ImagProc 17 Minimum Distance Classification Final

17.
- Minimum-Distance Classification
Image Processing - Pattern Recognition

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Norbert Diehl
Minimum-Distance Classification
and
Template Matching
N. Diehl, V-2022-final IPPR: Minimum Distance Classification 17.1

17. - Minimum-Distance Classification
Notes on the lecture materials

 These documents are for personal use only in addition to the lecture and
may not be passed on and may not be reused.
 No guarantee is given that the documents are free of errors.
 The graphics and pictures contained in the documents are partly taken from the
the books mentioned in the bibliography or the accompanying documents
provided by the publisher or author. Thank you very much for this.
 It is expressly pointed out that contents may be deepened, supplemented or

omitted from the lecture.
 Thus, these slides neither replace attending the lecture nor studying
suitable books or essays.

Contents of the Lecture

 ...
11. Morphological Image Processing - Basics: Dilation and Erosion
 12. Morphological Image Processing - Filters: Opening and Closing
 13. Gray-Scale Morphology
 14. Segmentation - Thresholding
 15. Properties of Binary Regions
 16. Texture-based Region Properties
 17. Minimum Distance Classification
 18. Bayes and Nearest Neighbor Classification
 19. Neural Networks
 20. Convolutional Neural Networks

Literature - Text Books

 Gonzalez, Rafael C.; Woods, Richard E.: Digital Image Processing;
Pearson, 4th Global Edition
Chapter 12: Image Pattern Classification
12.1 Background
12.2 Pattern and Pattern Classes
12.3 Pattern Classification by Prototype Matching
Burger, Wilhelm; Burge, Mark J.: Digital Image Processing:

An Algorithmic Introduction Using Java; Springer, 2nd edition
Chapter 23: Image Matching and Registration
23.1 Template Matching in Intensity Images

17.1. - Pattern Recognition and Classification
1. Pattern Recognition and Classification
2. Pattern Recognition Systems
3. Decision-theoretic Methods
4. Minimum-Distance Classifier
5. Template Matching

Pattern Recognition and Classification

Pattern recognition refers to
- automatically assigning measured signals / objects to categories, i.e.
- automatically classifying them with respect to some features.
Model
Features Classifier Classes

Images (classification rule) (group of objects
(patterns with specidic
with similar fatures)
properties. e.g.texture)
Automation and human intervention

- task specification: what classes, what features
- algorithm used for classification
- training: tuning algorithm parameters
Pattern Recognition - Example

• Classifying nuts
Features Pine-nuts (Pinienkerne)

Classifier
(circularity, Lentils (Linsen)
(classification rules)
line-fit-error) Pumpkin seeds (Kürbiskerne)
pine-nut
lentil
pumpkin seed

Classify different kinds of iris flowers (Schwertlilien) based on the
geometric properties of their blossoms (Blüte).

Features
Features describe the patterns (objects) to be classified based
on specific, distinctive properties (parameters).
Features may be numeric (height, texture, ...) or symbolic values (color, ...)
Definitions
- The combination of n features is a n-dim vector called a feature vector
- Objects are represented as points in the feature space -> scatter plots
- Objects with same or similar features are grouped into classes w1, w2, ...
Classes
w1, w2, w3

Pattern Classes
Patterns are described using feature vectors
The feature vectors represent points in the n-dimensional feature space.
A pattern class w can be interpreted as a “hypercloud” of points

in this feature space, which are close to each other and thus
have similar feature values.
For the purpose of recognition,

we like for our pattern classes
to be grouped tightly, and
as far away from each other
as possible.

Feature Selection
The quality of a feature vector is related to its ability to clearly
identify / discriminate different pattern classes.
- Patterns from the same class should have similar feature values
- Patterns from different classes should have different feature values
More feature properties

Feature Vectors
Pattern vectors are normally based on image features such as
- binary region properties
- boundary shape properties
- texture and region properties
Geometry
(Blütenblatt)
based
features
(Kelchblatt)

Feature Vectores
Binary region
properties
based features
Moment
invariants
as features

Feature Vectores
Texture
based
features

Feature Vectores
Signatures - geometry based features

(distance from center)

Classifiers
The task of a classifier is to partition the feature space into
class-labeled decision regions 1, 2, 3, ..., W, called classes w1, w2, ...
- Borders between decision regions are called decision boundaries.
- The classification of a feature vector 𝑥 consists of determining
which decision region (class) it belongs to, and assign 𝑥 to this class.
w1 w1
w2
w3
w3 w2
w4

Classifiers
A classifier can be represented as a set of
discriminant (decision) functions di(x) for the classes wi.
- The classifier assigns a feature vector 𝑥 to class wi if
- Based on the discriminant

(decision) functions di(x)
the classifier determines
decision boundaries dij(x)
to separate the classes.


