6 Oil and Gas Reservoirs-1

Chapter 6
Oil and Gas Reservoirs
Wang Yan
1/141
石油工程学院石油工程系
Department of Petroleum Engineering, College of Petroleum Engineering
Reservoir Rock: A rock in nature that has a reservoir space and

enables the fluid stored in it to flow under a certain pressure
difference.
Reservoir: A formation made up of reservoir rock.
Basic characteristics of reservoirs:

Porosity, permeability, heterogeneity
Why study reservoirs?
 Reservoir formation
 Reservoir description
 The influence of reservoirs on
development
 Application of reservoirs characteristics to
guide the efficient development of oil and
gas fields
Reservoir characteristics
 Porosity and storage capacity

 Permeability and seepage capacity
 Inhomogeneity (heterogeneity)
 Sensitivity
Reservoir formation
 Geological process
 Sedimentation
 Tectonism Diagenesis
Oil and gas charging Tectonis
 Diagenesis m
 Oil and gas charging
 Development and transformation Sedimentation
Reservoir description
 Qualitative description
 Log lithology, facies distribution, heterogeneous model of skeleton
model, fracture morphology
 Quantitative characterization:
 Reservoir spatial distribution
 Reservoir physical property parameters characteristics
 Reservoir pore-throat structure
 Reservoir heterogeneity parameters
 Fracture statistical distribution
 Reservoir geological model
Reservoir impact on development
 Production
 Capacity
 Effect of water injection
 Recovery
Application of reservoir characteristics to guide development
 Exploration prediction evaluation -- different reservoir

development will form different exploration models
 Economic evaluation
 Development plan
 Remaining oil distribution
 Development adjustment
 Construction technology
Oil and Gas Reservoirs
 1. Reservoir heterogeneity
 2. Reservoir sensitivity
 3. Reservoir evaluation
 4. Reservoir geological model
1. Study on reservoir heterogeneity

Reservoir heterogeneity: The spatial distribution and non-uniform changes of
various internal properties of oil and gas reservoirs (or the 3D heterogeneity of basic
properties of reservoirs, including lithology, physical property, oil-bearing property
and microscopic pore structure ) unde r the compre he nsive inf lu e nce of
sedimentation, diagenesis and later tectonics. ★★
Reservoir spatial distribution Reservoir lithology and thickness

Non - uniform changes are
Physical properties within the reservoir Pore structure within the reservoir
manifested specifically
Numbers and thickness of mudstone interlayers
Because of the poor stability of terrestrial reservoirs, the lithology, thickness and
physical properties vary greatly, and the heterogeneity is stronger than that of
marine reservoirs, it is very important to understand and master the heterogeneity
of reservoirs, which has a great impact on oil and gas recovery.
1. Study on reservoir heterogeneity
 1.1 Classification of reservoir heterogeneity
 1.2 Research contents of reservoir heterogeneity
 1.3 Research methods of reservoir heterogeneity
 1.4 Influence of heterogeneity on oil and gas development

1.1 Classification of reservoir heterogeneity

It can be classif ied according to the size of the heterogeneity,
its origin and inf lu ence on the f lu id. At present, the more
popular classif ic ation method is basically by scale, size to
divide.
(1) Pettijohn Classification (1973)

(2) Weber Classification (1986)
(3) Qiu Yinan's Classification (1992) ★★★
1.1.1 Pettijohn Classification (1973)
According to the heterogeneity

scale, Pettijohn puts forward 5
reservoir heterogeneity scales
for fluvial reservoirs:
～
 Formation scale 1 10km×100m
 Sand body scale 100m×10m
～
 Bedding scale 1 10m2
～
 Laminated scale 10 100mm2
～
 Pore scale 10 100μm2
1.1.2 Weber Classification (1986)
According to Pettijohn's idea, Weber

n ot on ly con side rs t h e sca le of
heterogeneity, but also considers the
inf lu ence of heterogeneity on f lu id
seepage, and classif ie s reservoir
heterogeneity into 7 categories:

Heterogeneity scale + inf lu ence on
seepage flow

Weber reservoir heterogeneity classification

(1) Closed, semi-closed and unclosed faults

As a large-scale reservoir heterogeneity, the sealing degree of the fault has a great
influence on the fluid flow in a wide range of oil areas.
 If the fault is closed (cut off the f low of f lu id between the two walls) → play a
shielding role;
 The fault is not closed → it is a large seepage channel.
(2) Genetic unit boundary

The boundary of genetic unit is rock change
boundary
 It is usua lly the bounda ry be tw e e n It controls the f low of f luid
permeable and impermeable layers on a large scale.
 Or at le ast the dividing line of
permeability differences
(3) Permeable layer in genetic unit

Within the genetic unit, layers with
diffe re nt pe rme ability are fluvial sand reservoirs
distributed in a network vertically →
r e su lt in g in v e r t ica l r e se r v o ir
heterogeneity.
(4) Barrier and interlayer in genetic unit

In the genetic unit, the different sizes of barrier and interlayer have great inf luence on
the fluid flow, → mainly affecting the vertical flow and also the horizontal flow.

(5) Lamination and cross-bedding

There is a great difference in the
direction of lamination in bedding
structure, which has a great influence
on f lu id seepage, → thus affecting
the distribution of remaining oil after
waterflooding development.
(6) Microscopic heterogeneity

It is the minimum scale heterogeneity, that is, the pore scale reservoir heterogeneity
due to differences in rock texture and mineral characteristics.

(7) Sealing and opening fractures

If the re a re fra cture s in the
reservoir, the sealing and opening
properties of fractures can also
lead to the heterogeneity of the
reservoir.
1.1.3 Qiu Yinan`s Classification (1992)

According to the characteristics (scale) and production practice of
continental reservoirs in China, Qiu Yinan put forward a set of relatively
complete and practical classif ication (which has been widely adopted in
China).
(1) Intra-layer heterogeneity

(2) Interlayer heterogeneity M a c r o s c o p i c
heterogeneity
(3) Plane heterogeneity
⑷ Pore heterogeneity Microscopic heterogeneity
1.2 Research contents

of reservoir heterogeneity
1. Intra-layer heterogeneity
2. Interlayer heterogeneity
3. Plane heterogeneity
4. Microheterogeneity
5. Influencing factors of reservoir heterogeneity

1.2.1 Intra-layer heterogeneity
Intra-layer heterogeneity -- Vertical changes in reservoir properties within a

single sand.
● Vertical particle size rhythm in layer;

● Difference degree of vertical permeability in layer;
heterogeneity:
Intra-layer
● Position of the highest vertical permeability section in layer;

● Distribution of discontinuous thin muddy interlayer;
● Permeability rhythm and heterogeneity (horizontal and vertical)
● Bedding structural sequence, etc
1. Grain-size rhythm
Grain-size rhythm refers to the vertical variation of the grain size of clastic particles
in a single sand layer. ← It is controlled by sedimentary environment and deposition
mode. And can be divided into 4 types:
positive rhythm, negative thythm, compound rhythm and homogeneous rhythm

