent thermal resistance of

this house.
R1
R2 = 1125 W/K
Ti To
R3 RT = 8.89 10-4 K/W
5/ What is the inner temperature in the house?
Then : Ti = To + Φ.RT = 16.44 °C
6/ Let’s consider now the same house with double glazed windows (4/16/4),
made up with two panes (thickness e3 = 4 mm, thermal conductivity: k3 = 1
W.m-1.K-1) and one layer of air (thickness: e4 = 16 mm and k4 = 0.025 W.m-1.K-
1). Calculate the new thermal resistance R of the windows, including inner
3
and outer convection.
= 0.03 K/W
RT = 10-3 K/W
7/ What is the new inner temperature in the house?
Ti = To + Φ.RT = 17 °C

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Building Heat Transfer

Convection between the

Radiation with the surrounding

⮚ Chapter III : Conduction

⮚ Chapter VI : Transient problems

In the simplest of terms, the discipline of heat transfer is concerned with

• The temperature • The flow of heat

• Temperature represents the amount of thermal energy available

Heat transfer is energy in transit due to a temperature difference.

The physical quantities of heat transfer are specified in terms of

Length (L) Foot (ft) Meter (m)

Mass (M) Pound mass (lbm) Kilogram (kg)

Time (t) Second (s) Second (s)

Temperature (θ) Fahrenheit (°F) Kelvin (K)

1 foot = 0.3048 m 1 pound mass = 0.4536 kg

Temperature refers to the average kinetic energy of

One fundamental property of temperature is that :

Water boils 100 373 212

Temperature scale comparisons

Moreover 0 Kelvin has a very deep physical significance: absolute zero, as

Heat is a form of energy, it is measured in the standard unit of Joule, but it

• calorie : this is the heat energy needed to raise 1 gm of water 1°C : 1

• Calorie : this is a common unit to measure the

• BTU : this is a British Thermal Unit, it is the energy needed to raise 1

The amount of heat that is transferred across a surface of unit area in a

Example : Solar flux ≈ 1200 W/m2

Heat rate : (J.s-1 or W)

Heat transfer is caused by :

• Conduction • Convection • Radiation

Showing heat traveling from

• Liquid at 170°F (76 °C)

• red and yellow color correspond to high temperature

VI.1 Global household energy use

Biomass, also referred to as Bioenergy or Biofuels

wood pellets wood chips wood logs

Solar PV (photovoltaic) uses the sun's

An electric field is created when the sun shines

Most people are familiar with the sight of a

This method of generation, also called ground

A space heater keeps the air and surroundings at a comfortable

Space heaters are generally classified into two types.

A fan circulates air around a heating elements in order to warm it.

This type of heater is useful for heating an area quickly.

A radiator is a heating device which consists of a series of connected pipes

Thermal comfort is defined in British Standard BS EN ISO 7730 as:

That condition of mind which expresses satisfaction with the thermal

‘So the term ‘thermal comfort’ describes a person’s psychological state of

Summer Thermal comfort : The number of DH (degree.hour °.h)

Ti : Indoor operative temperature (°C)

Tref : Adaptive thermal comfort

Ni : Number of hours where Ti > Tref.

Examples of threshold of DH for

Individual Housing Collective Housing

1850°.h 2100°.h for a surface higher

2600°.h for a surface lower

These factors make up what is known as the ‘human thermal environment’.

I.1 The human thermal environment

Local thermal discomfort

Draught Vertical Air temperature Differences

Radiation asymmetry Floor Temperature

The six factors affecting thermal comfort are

These factors may be independent of each other,

II.2 Personal factors