Classify different kinds of iris flowers (Schwertlilie) based on the
geometric properties of their blossoms (Blüten).
Iris flower dataset

- 50 samples from each for the three species of iris flowers.
- 4 features were measured from each sample:
the length and the width of the sepals (Kelchblatt) and petals (Blütenblatt)


Features
petal
sepal


Scatterplots
two classes

17.2. - Pattern Recognition Systems

Pattern Recognition Systems



Supervised and Unsupervised Learning

17.3. - Decision-theoretic Methods
Image Processing

Classification Methods - Overview

Goal of pattern recognition: Assign patterns to their classes
with as little human interaction as possible
Matching (prototype matching)
- An unknown pattern is assigned to the class to which it is closest
with respect to a metric
- Minimum-Distance Classifier
The Euclidean distance is used as metric between the unknown pattern
and prototype vectors representing the classes - discussed in this chapter
- Correlation (template matching)
Statistical classifiers - Bayes Classifiers - discussed in the next chapter
Neural networks - discussed in later chapters
All methods are based on decision functions -> Decision-theoretic Methods

Decision Functions
Decision-theoretic methods are based on decision (discriminant)
functions.
Let represent a feature vector describing a pattern.
For W pattern classes w1, w2, ..., wW the basic problem is

to find W decision (discriminant) functions
with the property that if x belongs to wi

Decision Boundaries
The classes can be separated using decision boundaries dij(x)
based on the decision functions di(x) and dj(x)
The decision boundary dij(x) separating class wi from class wj

is given by the values of x for which the decision functions
or dij(x)
If x belongs to class wi we have

Decision Boundaries
The decision boundary separating
class wi from class wj is given
For two classes wi and wj we have
Important Question:
How should we choose
the decision function and
the decision boundaries?
Decision Boundaries

17.4. - Minimum-Distance Classifier

Prototype Matching
Classification based on matching involves
- comparing an unknown (actual) pattern against a set of prototypes
characterizing the different classes,
- assigning the unknown pattern to the class of the prototype
that is the most “similar” to the unknown.
Each prototype represents a unique pattern class.
What distinguishes one matching method from another

is the measure used to determine similarity.

Minimum-Distance Classifier
- one of the simplest and most widely used prototype matching methods
- computes a distance-based measure between the feature vector
of an unknown pattern x and each of the class prototype vectors mj.
- assigns the unknown pattern to the class with the minimum distance
between feature vector and class prototype.
m1
distance for class j
m2
=W
feature prototype mW
vector of class j
how to find the prototyps: discussed later
A distance (decision) measure determines the similarity.
That is, the smallest distance implies the best match.
Often we use the Euclidean distance
=W
with the Euclidean norm resp.
The classifier then assigns an

m1
unknown pattern x to class ci if
m2
minimize
W mW

Decision Functions
Selecting the smallest distance is equivalent to evaluating the
decision or discriminant functions.
and assigning an unknown pattern x to the class whose prototype

yielded the largest value of dj(x).
That is, x is assigned to class ci with
W maximize
i.e. the largest dj(x).

Decision Boundaries
The decision boundary dij(x) separating class ci from cj is given by
the values of x for which the decision functions
dij(x)
have the same value or, equivalently,
by values of x for which
The decision boundaries for a minimum-distance classifier is given by

Decision Boundaries
This boundary is the perpendicular bisector of the line joining mi and mj.
In the 2-dimensional case (i.e. W=2), the perpendicular bisector is a line,

for W=3 it is a plane, and for W>3 it is called a hyperplane.

Prototypes and Classes

How to define the prototypes mj for the different classes cj
- They may be well defined and known in advance;

e.g. optical inspection: correct, defect-free reference part or component
- They may be not exactly known in advance, but estimated

based on a training (sample) data set.
Often the means of feature vectors x of samples of the
various pattern classes cj are used.
Nj is the number of pattern vectors used to compute the j-th mean vector
cj is the j-th pattern class, and W is the number of classes.

Prototypes and Classes

If the prototypes of the
classes are not well known
or if they are not predefined,
they have to be learned
(estimated) by a set of
training data.