1) Positive rhythm: the median diameter (MD) changes from coarse to f ine from
bottom to top; It often leads to deterioration of physical properties (φ, K) from
bottom to top; It is easy to appear bottom burst, small f looding thickness and low oil
displacement efficiency.
2) Negative rhythm: the median diameter changes from f ine to coarse from bottom
to top; It often leads to the improvement of petrophysical properties (φ, K) from
bottom to top. In the development of water f looding, the water f looding is slow and
uniform, and the oil displacement efficiency is high.
In the process of water flooding development, the positive rhythm profile is

prone to the phenomenon of fast bottom f looding, small thickness of
f looding and low oil displacement ef ficiency. However, the negative prof ile
is uniformly f looded with large water f looding thickness and high oil
displacement ef ficiency. The water injection development effect of the
compound rhythm profile is between the former two.
3) Compound rhythm
-- A combination of positive and negative rhythm.
Compound positive rhythm -- superposition of positive rhythm;
Compound negative rhythm -- the superposition of negative rhythm;
Compound positive and negative rhythm -- thick at the top and bottom, thin in the
middle;
Compound negative and positive rhythm -- thin at the top and bottom, thick in the
middle.
4) Homogenous rhythm:
Particle size changes vertically without rhythm
-- irregular sequence or homogeneous rhythm.
2. Permeability rhythm
Permeability rhythm-- same as grain-size rhythm, it can be divided into:
positive rhythm, negative rhythm, compound rhythm and homogeneous rhythm, etc.
Schematic diagram of particle size sequence and permeability sequence types

K顶=0.3×10-3 μm 2 K顶=2.4×10-3 μm 2 K顶=0.3×10-3 μm 2 K顶=2.4×10-3 μm 2
flooding
flooding
Uniform
Uniform
K底=1.5×10-3 μm 2 K底=4×10-3 μm 2 K底=0.3×10-3 μm 2 K底=2.4×10-3 μm 2 K底=0.3×10-3 μm 2
Uniform Positive Negative Compound Compound
Positive Negative
Bottom flooding Stage flooding
渗透率韵律模式
3. The heterogeneity of permeability

1) Variation coefficient of permeability (Vk)
-- Measures the degree of dispersion and variation of a number of statistical values
relative to their average values.
(K 1
i
 K ) 2 /n
VK  i
K
2) Breakthrough coefficient of permeability (Tk)

-- Ratio of the maximum permeability to the average permeability of the sand layer.
K max
TK 
K
Where:
 Tk -- breakthrough coefficient
 Kmax -- the maximum permeability in the layer

 When Tk < 2, homogeneous
 When Tk varies between 2 ~ 3, relatively homogeneous
 When Tk > 3, heterogeneous
3) Permeability differential (JK)

-- Ratio of maximum permeability to minimum permeability of the sand layer.
K max
J K

K min
 The larger the JK, the stronger the heterogeneity of permeability
 The smaller the JK, the weaker the heterogeneity of permeability
4) Permeability homogeneity coefficient (Kp)

-- Reciprocal of breakthrough coefficient (Tk)
-- Ratio of the average permeability to the maximum permeability of the sand layer.
K
K p

K max
 Kp values vary between 0 and 1, and the closer Kp is to 1, the better the homogeneity.
 Kp × Tk (permeability breakthrough coefficient) = 1
5) Ratio of vertical permeability to horizontal permeability (kV /Kh)

This ratio has a great inf luence on the washing effect of reservoir water injection
development.
Small Kv/Kh → indicates that the vertical permeability of the f luid is relatively low,
and the wash impact thickness in the layer may be small.
4 Distribution frequency (Pk) and distribution density (Dk) of muddy interlayer

The unstable distribution of muddy interlayer can cause the change of vertical and
horizontal permeability in the reservoir profile.
Interlayer refers to the discontinuous impermeable layer or low permeable layer in

the reservoir, which acts as a local barrier in fluid seepage. The lithology includes
mudstone, siltstone and tight sandstone. There are two origin: sedimentary and
diagenetic origin.
II
III
Schematic diagram of interlayer types

A) Interlayer distribution frequency (PK)

-- Numbers of non-permeable muddy interlayers (barriers) per meter of reservoir.
Muddy → mudstone, small md

Lithologic
Well logs respond
interlayer
Calcareous
Physical properties interlayer: Φ and K are relatively low.

5. Sedimentary structure
There are various bedding structures in clastic reservoirs:
parallel bedding, inclined bedding, wavy bedding, horizontal bedding...
★ The direction of bedding determines the direction of permeability.

Permeability and ultimate recovery are different with different bedding
types.
(1) Inclined bedding sandstone: high permeability, fast water flooding, low recovery;
 Water injection in parallel lamination strike results in the highest recovery factor.
 Channel sandstone, water injection in river channel center, oil recovery on both sides, good
results.
(2) Cross-bedding sandstone: low permeability, uniform water f looding → high

recovery factor.
6. Particle arrangement direction

The direction of the palaeocurrent caused the particles to be arranged in a certain
way. The resistance of water injection along the direction of palaeocurrent is least.
For channel sand body, the injected

w a t e r a dv a nce s ra pidly a long t h e
downstream direction of the ancient
channel. In the upstream direction, the
d r iv in g sp e e d is slow a n d t h e oil
displacement effect is different.
▲ The producing well in the south of

the injection well group felt too much
water injection, while the producing
well in the north of the injection well
group felt too little water injection
 the so-calle d phe nome non of "
w ate rlogging in the south and Relationship between water injection velocity
drought in the north" occurred. and paleocurrent direction (Daqing Oilfield)
1.2.2 Interlayer heterogeneity
The interbedded difference in a set of interbedded sandstones (oil-bearing

strata). including
 The regularity (cyclicity) of sand bodies in different sedimentary environments
on the section,
 Development and distribution of shale rock barriers -- interbedded differences of
sand bodies,
 The heterogeneity degree of interlayer permeability, etc.; ★
1. Stratification coefficient (An)

2. Vertical sandstone density (Kn)
3. The heterogeneity of permeability between sand layers
1. Stratification coefficient (An) ★

Refers to the number of sand layers in a certain interval (expressed by the average
number of sand layers drilled per well)
n Bi
Where,
nBi -- number of sand layers in a well
An  i 1
n -- well number
n
When the total thickness of sandstone is constant, the more vertical sand
layers, the more barrier layers are, the more interlayer differences are
likely to occur.
- The larger the stratif ication coef ficient is, the more serious the interlayer
heterogeneity is.
2. Vertical sandstone density (Kn) (sandstone thickness coefficient)

Refers to the ratio of the total thickness of sandstone to the total thickness of
formation in the reservoir section. ★
Kn∈ [0,1]
3. The heterogeneity of permeability between sand layers

The contents of the study are similar to the study of permeability heterogeneity
within the layer, including the intersand layers:
Variation coef ficient, differential, single-layer breakthrough coef ficient, homogeneity
coefficient, etc.
-- Based on this analysis of the average K variation and difference of each small
layer in the study area, which lays a foundation for the analysis of vertical reservoir
difference.
4. Study of barrier layer

Barrier - An impermeable layer of rock that has the ability to isolate fluid. ★

A) Significance of research on barrier:
It is of great signif icance to study the non-connectivity of upper and lower oil layers,
to divide development layers and to block the vertical f low of f lu ids in the same
development layers.

