A Two-Stage Algorithm for Optimal Scheduling of
Battery Energy Storage Systems for Peak-Shaving
Roozbeh Karandeh
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Energy Production and Infrastructure Center
University of North Carolina at Charlotte
Charlotte, USA
Email: {rkarande}@uncc.edu
Abstract—Increased penetration of Renewable Energy Sources
(RES) with intermittent and variable power output has led to
increased use of Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS) for
grid applications. This paper presents a two-stage algorithm
for optimal energy scheduling of BESS interfaced with RES.
Initially, a multivariate linear regression-based estimation of
voltages, currents, and network active power loss is performed
using a synthetic dataset generated from the network model.
Thereafter, a linear programming (LP) formulation is used to
determine the output power of the BESS aimed at maximum
peak-shaving and valley-filling, based on predicted day-ahead
net demand and solar photovoltaic (PV) output. BESS technical
and experimental constraints are considered in the model for
an improved lifetime of the batteries. Compared to nonlinear
approaches, the linearized model would reduce computational
complexity and time, while maintaining reasonable accuracy. The
linear programming model is solved using MATLAB, and the
proposed algorithm is implemented on a real-world distribution
feeder modeled in OpenDSS. The results show a significant
reduction in peak demand, net demand variation range, and
voltage variability caused by intermittent PV output.
Index Terms—battery energy storage system, multivariate linear
regression, linear optimization, energy scheduling, peak-shaving
I. I NTRODUCTION
Energy storage systems play an important role in addressing
the issue of intermittency and variability of renewable gen-
eration, such as PV systems. Although RESs provide clean
energy and reduce greenhouse gas emissions, they are typi-
cally non-dispatchable. Thus, it is important to augment the
dispatchability of these sources with energy storage systems.
While several forms of energy storage—such as electromag-
netic, mechanical, and thermal—exist, electrochemical energy
storage systems in the form of batteries are most widely used
to integrate renewable generation to the grid. Batteries have
the potential to be used for a wide range of applications that
include balancing load demand and generation in microgrids
and providing ancillary services, such as frequency control and
voltage regulation, to the grid [1]. BESS can also be employed
for energy time-shift applications, specifically peak shaving
and valley-filling that lead to a significant reduction in utilities’
costs, and consequently, the customers’ [2] and deferment of
978-1-7281-0407-2/19/$31.00 2019 IEEE
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Tumininu Lawanson, Valentina Cecchi
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Energy Production and Infrastructure Center
University of North Carolina at Charlotte
Charlotte, USA
Email: {tlawanso, vcecchi}@uncc.edu
transmission expansion [3], [4]. The simple idea is to charge
the battery during off-peak hours and to discharge it to the grid
during peak hours. Moreover, the integration of BESS with
renewable generation helps mitigate issues such as voltage
fluctuations resulting from the intermittency of RESs [5], [6].
IEEE 1547 standard requires all DERs to participate in voltage
regulation at the point of common coupling by changing the
active and reactive power [7].
A considerable amount of literature has been published on
the integration of BESS and RESs for various applications.
The study in [8] proposes two BESS control algorithms for PV
capacity firming and energy time-shift applications. Another
study [9] proposes a BESS optimization strategy for improving
the load and distributed generation (DG) hosting capacity
of a distribution network, where, the BESS is utilized for
voltage regulation, loss reduction, and peak shaving appli-
cations. Other studies have investigated the coordination of
BESS and DERs for the purpose of cost minimization. In
[10], a multi-period optimal DER coordination algorithm to
minimize the production cost of DGs and BESS has been
presented. Similarly, [11] investigates a multi-objective opti-
mization problem to coordinate the dispatch of DGs (wind,
solar, and diesel generators) and energy storage within a
microgrid considering generation and BESS cost reduction,
using a model predictive control approach. In [12], the authors
presented an optimization problem to minimize demand charge
and maximize PV utilization for commercial and industrial
buildings using DERs and BESS.
BESS provides distribution system operators with flexibility
and speed in operation [13]. However, these benefits come at
a price. Batteries are costly facilities and need to be replaced
within a short period of time that significantly increases the
cost of BESS. Some technical and experimental considerations
including battery internal temperature [14], the total number of
cycles [15], low average State of Charge (SoC) of the battery
(around 50%) [16] would result in an improved lifespan of the
batteries.
Previous works were mainly carried out using nonlinear
models causing computational complexity and high compu-
tation time especially in dealing with power flow-related
constraints. Linearized power flow (PF) model is an approach
 for simplifying and accelerating the analysis of a power
system for control and operation. Model-based methods were min(max |Pinet − Pavg
net
|) (1)
developed by making approximations in the analytical PF
where
model leveraging the physical characteristics of the power
Pinet = Pid − Pipv − Piref (2)
system. Datasets of measurements collected throughout the
power and distribution grids facilitate data-driven approaches 1 
N

