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Science Pointers
Boyle’s Law (PV = k)
Charles’ Law (V/T = k) (V1/T1 = V2/T2)
Ideal Gas Law (PV = nRT)
Robert Boyle – performed a series of experiments using a manometer (J-Shaped Tube)
Gases - A state of matter that has no definite shape and volume, have lower density
compared to other states of matter.
Gas Particles are in constant motion and exhibit perfectly elastic collisions.
Pressure - The force exerted by the molecules of gases
Equation: V1P1 = V2P2 (A decrease in volume is an increase pressure)
Example: Breathing, Syringe

Biomolecules
Biomolecule - Any molecule that is produced by a living organism, including large
macromolecules such as proteins, polysaccharides, lipids and nucleic acids
4 types of biomolecules – Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, and Nucleic Acid
Carbohydrates – a major source of energy in the body, these are (sugar, starch, cellulose). A
simple sugar which is (monosaccharides and disaccharides), the complex carbohydrates are
(polysaccharides).
Lipids – a biomolecule that has the work of storing energy for later use. The example are
vegetable oil, butter, whole milk, cheese, lard, and some meat.
Protein – the long protein chain from protein-rich foods is break by your digestive system
into simpler substance called amino acids
Amino Acid – building blocks of proteins
Nucleic Acid – are long chain polymers consisting of monomers. The two kinds are DNA and
RNA. The main information-carrying molecules of the cell.
Monosaccharides – (glucose, fructose, galactose) simplest sugar and the basic subunit of
carbohydrate. It is absorbed into the blood and transported to the cells providing “instant”
energy.
Disaccharides – (sucrose, lactose, maltose) consist of two monosaccharides that are
chemically combined.
1. Condensation Reaction – two molecules of the same molecule combined
2. Hydrolysis Reaction – occurs when the bond between monosaccharides is broken
with the addition of water molecule
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Polysaccharides – a complex carbohydrate (starch, glycogen, cellulose). Large molecules that

are made up of many smaller units that are joined together
Two types of polysaccharides that made up starch
1. Amylose – coiled or helical structure
2. Amylopectin – branch out
Starch – chief storage form of carbohydrates in plants and the most important source of
carbohydrates in human
Glycogen – readily available energy stored in liver and muscles and the one that is easily
metabolized
Pectin - An amorphous polysaccharide present in ripe plants and fruits, specifically in the
primary cell walls and middle lamella of currant and apples an amorphous polysaccharide
present in ripe plants and fruits, specifically in the primary cell walls and middle lamella of
currant and apples
Chitin - A fibrous substance consisting of polysaccharides and forming the major constituent
in the exoskeleton of arthropods and cell wall of fungi
Monomer – a single unit forming a long chain of molecules creating a repeated pattern
Polymers – monomers that joined together
Macromolecules
Carbohydrates – CHO – monosaccharides
Proteins – CHONS – amino acids
Lipids – CHOPS – fatty acid
Nucleic Acid – CHONP – nucleotides

Graham’s Law of Effusion

The speed of a molecule depends on it's kinetic energy.
The speed of molecules of gases are inversely proportional to their masses
Effusion – The movement of gases from a high pressure to low pressure through porous
walls
Formula – K.E. = ½ mv^2

Graham’s Law of Diffusion

Light gases effuse/diffuse quickly and Heavier gases effuse/diffuse slowly
Formula – Rate1/Rate2 = √Mass2/Mass1
Rate of diffusio of a gas is inversely related to the square root of its molar mass
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Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure (Ptotal = P1+P2+P3+….)

Dalton’s Law states that in a mixture of non-reacting gases, the total pressure exerted is
equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the individual gases.
Jhon Dalton (1766-1844) - father of modern atomic theory
The pressure of a pure gas at constant temperature and volume is proportional to its
amount

Types of Chemical Reaction

chemical reaction – is a process of substances changed into a new form of chemicals
Law of conservation of mass – nothing is lost in chemical reaction. The sum of masses of the
reactants is exactly equal to all the masses of product
Law of conservation of mass – matter cannot be created nor destroyed – it can only be
changed
Types of chemical reaction
1. Combination – combine
2. Decomposition – break down
3. Single Displacement – reactive element replaces less reactive element
4. Double Displacement – two different ions switch place
5. Combustion – oxygen with flammable compound
6. Acid-base

Application of Chemical Reaction

Useful Chemical Reaction
1. Combustion (burning)
2. Fermentation (making bread or alcohol)
3. Electrolysis (used in metal plating)
4. Neutralization (removing acid or alkali)
5. Smelting (used in making metals)
6. Polymerization (making plastics)
Non-Useful Chemical Reaction
1. Pollution causing acid rain
2. Pollution causing the greenhouse effect
3. Spoiling of food
4. Rusting of steel
Need for Combustion to take place
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1. Heat
2. Fuel
3. Oxygen
Rusting – reaction of iron with oxygen in the presence of water to form iron oxide. Paint
prevents oxygen and water getting to the iron
Electrolysis – a chemical reaction that uses electricity to break up a compound
Chlorophyll (green) and anthocyanin (red)
Pectin – a chemical which makes other fruits hard