B) Determining conditions of barrier -- 2 criteria:
 Physical property: 20 ~ 70MPa; The formation is impermeable to water; K is generally < 10
×10-3μm2
 Thickness: with a certain thickness, general > 5m.

C) Common good barrier (features) :

① Lithology: mudstone, muddy siltstone, salt rock, gypsum rock;
② Distribution: generally greater than the sandstone distribution range;
③ Microfractures and small faults are not developed.

D) Main research contents of barrier:
● The rock type of barrier: mudstone, silty mudstone, calcareous sandstone,
evaporite, etc.
● The distribution (position) of the barrier on the profile;
● The thickness of the barrier and its change on the plane: the barrier isopachy map
and so on.
● Barrier level: dense lithology, high displacement pressure, large thickness, stable
plane distribution, good sealing ability; Otherwise, opposite.
 4 grades: Oil layer group barrier, sand layer group barrier, sand layer barrier, thin interlayer in
sand.
1.2.3 Plane heterogeneity
Plane heterogeneity -- The heterogeneity caused by the geometry, size, and

continuity of a reservoir sand body, as well as by planar changes in the
porosity and permeability of the sand body.
1. Geometric morphology of sand body

2. Size and isotropic continuity of sand body
3. Connectivity of sand bodies
4. Planar change and directivity of porosity and permeability in sand body
1. Geometric morphology of sand body

Geometrical morphology of sand body is a relative ref lection of the size of sand body
in each direction, which is generally classif ie d by length-width ratio. In general, the
more irregular a sand body is, the more heterogeneous it is. The geometry of sand
bodies is controlled by sedimentary facies.
①Sheet-shaped sand body: the length-width ratio is approximately 1:1, and it is

equiaxed in the plane
②Lenticular and fan-shaped sand body: the length-width ratio is less than 3:1
③Belt sand body: the length-width ratio is 3:1 ~ 20:1
④Shoe lace sand body: the length-width ratio is greater than 20:1
⑤Irregular sand body: irregular shape, generally has one main direction of
extension
Sheet-shaped Lenticular sand body

sand body
Belt sand body Irregular sand body
Common sand body plane morphology diagram

2. Sand body size and isotropic continuity

The lateral continuity of the sand body is mainly studied.
According to the extension length, the sand body can be divided into 5 grades:
heterogeneity increases
continuity decreases,
Sand body size decreases,
Level 1: the sand body extends > 2000m excellent continuity

Le ve l 2: the sand body e xte nds 1600 ~ good continuity
2000m moderate continuity
Level 3: the sand body extends 600 ~ 1600m poor continuity
Level 4: Sand body extends 300 ~ 600m super poor continuity
Level 5: Sand body extension < 300m
In practice, the penetration rate is often used to represent the size or continuity of
sand body. The penetration rate ref le cts the control degree of sand body under a
certain well pattern.
The higher the penetration rate, the better the extensibility of the sand body. ★
3. Connectivity of sand body

-- refers to the vertical and horizontal contact and connectivity of sand body.
It can be represented by coordination number of sand body, connectivity degree and
connectivity coefficient.
(1) Coordination number of sand body -- refers to the number of sand

bodies connected with a sand body.
(2) Connectivity degree -- refers to the percentage of the connected area of
the upper and lower sand layers in the total area of the sand body --
represents the vertical connectivity of the reservoir.
⑶ Connectivity coef ficient -- the percentage of the number of connected
sand layers in the total number of sand layers. It can also be calculated by
thickness and is called thickness connectivity coefficient.
Connections formed by sand bodies usually take the following forms,

● Multilateral -- mainly connected to each other laterally;
● Multi-layer type -- or superposition type, mainly connected with each other vertically;
● Isolated -- not connected with other sand bodies.
Connection multilateral
sand bodies
Multi-layer isolated
Schematic diagram of connection body and
connection mode
4. Planar change and directivity of porosity and permeability in sand body

Planar contour maps of porosity, permeability and heterogeneity of permeability
were prepared to characterize their plane changes. The focus of the study is on the
directivity of permeability.
① Directivity of macro-permeability
-- refers to the directivity of permeability due to lithologic (sedimentary facies)
changes in the sand.
② Directivity of micro-permeability
-- refers to the directivity of permeability caused by sedimentary structure and
textural factors in sand body.
③ Directivity of permeability caused by fractures
-- refers to the serious permeability directivity caused by the presence of fractures in
the reservoir -- the occurrence of fractures, especially the strike of fractures, should
be studied.
The difference of lithology of clastic rock leads
石油工程学院石油工程系 to
directional permeability distribution
1.2.4 Microheterogeneity
Microheterogeneity refers to the difference of properties of micro-scale reservoirs,

mainly including
 Pore heterogeneity: the size and uniformity of reservoir pores and throat, as well
as the configuration relationship and connectivity degree of pore and throat.
 Particle heterogeneity: clastic structure and petro-mineralogical characteristics.
 Interstitial material heterogeneity: type, content, distribution and occurrence of
substrate and cements deposited between particles.
The study of reservoir microheterogeneity is the basis to

understand the distribution of remaining oil and the effect of
water flooding.
Pore structure of reservoir
 Pore st ruct ure re fe rs to t he t y pe , size ,

distribution and interconnection of pores and
throats in rocks.
 Generalized pore -- a space in a rock that has
not been f illed by solid matter. Also called
void. Include: strict pores, caves and cracks.
 S trict pore -- a pore is a la rge spa ce
surrounded by rock particles, and the narrow
p a r t con n e ct e d on ly b e t w e e n t h e t w o
particles is called a throat.
 Pore is the basic reservoir space where f luid exists
in rock
 Throat is an important channel to control f luid f low
in rock
Pore is the void space in a rock. It is commonly x

x
measured as either a volume percentage or a x

x
fraction (expressed as a decimal).
(a) Intergranular pore (x) between quartz grains with

quartz overgrowths, field of view 650 μm×450 μm. x
(b) Intragranular pore (x) within feldspar grain, field of view
1.3 mm×0.9 mm.
(c) Micropore (arrowed) between illitized kaolinite crystals,
field of view 25 μm×17 μm.
M
(d) Intergranular pore (x) in limestone, the rock has been M
partially cemented by aragonite.
(e) Biomoldic pore (x) within dasycladacean (D) and