beyond model-driven approaches [17]. Synthetic data can also Pavg

net
= Pid − Pipv − Piref (3)
N i=1
be utilized for a linear approximation of power flow state vari-
ables and results. Depending on the problem, single or multi- where N is the total number time intervals over 24 hours,
feature linear regression is applied in order to approximate Pinet is the value of the new net demand at time interval
power flow variables. i, Pavg
net
is the average net demand for the day, Pipv is the
This paper presents a two-stage algorithm for optimal en- predicted PV power, while Piref is the reference power of the
ergy scheduling of BESS interfacing with PV. In the first stage, battery inverter and the decision variable of the optimization
multivariate linear regression is performed in order to estimate problem. Pid is the predicted demand including total load PiL
the voltage and current magnitudes, and network active power and system losses Piloss seen at the substation, at time interval
loss using synthetic data produced from the network model. i. Thus, it could be expressed as follows.
A linear programming formulation is then used in the second
stage to determine the required output power of the BESS to Pid = PiL + Piloss (Piref , PiL , Pipv ) (4)
achieve maximum peak-shaving and valley-filling, based on
the day-ahead predicted demand and PV power output. It is Equation (4) infers that Piloss is a function of Piref , PiL
believed that compared to nonlinear approaches, the proposed and Pipv and calculated by solving power flow at any time
linearized model would improve computational complexity interval through which bus voltages and line currents are also
and time while maintaining reasonable accuracy. This study obtained. Bus voltage standard limits and line current ratings
is part of ongoing research collaboration efforts of the authors are inevitable constraints to be added to the problem through
with Duke Energy in modeling and analyzing a real-world which the voltage (5) and current (6) operation limits could
distribution feeder comprising different RESs. The authors be checked against violations.
previously published their investigations on the impact of op-
erational decisions and size of battery energy storage systems Vmin ≤ Vik ≤ Vmax (5)
on demand charge reduction in [18], and the application of |Iil | ≤ Imax
l
(6)
BESS in solar power smoothing in [19].
This paper is organized as follows: section II presents where Vik and Iil are the voltage at bus k and the current at
the two-stage algorithm for BESS energy scheduling, while line l, on time interval i, respectively.
section III provides an overview of the real-world distribution However, solving power flow for function (4) and con-
feeder used in this study. The results are discussed in section straints (5) and (6) causes the model to become nonlinear.
IV, and section V concludes the paper. In order to maintain the linearity of the model, linear approx-
imations of active power, and voltage magnitude and current
II. BESS E NERGY S CHEDULING are required as a function of Piref . To this end, multivariate
Optimal energy scheduling of BESS depends on an optimal linear regression is applied on a synthetic dataset generated by
control strategy based on the forecasted demand and the output running power flow over an adequate number of random but
of other distributed resources. An optimal energy scheduling of feasible scenarios of PV generation, loading condition, and
BESS could lead to a significant reduction in required battery BESS output. P L , P pv , P ref are taken as the features X
size, and a decrease in distribution system losses [20]. To to the multivariate linear regression in order to estimate Y
this end, the reference power of the battery inverter (Piref ), comprising P loss , V k and I l .
⎡ ⎤
i.e. the power to be absorbed or generated at each time IN ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ loss ⎤
⎢ PL ⎥ Yp P
interval by BESS, has to be calculated and sent to the battery
X=⎢ ⎣ P pv ⎦
⎥ , Y = ⎣ Y k ⎦ = ⎣ Vk ⎦ (7)
inverter. In this paper, this reference power is determined with
Y l I l
the objective of the utilization of the BESS for maximum P ref
peak-shaving and valley-filling, consequently minimizing the
where IN is a 1 × N all-ones vector.
demand charge, while considering power flow limits and BESS
The multivariate linear regression for P loss , V k and I l
technical and experimental constraints.
can be expressed as follows, where Θp , Θk and Θl are the
Given the forecasted net demand and PV output profiles
multipliers of the multivariate linear regression.
over 24 hours, the goal is to employ the BESS to achieve
a new net demand profile with a lower peak. Therefore, the Yp = Θp X (8)
objective function could be formulated as the minimization
Yk = Θk X (9)
of the maximum deviation of the new net demand from the
average of net demand of the day. Yl = Θl X (10)

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 ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
θp0 θk0 θl0 constraint is added to the problem. (20) makes the BESS work
⎢θp1 ⎥ ⎢θk1 ⎥ ⎢θl1 ⎥
Θp = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣θp2 ⎦ , Θk = ⎣θk2 ⎦ , Θl = ⎣θl2 ⎦ (11) in a reduced average SoC condition.

θp3 θk3 θl3 1 

N
SoCi ≤ 50% (20)
In general, the solution to the linear regression problem can N i=1
be estimated adopting the following relationship called closed
form solution.
Θ = (X T X)−1 X T Y (12)  



 
 

Therefore, P ,V
loss k
and I at each time interval i can be
l

expressed as follows.

Piloss = θp0 + θp1 PiL + θp2 Pipv + θp3 Piref (13) 


 !"
Vik = θk0 + θk1 PiL + θk2 Pipv + θk3 Piref (14)
Iil = θl0 + θl1 PiL + θl2 Pipv + θl3 Piref (15)
#$%%% &

The multivariate linear regression establishes the first stage %&
of the algorithm. It is worth mentioning that at this stage PiL  '
 ()*"

can be extracted from Pid by applying following equation.

PiL = Pid − Piloss (Piref = 0, PiL , Pipv ) (16) 

Equation (16) suggests that the total active power consumed
Fig. 1: Two-stage BESS scheduling algorithm
by spot loads can be calculated by subtracting the Piloss caused
by PV generation and loading condition at each time interval Fig. 1 demonstrates the flowchart of the two-stage al-
from the forecasted net demand. gorithm. Linear programming (LP) is applied to solve the
The second stage of the algorithm consists of the linear optimization problem in order to determine the Piref at each
optimization of objective function in (1) taking into account time interval. Since the objective function in (1) is nonlinear,
following BESS technical and operational constraints. it should be converted to a linear equivalent given in (21),
−Pmax
ch
≤ Piref ≤ Pmax
dis
(17) resulting in two new inequality constraints, (22) and (23),
based on the definition of absolute value [22].
SoCmin ≤ SoCi ≤ SoCmax (18)
min Z (21)
where Pmax
ch
and Pmaxdis
are the maximum charging and
discharging power of the battery, respectively. SoCmin and 1  ref
N