mollusk (M) molds, field of view 5 mm×4 mm. D

(f) Intercrystalline pore (x) within dolomite, the periphery of
each pore is oil stained; thin-section photomicrograph, field
of view 1.3 mm×0.9 mm.
(g) Cavernous pore, human for scale.
x
Intergranular pore occurs between grains. Individual pores in a clean sand will
occupy approximately 40% or the total volume (grains plus void). For coarse sands
the pores are larger than in fine sands. In most sands and sandstones the
intergranular pore is primary, a residuum of that imparted at deposition. Some
intergranular pores may be created in sandstones by the dissolution of mineral
cements such as calcite.
Conversely, intragranular pore is largely secondary in origin, created on partial
dissolution of grains in the sandstone. Minerals such as chert and feldspar
commonly have pores within them. Any oil trapped in such secondary pores is
unlikely to be released from the reservoir during production.
Micropore simply means small pores, those associated with depositional or
diagenetic clay or other microcrystalline cements.
Typically, many reservoirs have a porosity in the range 20-30% but the full range
varies from a few percent in some fractured reservoirs to around 70% in some types
of limestone reservoir.
Not all pores are alike: there are big pores and little pores, pores with simple shapes,
and others with highly complex 3D morphologies. Knowledge of the size and shape
of pores and the way in which they are interconnected is important, because it is
these factors that will determine the permeability of the rock.
Ⅰ Pore and throat types
1. Pore types
(1) Classification according to the genesis of pores
According to the genesis of pores, they are generally divided into primary pores and
secondary pores.
Primary pores -- Pore space preserved by diagenetic processes such as deposition
and compaction (pores formed at the same time as the rock). ★★
Such as: primary intergranular pores, etc.
Secondary pores -- refers to the pores (pores, caves, cracks, etc.) formed after the
formation of rocks due to recrystallization, dissolution, metasomatism, tectonic
movement, surface weathering, etc. ★★
Primary pores generally decrease with the increase of burial time and
depth and the intensification of diagenesis.
Primary pores mainly include: intergranular pores, mineral cleavage
fractures bedding/interbedded fractures, among which intergranular pores
are dominant.
Intergranular pores Residual intergranular pores Intragranular pores and Interstitial material pores
mineral cleavage fractures
Schematic diagram of primary pores in sandstone

Fine grained feldspar sandstone

blue casting thin sections
The pores are mostly surrounded by the
Primary Intergranular pores
su rf a ce of th e p ri ma ry g ra i n a n d
idiomorphic plane with secondary
enlargement
Some feldspar has the phenomenon of
dissolution
Cretaceous, Daqing Oilfield
North the 1-1-52 Wells 1120.5 m
Fine grained feldspar sandstone

Intergranular pores develop well
Paleogene Dongying Formation, Liaohe
Oilfield
The 26 Wells 2385.5 m
Intergranular pore
Well preserved
Department original
of Petroleum intergranular
Engineering, College of Petroleumpores
Engineering
Intergranular pores
Well
Department of Petroleum Engineering, College of Petroleum Engineering the
connected, part of the pores are f i
l led by
Intergranular pores bitumen
DepartmentAppearance of intergranular
of Petroleum Engineering, College of Petroleumpores
Engineering
Intergranular pores
x x

x
x

Original 石油工程学院石油工程系
intergranular and
Intergranular pores & Intragranular pores residual intergranular porosity
well preserved between the point-
line contacted grains, and
intragranular dissolved pores are
rich in feldspar clastic
O

O

x
O

x

x
x

Original
Department of Petroleum Engineering, intergranular
College of pores
Petroleum Engineering
Intergranular pores & Intragranular pores are primary, intragranular
dissolved pores are also can
be discovered.
O
x
O
O

x

x x
O

x
x

x

Intergranular pores & Micropores
x
x

Δ
x
Δ

Secondary pores include: granular and intragranular dissolved pores, intergranular
dissolved pores, mold pores, supergranular pores, intercrystalline pores, etc. The
generalized secondary pores also include fractures, such as structural fractures,
diagenetic fractures, karst caves and so on.
Long strip shaped dissolved Harbor shaped dissolved Super dissolved

intergranular pores intergranular pores intergranular pores
Intragranular dissolved pores Dissolve interstitial pores Dissolve fracture pores

Secondary pore types

Class Subclass Size Characteristics
Such as feldspar, debris and other
particles edge, partial dissolution
Intergranular dissolved pore
Such as calcite and other cements,
clay complex partial dissolution
Such as feldspar, debris and other
Pore
Intragranular pore
＜ 2m dissolved in the grain
m By the cement and particles are
Super large pore
dissolved together
Secon Particles, crystals, or biological chips
Mold pore
dary dissolve and retain their shape
pore Late formation of kaolinite, dolomite
Intercrystalline pore
and other intercrystalline pores
Cavity Karst cave
＞ 2m Most of them are related to the
m surface leaching
Contraction fracture Diagenetic contraction
Metallogenic fractures and 0.01 ～ No direction, thin, small range of
Fractu
re
their dissolution ＞ 1m extension
Structural fractures and their m Flat extension, group is distinct, cut
dissolution each other
Feldspar dissolved pores

Rock debris sandstone
Most of the feldspar particles are dissolved to form a
dissolved pore, medium to high production
Paleogene Shahejie Formation, Liaohe Oilfield
Jinzhou 20-2-3 well 2084.5m
Super large pore

Fine grained quartz sandstone
Blue casting thin section
The dissolved particles are mainly
particles and debris
Carboniferous, Tarim Basin
River 1 well 5481.6 m
Fine siltstone
Blue casting thin section
T h e d o l o m i t e i s d i s s o l v ed i n t o a
dissolved pore
Sporadic distribution of idiomorphic
calcite in the pore
φ=3.2% K=72×10-3mμ2
Paleogene, Jianghan Oilfield
Tuo 17 well 3189.1 m
Dissolved intergranular pores
Mold pore
Dissolved intercrystalline
pores
Intercrystalline micro pores

Quartz druse distributed within intergranular
Intercrystalline pores pores, intercrystalline pores well developed
between the crystals
Micro fracture
Quartz sandstone with muddy

anisomeric grains
Red casting thin section
Fracture width 0.04 mm
φ=16.4% K=11×10-3mμ2
Tertiary, Yumen Oilfield
G236 well 506.0 m
2. Throat type
The throat is a narrow channel connecting two pores, which mainly affects the
seepage ability of the reservoir. The basic types of pore throat are mainly the
following 6 types:
pore shrinkage type, neck shrinkage type, sheet type, tube type, bundle type and
fracture.
Pore shrinkage Neck shrinkage Sheet Tube Bundled Fracture

Pore shrinkage throat:

The throat is the shrank portion of the
pore.
In sandstone reservoir rocks dominated
by in t e rgra n u la r pore s or e n la rge d
intergranular pores, the pores are quite
indistinguishable from the throat.
They are common in particle supported,
floating particle contact, and uncemented
types.
This kind has large pores and thick throat,
and the pore-throat diameter ratio is close
to 1:1. The pores of the rock are almost
always valid.
Neck shrinkage throat:

The variable section constricting part
is the throat.
The particles are closely arranged.
A lt h ou gh t h e re t a in e d pore s a re
relatively large, the throat is greatly
narrow e d and the pore -throat
diameter ratio is large.
 Large or relatively large pores, thin
throat;
 Relatively high porosity and low
permeability.
Some of the pores in the rock are
invalid.
They are common in particle support,
contact type, point contact type.
2022-04-08
Sheet throat:
When the sandstone is further compacted or the crystal grow again is caused by
pressure solution, the pores become smaller. The interconnecting throat of these
pores is the crystal gap between the crystals. The pores are very small and the
throat is very thin.
 The effective opening width of

throat is very small, generally
< 1μm, some have tens of μm.
 T h e y a re com m on in lin e
contact, concave and convex
contact type.
Bundled throat:
when the content of matrix and various cements is high, the primary intergranular
pores can sometimes be completely blocked.
 Many micropores in the matrix and cements

are themselves both pores and connecting
channels, like microcapillaries intersecting in
the matrix and cements.
 Low porosity and extremely low
permeability.
 They are common in matrix support, base
type and pore type, suture contact type.
Fracture:
In the study of pore structure, fractures can be regarded as pores in a broad sense.
In the microscopic scope, fractures are long plate-shaped channels that connect
pores and caves.
Pore shrinkage Neck shrinkage Sheet Tube Bundled Fracture

Ⅱ Heterogeneity of pore structure
1. Pore and throat size
The pores can be divided into 3 types according to the degree

to which the fluid in the pore and throat is affected by capillary
forces.
 Supercapillary pore
 Capillary pore
 Microcapillary pore
① Supercapillary pores
The pore radius is greater than 250um;
In natural conditions, fluids can flow freely;
Most of the large fractures, caves, and uncemented or loosely cemented sand pores
in rocks belong to this type.
② Capillary pores
The pore radius is between 0.1-250um;
Fluid cannot f low freely in it and can only f low in it if the external force is greater than
the capillary resistance.
③ Microcapillary pores
The pore radius is less than 0.1um, which can be called micropores;
Fluid cannot f low in it under normal temperature and pressure conditions; Increasing
temperature and pressure can only cause the diffusion of the f luid as molecules or
clusters of molecules.
2. Pore and throat distribution
The degree of concentrated distribution of pore or throat size, including 2

aspects:
1) Peak pattern (or mode)
The peak pattern ref le cts the frequency distribution pattern of the major
pore sizes.
(1) Unimodal type
There is only one peak on the frequency distribution curve of pore-throat
radius, and the distribution of pore-throat radius is nearly normal.
(2) Bimodal type or multi-peak type
There are two or more peaks on the frequency distribution curve of pore-
throat radius, indicating that the rock has two or more major pore-throat
sizes.
2) Sorting
Sorting ref le cts the degree to which pore-throat size deviates from a
certain standard value (median or maximum value). The smaller the
deviation, the more uniform the sorting is, and the more conducive to f luid
seepage.
Parameters representing the characteristics of pore-throat sorting
 Pore-throat sorting coefficient SP;
 Relative sorting coefficient D;
 Mean coefficient α;
 Skewness SKP. Kurtosis Kg;
 Standard deviation σ;
 Coefficient of variation Cs ……
3. Pore and throat connectivity
1) Pore-throat coordination number (β)

The number of throats connecting each pore, usually expressed as an
average of the statistical results, is an important parameter of the
connectivity and can be observed in the casting thin section.
Diagram of pore-throat coordination number

Pore and throat are shown in black
2) Average diameter ratio of pore-throat (Dpt)

The ratio of the average pore diameter to the average throat diameter
ref lects the size difference between the pores and the throat. The average
pore diameter is measured by casting thin section, and the average throat
diameter is generally obtained by mercury injection method.
Diagram of pore-throat diameter ratio

The figure on the left shows a large pore-throat diameter ratio and the
figure on the right shows a small pore-throat diameter ratio
Ⅲ Influence of pore structure on petrophysical properties
Pore structure determines the relationship between pore and permeability.

Dullien(1973) established the classic relationship between pore and
permeability of rock through the capillary model:
Under the same effective porosity, large pore throat has high permeability;
Rock with simple pore-throat shape has higher permeability than rock with
complex pore-throat shape
Ⅳ The characterization method of pore structure
There are many analytical methods, which can be divided into

2 categories: indirect analysis and direct analysis.
casting method
Direct observation scanning electron

method microscopy
image analysis method
Indirect analysis domestic commonly used

capillary pressure method
method
(mercury injection method) ★★
1. Casting method
The pore casting method is mainly used to study the type, shape, size and
distribution of pores and the type and connectivity of throat. It can be
divided into 2 categories: one is the 3D pore casting of rock sample; The
other is the pore casting thin section. The dyeing resin is mainly injected
into the pore space of the rock to observe and understand the structure of
the pore space of the rock and measure its size.
The 3D pore casting method is advanced but dif ficult to manufacture, so it
is not commonly used. The casting thin section method is simple and easy
to operate, and is a common method for pore observation. However, only
the 2D pore structure of pores, throat and connectivity can be observed.
However, if more thin sections are cut from all directions in a planned way,
the 3D pore structure can be understood to a certain extent.
Principle:
The prepared epoxy resin is injected into the rock pores under a certain temperature
and pressure, and the curing reaction takes place with the epoxy resin and the
curing agent to become a hard solid resin.
Resin color:
blue (commonly used), red, yellow, green.
Muddy fine grained feldspar lithic sandstone Fine grained feldspar sandstone Blue casting
Red casting Less matirx and weak diagenesis;
The primary intergranular pores and dissolved and Primary intergranular pore development
diffused intergranular pores are the main ones. Φ = 36.7% K = 3459×10-3 mμ2 ,
The Cretaceous in Daqing Oilfield, Guantao Formation of Neogene, Shengli Oilfield
Well Sheng81, 1336.4m Well Gudong 14 1308.0m
The following aspects can be studied by observing the thin section of the casting:
① Pore type and throat type.
② Pore size and its distribution: the size and distribution of pores can be directly
measured by the statistical or image analysis method under the microscope, and the
histogram and frequency curve of pore distribution can be drawn, and the maximum
and minimum pore size and the median pore size can be obtained.
③ Facial ratio: refers to the percentage of the visible pore area (excluding
micropores) of rocks under the microscope to the total area of the observation field.
④ Pore-throat coordination number: refers to the number of pore throats, usually
expressed by the average of statistical results. This is an important parameter
reflecting pore connectivity.
⑤ Average pore-throat diameter ratio: refers to the ratio of the average pore
diameter to the average throat diameter, and is also a ref le ction of the degree of
pore connectivity.
2. Scanning electron microscopy
① Sample preparation: sample pretreatment, sample pile bonding, coating film.