SoCmax are the minimum and maximum limits of the battery −Piref + P −Z ≤ −(Pid −Pipv )+Pavg
d
−Pavg
pv
(22)
N i=1 i
SoC. The SoC limits are aimed at maximizing the life of the
battery.
1  ref
N
The SoC of the battery at each time interval i is calculated Piref − P − Z ≤ (Pid − Pipv ) − (Pavg
d
− Pavg
pv
) (23)
based on the initial SoC, charging and discharging rates, and N i=1 i
efficiency of the battery. The SoC calculation is a complex
and nonlinear process [21] beyond the scope of this paper; where Pavg
d
and Pavg
pv
are the average demand and PV output
however, the linear approximation in (19) could be applied power over 24 hours, respectively. Given (4), (13) and (16)
instead. from the the first stage, equations (22) and (23) may be
rewritten as follows.
P ref ts

i−1
SoCi = SoCi−1 − × × 100 (19) 1 
N
Erated
b 1hr (θp3 − 1)Piref + (1 − θp3 )Piref − Z
N i=1
where Erated
b
is the rated capacity of the battery in kWh, and ts (24)
is the time duration (in hours) of a time interval. Equations (17) ≤ −((1 + θp1 )PiL + (θp2 − 1)Pipv + θp0 )
and (18) define the upper and lower bounds of the decision +(1 + θp1 )Pavg
L
+ (θp2 − 1)Pavg
pv
+ θp0 )
variables, while (19) is considered as an equality constraint
1 
N
to the LP model. Initial SoC can also be defined as a single
equality constraint that could be given to the model as an input (1 − θp3 )Piref + (θp3 − 1)Piref − Z
N i=1
in order to study the impact of the initial SoC on the optimal (25)
operation of the BESS. ≤ (1 + θp1 )PiL + (θp2 − 1)Pipv + θp0
Furthermore, in order to increase the life expectancy of −((1 + θp1 )Pavg
L
+ (θp2 − 1)Pavg
pv
+ θp0 ))
the batteries, other than (18), following experiment-based

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 IV. R ESULTS AND D ISCUSSION
6XEVWDWLRQ

The optimization algorithm is implemented on the feeder


with a peak demand of 4200 kW. The demand profile of the

network was obtained from historical field measurements in
5HFORVHU

5 15-min intervals and assumed to be the forecasted day-ahead
 demand. The two-stage BESS scheduling algorithm described
 in section II is applied to the 650 kW/326 kWh BESS.
5HFORVHU
5HFOR VHU
+(66 The first stage of the algorithm comprises the multivariate
5


linear regression of the required network variables in terms
of P L , P pv and P ref . Performance of the multivariate linear
 regression is shown in Fig. 3 for active power losses over
5HJXODWRU

100 scenarios. The minimum loading level is 35% of the peak
demand. The squared error is 0.16, which is promising. Similar
multivariate linear regression is used for voltages and currents.

Fig. 4 indicates the precision of the linear regression for the
5HFORVHU
5 voltage at recloser R2, over first 100 random scenarios with a


squared error of 3.26 × 10−5 .
0LFURJULG

160

Actual Data
 140 Estimated Data

 Active Power Loss(kW) 120


100
5HFORVHU
5

80

7UDQVIRUPHU
60
0:
6RODU
39 40

Fig. 2: One-line schematic of test distribution network [23] 20

0
III. T EST S YSTEM
-20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Fig. 2 shows the one-line schematic of the real-world 12.47 Random Scenarios
kV distribution feeder used in this study. The original feeder
Fig. 3: Active power loss; actual vs. estimated data
of over 600 nodes has been aggregated, as shown. The system
has several DERs, including a 1.2 MW solar PV located
downstream of the feeder, a hybrid energy storage system 7.54
(HESS) at node 4, and a microgrid at node 11. The microgrid Actual Data
7.53 Estimated Data
includes a 120 kW solar PV and a 650 kW/ 326 kWh BESS.
The ratings of these DERs are presented in Table I. The test 7.52
system is modeled in OpenDSS, and the load, PV and Pref
profiles are fed into the model through MATLAB. 7.51
Voltage (kV)

7.5
TABLE I
DISTRIBUTED ENERGY RESOURCES INTERFACED WITH
DISTRIBUTION FEEDER 7.49

Distributed energy resource Rating 7.48

Hybrid energy storage system
7.47
Battery 50kW/200kWh
Ultracapacitor 250kW/7.7kWh 7.46
Microgrid
Battery 650kW/326kWh 7.45
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Solar PV 120kW Random Scenarios
Industrial solar PV 1200 kW
Fig. 4: Voltage at recloser R2; actual vs. estimated data