 Pretreatment -- including: oil washing, grinding, acidification, purification, drying, etc.
 Pile bonding -- usually use conductive adhesive to bond the sample to the sample pile.
 Coating f il m - to prevent the charge effect, to avoid the mirror tube pollution, heat
conduction, etc.
② Application: observation and photographing under scanning electron microscopy

-- Understanding
 Type, geometric shape and size of the pores and throats;
 Type and method of cement (interstitial material);
 Clay minerals;
 Particle size, sorting, rounding;
 Secondary minerals, etc.
3. Mercury injection method
1) Fundamentals
① In order to make mercury (non-wetting phase) injected into the rock
pore system, it is necessary to overcome the capillary resistance caused
by the pore-throat Pc -- When the balance capillary force and the volume of
mercury pressed into the rock sample are calculated, the relationship
between Pc and mercury saturation can be obtained.
② The capillary pressure is inversely proportional to the radius R of the
pore-throat, and the corresponding pore throat radius can be calculated
according to the capillary pressure of mercury injection
Pc -- Capillary force, MPa

2 cos  σ -- Surface tension of mercury, 480dyn/cm2
Pc  θ -- Mercury's wetting contact Angle, 146°
R R-- Radius of pore-throat, cm
③ Mercury saturation value can be calculated by mercury volume:

In practical application, mercury saturation is often used to represent the
percentage of the pore volume connected by the corresponding pore throat
to the total pore volume under a certain injector pressure.
V

Hg
S Hg
V f
SHg -- Mercury saturation, %

VHg -- Volume of mercury contained in the pore, cm3
Vf -- Volume of rock sample, cm3
Capillary pressure curve (mercury

inje ct ion cur ve ) - - Base d on
m e asure d m e rcur y inje ct ion
pressure (PC) and the corresponding
volume of mercury in rock samples
(VHg), and after calculating mercury
saturation value (S H g ) and pore
The pore throat radius, μm

throat radius (R), the relationship
Capillary pressure, MPa

curve of capillary pressure, pore
throat radius and mercury
saturation is drawn.
Ref lecting the size and pore volume
of t h e p or e - t h r oa t i n t o w h i ch
mercury may enter under a given
displacement pressure.
Mercury injection curves are often used Mercury injection, %
in the laboratory to study the pore
Characteristics of capillary pressure curve
structure of rocks.
Ⅰ. Injection curve Ⅱ. Exit the curve
2) Morphological analysis of capillary pressure curve

The main factors affecting the morphological characteristics of capillary
pressure curve are as follows:
 Distribution trend of pore throat size -- expressed by pore throat skew,
 Distribution uniformity of pore throat -- characterized by sorting coefficient.
Coarse skew means a thick throat; Good sorting means even pore and
throat.
Poor sorting Good sorting
Typical theoretical capillary pressure curve shape diagram

(according to Chilingar et al.,1972)
G ood sor t ing and coar se ske w Poor sorting Good sorting
reservoirs → Good storage and
permeability capacity;
Good sorting and fine skew
reservoirs → The pore-throat
system is homogeneous, but the
pore-throat is small and the
permeability may be poor.
Good sorting, Good sorting,

coarse skew thin skew
Poor sorting
tends to coarse
skew
Poor sorting tends Typical theoretical capillary pressure curve

to fine skew
shape diagram
(according to Chilingar et al.,1972)
The pore radius is large, and the pore structure is mainly middle pore-
middle throat and macropore - middle throat, as well as macropore - big
throat. The capillary pressure curve is convex and straight.

The pore structure is mainly middle pore - middle throat and middle pore -
fine throat. Occasionally, middle – macropore – middle throat and fine
pore - fine throat are seen. The capillary pressure curve is convex.

2023/4/13
The pore radius is small, the pore structure is mainly characterized by fine
pore and fine throat, and the capillary pressure curve is not obvious.

2023/4/13
3) Quant it at ive charact e rist ic

parameters of pores
According to the capillary pressure
curve, it can be obtained:
 Displacement pressure Pd
 Median pore throat radius r50

 Median capillary pressure P50
 Minimum unsaturate d porosity
Smin%
Mercury injection, %

a. Displacement pressure P d and

maximum connected pore-throat
radius rd
Displace m e nt pre ssure - - t he
pressure at which the non-wetting
phase f luid begins and continues
to enter the wetting phase f luid in

the rock sample displacement

por e ( t h e ca pi l l a r y pr e ssu r e
cor re spondi ng t o t he l a rge st
connected pore in the pore-throat
system -- the inlet pressure). ★★
-- That is, the pressure value that
intersects the vertical axis along
t h e f la t pa r t of t h e ca pi l l a r y
pressure curve as a tangent line.
C or r e spon di n g t o t h i s i s t h e
maximum connected pore-throat Characteristics of capillary pressure curve
radius. Ⅰ. Injection curve Ⅱ. Exit the curve
b. Median saturation capillary

pressure P c50 and median pore-
throat radius r50
Median saturation pressure --
capillar y pre ssure at 50%
saturation of the injected non-
wetting phase. This corresponds

to the median pore throat radius.

★★
The median pressure of
sat urat ion is an im por t ant
param et er to evaluat e t he
reservoir performance, the better
the physical property, the lower it
is.

 Displacement pressure reflect both the concentration of rock pore throat

distribution and the absolute size of pore throat.
Therefore, it is one of the main indicators to classify the reservoir
performance of rocks.
Generally speaking, high Ø, gook Κ rock sample, its displacement pressure
is low.
 The median saturation pressure can ref lect the oil productivity when oil
and water phases coexist in the pore.
 Greater -- It indicates that the denser the rock (incline prone to the thin skew), the
lower the oil production capacity.
 Smaller -- It indicates that the better the relative permeability of the rock to oil, the
higher the oil production capacity.
c. P e r ce n t a g e of m i n i m u m
unsaturated pore volume Smin %
-- represents the percentage of
pore volume that is not invaded
by mercury when the mercury
injection pressure reaches the
maximum instrument pressure.

★★

The ore t ically, t he large r t he
percentage of minimum
unsaturated pore volume, the
more bound pores, and the lower
So, the worse pore structure.

4) Frequency distribution histogram and pore structure of pore throat

According to the capillary pressure-saturation curve, the frequency
distribution histogram and frequency distribution curve of pore throat can
be plotted.
capillary pressure curve
Frequency distribution
histogram curve


孔
喉
Frequency distribution
The pore-throat volume accounts for the total

Cumulative
频
histogram curve
frequency
率
distribution

curve
pore-throat volume, %
分

布
直
方 Interval frequency
图
distribution

Throat radius, μm
Pore throat frequency distribution and

cumulative frequency distribution curve
(According to Luo Zhetan and Wang Yuncheng,1986)
 The above two types of histogram can ref lect the size and distribution of the pore-
throat.
 The larger the pore-throat radius is, the more concentrated the distribution is →
the better the pore structure is.
1.2.5 Influencing factors of reservoir heterogeneity

Sedimentation
 The intensity and direction of flowing water, the paleotopography of the
sedimentary area, the depth of the basin, and the clastic material supply are
different, resulting in the difference of the grain size, arrangement direction,
bedding structure and sand body geometry of the clastic sediment.
Diagenesis
 Compaction, pressure solution, cementation and recrystallization change the
distribution of original porosity and permeability and increase the degree of
reservoir heterogeneity.
Tectonism
 Tectonic fractures change the direction of reservoir permeability, resulting in a
large difference in the vertical and horizontal permeability of the reservoir.
Ⅰ Sedimentation
1. Sedimentary environment
(1) Alluvial fan sand-gravel body

In arid/semi-arid regions, large amounts of debris carried by mountain rivers
accumulate at mountain passes during seasonal rainstorms, forming fan - shaped or
semi-conical deposits. It is mainly formed in the piedmont zone of the continental
region under oxidation condition.
(2) Fluvial sandstone body