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 TABLE II
To verify the performance of the algorithm, three different RESULTS AND METRICS OF THREE SCENARIOS

scenarios characterized as sunny, cloudy and intermittent are Scenarios

Standard Deviation Peak Demand (kW)
SoC1 = 90% SoC1 = 20% SoC1 = 90% SoC1 = 20%
considered for PV irradiance profiles. The linear optimization Base Case
problem has been formulated using the linprog function in No PV & BESS 937 937 4200 4200
MATLAB, to solve for the optimal energy scheduling strategy Sunny
for the BESS by generating the Pref signal. PV
PV & BESS
863
856
863
841
4086
3593
4086
3591
Intuitively, the BESS has to cover the variations in the power Cloudy
output profile of the PVs. Fig. 5 shows how the optimal Pref PV 905 905 3995 3995
PV & BESS 901 888 3756 3754
signal behaves as it covers the variations in aggregated power Intermittent
output profiles of two PVs deployed in this distribution feeder. PV 872 872 3846 3846
PV & BESS 863 848 3634 3631
The primary goal is to exploit as much renewable power as
possible and the net demand supplied by the PV is intermittent,
irradiance profile of a sunny day has been considered. The
creating fluctuations in the feeder voltage profile. Fig. 6
range of peak shaving and valley-filling seen on the figure
indicates that the two-stage BESS energy scheduling algorithm
depends on the size of the battery. The standard deviation of
reduces the peak demand seen at the substation. The BESS
the net demand data and peak demand are used to evaluate the
is charged during off-peak hours and discharged during peak
demand profile variability and the reduction in peak demand
periods while maintaining the battery SoC within the limits.
achieved by the BESS scheduling algorithm. Table II shows
Figs. 5 and 6 are associated with the scenario in which the
the detailed amounts of improvements in these metrics on
different scenarios.
1200
PV output
It is worth noting that the initial battery SoC (SoC1 ) of
1000 Pref a day and desired final SoC to be set at the beginning of
the next day, are other variables that affect optimal energy
800 scheduling of BESS. In this study, for instance, when the initial
SoC is 20%, the battery starts charging at initial hours of a
Active Power (kW)

600 day or so-called off-peak hours, acting as a load, and then

it will be discharged during the peak hours. Consequently,
400
more improvements could be observed in the metrics shown in
table II. For example, peak demand drops by 14.5% and 20%
200
with initial SoC in the sunny irradiance profile case. The 9%
0 reduction in standard deviation for the same scenario translates
to a lower variation of demand over the day. Obviously,
-200 installing greater BESS capacity would lead to a greater peak-
shaving as shown in Fig. 7 where a 1630 kWh/1300 kW BESS
-400 has been examined.
0 5 10 15 20 25
time (hour) In order to examine the performance of the proposed
algorithm on power quality and system losses, the average
Fig. 5: Calculated BESS Pref vs. predicted power output of PVs

4500 4500
PV & BESS PV & BESS
PV PV
4000 No PV & BESS 4000 No PV & BESS

3500 3500
Active Power (kW)

Active Power (kW)

3000 3000

2500 2500

2000 2000

1500 1500

1000 1000
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
time (hour) time (hour)
Fig. 6: Demand seen at the substation for three different operating scenarios Fig. 7: Demand seen at substation considering 1630 kWh/1300 kW BESS

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 TABLE III
IMPACT OF BESS SCHEDULING ON VOLTAGE PROFILE AND TOTAL LOSS [3] M. Rahman, M. Kiesau, V. Cecchi, and B. Watkins, “Investigating effects
of weather parameter uncertainty on transmission line power handling
Standard % Voltage Active Energy capabilities using affine arithmetic,” in 2017 IEEE Power Energy Society
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PV 0.00324 0.8843 1205 of investments made by gencos in transmission network development,”
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PV 0.00321 0.8773 1203 in 2017 IEEE Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting, Oct 2017,
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