Water flow in rivers and streams is normally confined to channels, which are
depressions or scours in the land surface that contain the flow. The overbank area
or floodplain is the area of land between or beyond the channels that (apart from
rain) receives water only when the river is in flood. Together the channel and
overbank settings comprise the fluvial environment. Alluvial is a more general term
for land surface processes that involve the flow of water. It includes features such
as a water-lain fan of detritus (an alluvial fan) that are not necessarily related to
rivers. An alluvial plain is a general term for a low-relief continental area where
sediment is accumulating, which may include the floodplains of individual rivers.
Typical core photo of a crevasse splay

(Well Shaan 145, fifth coring)
(3) Lake sandstone body

Lacustrine delta sandstone body; Beach bar sandstone body; Fan delta sand body;
Underwater fan-gravel rock body; Turbidite sandstone body
(4) Deltaic sandstone-marine-land transition environment
The formation of delta system consist

of three main forms; the delta plain
(where river process dominate), the
delta front (where river and basinal
processes are both important) and the
prodelta (where basinal processes
dominated) from subaerial delta
setting to subaqueous delta.
Three main forms of delta

(Numair A S, et al, 2017)
Facie characteristics and stratigraphic distribution of delta depositional environment

shows the different sets of parasequences and sedimentary structures from prodelta to
delta plains
(Numair A S, et al, 2017)
(5) Coastal dyke sandstone body

Strong wave action redistributes sediment carried by land, forming linear shorelines
and sand bars and beaches that move parallel to the shoreline. In the strata, they are
preserved as thin, long sandstone bodies.
Typical beach sand: it is a regressive stratigraphic sequence with upward coarser

grain size, and it is generally well sorted in the upper strata of beach sand.
 Sand bars: tend to grow parallel to the shoreline and coarser upward.
Sedimentary model:
A: Sedimentary model of the Upper zone of the Cape Hay Formation (Unit E from Bhatia et al., 1984).
B: Typical sand bar sedimentary evolution in Unit E where the sand bar is divided into three parts (1) bottom
of the bar (facies F2c), (2) middle part of the bar (facies F2b) and (3) top of the bar (facies F2a). Facies F3
corresponds to the outer estuary facies (F3).
(6) Turbidite sandstone body

It is a sandstone body formed by turbidity current or gravity current in deep sea
environment.
The lithology is mainly graded bedding sandstone and slump marked sandstone, in
addition, there are conglomerate and siltstone.
On the plane, it is mostly sheet shaped, fan shaped or lenticular.
Turbidite is a f ine-grained sediment (or sedimentary rock) that gradually changes

from coarse- to fine-grained and that was deposited by turbidity currents.
The Bouma sequence is a characteristic set of sedimentary structures typically
preserved within positively graded sand or silt-mud couplets. From base to top,
Bouma (1962) differentiated the following intervals above an erosion surface or sharp
boundary: (Ta) massive to graded sand, (Tb) plane-parallel laminated sand, (Tc) cross
-laminated sand and silt, (Td) parallel-laminated sand to silt, and (Te) laminated to
homogeneous mud.
(7) Aeolian sandstone body

In general, the sorting
o f a e o lia n d u n e s is
be tte r than that of
a qu e ou s du n e s a n d
results in uniformly high
p o r o s i t y a n d
pe rme ability . If they
come into contact with
crude shales, they may
be good reservoirs of oil
production. Navajo Sandstone, Utah, USA
Dune migration by avalanching (press Esc to stop

animation, PageRefresh to resume)
2. Influence of sedimentary environment on reservoir
1. Mineral composition of clastic particles

2. Particle size and sorting degree of clastic particles
Sedimentary 3. Arrangement of clastic particles and sphericity
environment 4. Inf luence of the content of matrix on the original
porosity and permeability of sand body
5. Sedimentary structure
Different sedimentation Forming different types of reservoir

conditions sand bodies,
Water flow intensity, water Such as alluvial fan sand body, river
flow direction, paleo- sand body, lake sand body, eolian
topography, paleo-water sand body, marine sand body, delta
depth, distance from sand body, turbidite sand body and
provenance, clastic material so on.
supply, composition, grain
size, sorting degree, Result in the lithology, physical
cementation type, pore filling, property, internal structure and
sand body shape, lateral bedding structure of the reservoir
continuity, longitudinal a re diffe re n t in v e r t ica l a n d
connectivity and thickness horizontal.
are all different
Texture of rock sand body:

particle size, sorting, roundness, arrangement, content of matrix, etc
(1) Mineral composition of rocks

General properties of hard, water insoluble, not expansion, oil does not
adsorb particles of sandstone oil storage property is good, on the contrary
is poor.
Quartz is better than feldspar, there are two reasons: 1. Strong weathering
resistance; 2. Weak oil wet ability than feldspar.
(2) Particle size and sorting degree of clastic particles
1. Large grain, large pore and large K, small grain, small pore and small K.
Equal size balls

cubic packed
Equal size balls

Two particles oblique cubic packed
Good sorting Bad sorting cubic packed
The influence of sorting on the porosity The influence of arrangement on the porosity
2. Good sorting, good permeability; On the contrary, if the sorting is poor

and the particle size is mixed, the large pores formed by the large particles
will be blocked by the small particles, thus reducing the porosity and
permeability.
• For an ideal particle, Ø has nothing to do with particle size
• For an actual reservoir, average particle size d↑- Ø↓(sorting effect)
• Bad sorting → bigger pore was filled by small particles → Ø↓
• Closely packed → Ø↓
Factors affecting the arrangement of clastic particles:

A) The arrangement of clastic grains is mainly determined by sedimentary conditions;
B) In addition, it is also related to the amount of overburden pressure that the
sediments bear before the end of diagenesis.\

In terms of sedimentary conditions:
If the water medium is calm during deposition, such as in the closed lake basin edge
slope zone and shallow sea shelf, the particles are mostly arranged near the cube;
If the water medium is more active, such as in rivers, foothills and lakeside areas,
inshore shallow sea areas, particles are mostly rhombic accumulation.
(3) Content of matrix
The content of matrix has great inf lu ence on the original porosity and
permeability of sand body, especially on permeability. Sand bodies with
more matrix have lower porosity and permeability.
In general,
 When the matrix content is <
Porosity / %
5%, the original Ф and K are
very high.
 When the matrix content is >
5%, Ф a n d K a re in v e rse ly
proportional to matrix content.
 When the matrix content is >
15%, and the permeability is
very low.
Clay matrix content / %
Relation between clay matrix content and porosity

Ⅱ Diagenesis
1. Compaction
Schematic diagram of type of mechanical

compaction
2. Cementation
carbonate cement
Porosity / %
Porosity / %
Porosity / %
carbonate content (%) carbonate content (%) carbonate content (%)
Statistical relationship between carbonate cement content and physical

properties
With the increase of cement content, porosity decreases obviously.
With the increase of depth interval, the decrease range of porosity decreases.
(The effect of mechanical compaction is less and less)

Clay cement
Dispersed mass point:

The authigenic kaolinite is the most typical - a
fake hexagon, pages, vermicular, etc.
Divide the original intergranular pore and block
the pore throat.
Sand grain
Dispersoid point
Thin film:
The most common is smectite, chlorite,
illite and mixed layer clay minerals.
Reduce the effective pore radius, often
resulting in pore-throat blockage.
Sand grain
Thin film
Bridge:
Clay mineral crystals grow from
the pore wall to the pore space,
and reach the other side of the
pore wall to form a clay bridge.
Lamellar and f ib rous authigenic
illite are common, follow e d by
montmorillonite and mixed layer
clay minerals, while kaolinite clay
bridges are rare.
Sand grain
Bridging
In bridging clays, especially fibrous illite, the pores between the primary grains are
cut and become tortuous, forming fine pores between the grains of clay minerals.
Songliao basin
Neasham,1977
Dispersed
mass point
渗
Permeability
透 Thin film
率
Bridge ● Dispersed mass point
○ Thin film
▲ Bridge
孔隙度
Porosity / % Porosity / %
Air permeability -- porosity characteristic map of

sandstone with different clay mineral
occurrences
Ⅲ Tectonism
Tectonic activity controls the sedimentary environment and

diagenetic process macroscopically. On the micro level, it is
mainly manifested in cracking the rock and forming fractures.
1. Regional tectonic activities control the shape, size and topographic relief
of sedimentary basins, thus affecting the distribution of different
sedimentary environments in the basin;
2. The tectonic movement produces different grades of faults and
fractures, which affect the reservoir performance;
3. Burial history affects diagenetic stage and diagenetic intensity, while
tectonic stress difference mainly affects compaction intensity.
1. Tectonic activities affect the properties of clastic parent rocks
 A faulted basin with strong block fault tectonic activity (Bohai Bay Basin)
Uplift area on one side of fault depression:
Fast uplift, deep denudation, exposed crystalline bedrock,
It provides abundant provenance for the formation of feldspar sandstone.
Fast sedimentation, weak feldspar weathering, strong compaction resistance.
 Shaaanxi-Gansu-Ningxia Basin -- Large Inland Depression,

It is in humid climate zone and sedimentation is slow.
Coarse clastic rocks with sedimentary rocks as parent rocks such as quartz
sandstone are common, and feldspar in feldspar sandstone is deeply altered and
has weak compaction resistance.
2. Tectonic activities affect the variation of regional geothermal gradient
● Sedimentary basins in East China:

Strong tectonic activity, small crustal thickness, high geothermal gradient.
Rapid maturity and evolution of source rocks.
Oil accumulation period earlier than the compaction period are conducive to the
formation of good reservoirs.

● Sedimentary basins in West China:
The crust is thick and the geothermal gradient is low.
The primary reservoir of Tertiary is buried at a larger depth.
Compared with the east, diagenesis is relatively weak at the same depth.

3. Tectonic activities produce faults and fractures, which affect the

reservoir performance
 Vertical and large angle faults:

Due to the structural changes of rocks and the recrystallization of minerals caused by
clastation, the permeability along the fault zone becomes small or even completely
closed, which affects the movement characteristics of underground fluids.
 Different microfracture systems are induced on both sides of the fracture due to
tension and compaction.
This changes the porosity and homogeneity of the reservoir near the fault zone and
increases the severity and complexity of reservoir heterogeneity.
For example, if some far-f lu ng cracks are not sealed, water may f low along the
cracks, reducing the effectiveness of development.
1.3 Research methods
The research methods of intralayer heterogeneity:
Core observation and description

Displacement experiment
Analytical statistics
Oil displacement
Depositional experimental
model method apparatus.
1 Constant-flux pump.
Geological
2 Accumulator; modeling
3 Six-way valve.
4 Pressure gauge;
5 Core holder.
6 Oil-water separation pipe.
7 Constant-temperature oven.
The research methods of inter-layer heterogeneity:
Logging interpretation
Geological statistics
Dynamic analysis
Reservoir engineering statistics
The research methods of plane heterogeneity:
Sedimentary facies
Data analysis
Geostatistics
Modeling techniques

The research methods of microheterogeneity:
Thin section observation

Cast thin section
Image analysis
Scanning electron microscopy
Mercury injection (high pressure centrifuge)

6 Oil and Gas Reservoirs-1

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6 Oil and Gas Reservoirs-1

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Chapter 6

Oil and Gas Reservoirs

Reservoir Rock: A rock in nature that has a reservoir space and

Basic characteristics of reservoirs:

Why study reservoirs?

 Porosity and storage capacity

Reservoir impact on development

Application of reservoir characteristics to guide development

 Exploration prediction evaluation -- different reservoir

Oil and Gas Reservoirs

1. Study on reservoir heterogeneity

Reservoir spatial distribution Reservoir lithology and thickness

Numbers and thickness of mudstone interlayers

1. Study on reservoir heterogeneity

 1.1 Classiﬁcation of reservoir heterogeneity

 1.2 Research contents of reservoir heterogeneity

 1.3 Research methods of reservoir heterogeneity

 1.4 Inﬂuence of heterogeneity on oil and gas development

1.1 Classiﬁcation of reservoir heterogeneity

(1) Pettijohn Classiﬁcation (1973)

1.1.1 Pettijohn Classiﬁcation (1973)

According to the heterogeneity

1.1.2 Weber Classiﬁcation (1986)

According to Pettijohn's idea, Weber

Weber reservoir heterogeneity classiﬁcation

(1) Closed, semi-closed and unclosed faults

(2) Genetic unit boundary

(3) Permeable layer in genetic unit

(4) Barrier and interlayer in genetic unit

(5) Lamination and cross-bedding

(6) Microscopic heterogeneity

(7) Sealing and opening fractures

1.1.3 Qiu Yinan`s Classiﬁcation (1992)

(1) Intra-layer heterogeneity

1.2 Research contents

5. Inﬂuencing factors of reservoir heterogeneity

1.2.1 Intra-layer heterogeneity

Intra-layer heterogeneity -- Vertical changes in reservoir properties within a

● Vertical particle size rhythm in layer;

● Position of the highest vertical permeability section in layer;

In the process of water ﬂooding development, the positive rhythm proﬁle is

Schematic diagram of particle size sequence and permeability sequence types

K顶=0.3×10-3 μm 2 K顶=2.4×10-3 μm 2 K顶=0.3×10-3 μm 2 K顶=2.4×10-3 μm 2

Bottom ﬂooding Stage ﬂooding

3. The heterogeneity of permeability

2) Breakthrough coeﬃcient of permeability (Tk)

3) Permeability differential (JK)

4) Permeability homogeneity coeﬃcient (Kp)

5) Ratio of vertical permeability to horizontal permeability (kV /Kh)

4 Distribution frequency (Pk) and distribution density (Dk) of muddy interlayer

Interlayer refers to the discontinuous impermeable layer or low permeable layer in

Schematic diagram of interlayer types

A) Interlayer distribution frequency (PK)

Muddy → mudstone, small md

Physical properties interlayer: Φ and K are relatively low.

★ The direction of bedding determines the direction of permeability.

(2) Cross-bedding sandstone: low permeability, uniform water f looding → high

6. Particle arrangement direction

For channel sand body, the injected

▲ The producing well in the south of

1.2.2 Interlayer heterogeneity

The interbedded difference in a set of interbedded sandstones (oil-bearing

1. Stratiﬁcation coeﬃcient (An)