Minimum-Distance Classifier - Example

We denote the iris versicolor and iris setosa data as classes c1 and c2,
respectively. The means of the two classes are
linear discrimiants
linear classifier

Example with Texture Features

0.86
0.81 Uniformity 1.00
The texture 1.00
0.91 Contrast 0.89
5.20
5.25 Entropy 5.12
measures of 0.84
0.87 1.00
1.00
the different 0.91 0.89
5.19
5.16 5.09
regions 0.05
0.16
clearly differ. 0.02 7.97
0.32 0.24
8.91 0.04
0.10
0.16
Sky, buildings 0.02 8.37
7.01
0.34 0.19
and water 8.98 0.10
can be 7.38
0.19
discriminated 0.24 0.30 0.21
0.62 0.56 6.58 0.14
based on 6.43 0.32
6.25 0.07 6.85
these features. 0.14 0.18 0.21
0.62 0.56 745 0.08
6.97 0.32
6.75 feature vector
7.39
to be classified

Example with Texture Features - Prototypes

1.00 0.86
0.89 1.00
0.81 5.12 5.20
0.89 0.10 0.23 0.91 1.00 0.84
0.93 0.19 0.50 5.25 0.89 1.00
5.19 7.96 6.51 0.87 5.09 5.19
0.90 0.08 0.13 0.91
0.93 0.20 0.50 5.16
5.15 8.24 7.04 0.05
0.16
0.02 7.97
prototype vectors 0.32 0.04 0.24
8.91 0.16 0.10
0.02 8.37 7.01
0.34
0.19
8.98
0.10
7.38
three 0.19
0.24
0.30 0.21 0.14
classes: 0.62
6.58
6.43 0.56 0.32
0.07
sky, 0.14 6.25
0.21
6.85
0.62 0.18 0.08
buildings. 0.56 7.45 0.32
6.97
6.75 feature vector 7.39
water to be classified

Example with Texture Features - Classification

prototype vectors
0.89 0.10 0.23
0.93 0.19 0.50
5.19 7.96 6.51
0.90 0.08 0.13
0.93 0.20 0.50
5.15 8.24 7.04
3.07 1.59 0.59
0.19
0.21
6.58
0.07 0.19
0.21
7.45 ? 0.21
6.58
0.07
classification 0.21
7.45
of an unknown
feature vector
region to be classified

American Bankers Association Font E-13B

scan
The font was designed to be compact
and readable quickly by machines.
14 characters laid out on a 9 × 7 grid.
The characters are stylized to
maximize the difference when scanned
horizontally by a head
narrower but taller than the characters.
This produces a 1-D signal proportional
to the rate of change of the area (ink)
under the character.
The waveforms (signatures) are
different for each character.

The design of the font ensures that
- the waveform of each character is distinct from all others,
- the peaks and zeros of each waveform occur approximately
on the vertical lines of the background grid,
- sampling the waveforms only at these (nine) points yields enough
information for their accurate classification
- store the sample values of each waveform at the vertical lines
- let each set of the resulting samples be represented as a 9-dim
prototype vector mj , j = 1, 2,…, 14.


Classifying an unknown character
- scan it in the manner just described,
- express the grid samples of the waveform as a 9-dim vector x,
- identify its class by selecting the class of the prototype vector
that yields the highest value of

One of the keys to accurate recognition performance is to specify
features that are effective discriminators between classes.
- the better the features are at meeting this objective,

- the better the recognition performance will be.
For the case of the minimum-distance classifier this implies

- wide separation between means of the prototypes and
- tight grouping of the classes.

Distance Functions - Metrics

Mehalanobis distance - -


Euclidean Distance
Mehalanobis Distance

Feature Normalization





17.5. - Template Matching

Template Matching
Special type of Minimum-Distance Classifier
Instead of using special features for classifying
use the whole image or a image region
as the feature, now called template.
template
image metric
Red points correspond the points of best match, i.e. positions of the template within the image
Template Matching
I = s[x,y] R = t[x,y]

Template Matching

Distance between Image Patterns
template
original image

Distance between Image Patterns
Corresponds to a minimum
distance classifier using the
whole template / reference
image as the feature vector

Matching by Euclidean Distance
minimize with
respect to r and s
often nearly constant constant Correlation
- often nearly constant

Minimimzing the squared difference corresponds to maximizing
the correlation function.
Matching by Normalized Cross Correlation
maximize with
respect to r and s

Matching by Correlation Coefficient
maximize with
respect to r and s

Matching by Correlation
Detection of the eye of a hurricane

Examples and Discussion

White points correspond the points of best match, i.e. minimum value of the distance function.
White points mark points of best match, i.e. min. value of the dist. function. or max. of correlation.

Effects of Changing Intensity

Effects of Rotation and Scaling

Shape of Template


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17.

Image Processing - Pattern Recognition

N. Diehl, V-2022-final IPPR: Minimum Distance Classification 17.1

Notes on the lecture materials

 No guarantee is given that the documents are free of errors.

 It is expressly pointed out that contents may be deepened, supplemented or

N. Diehl, V-2022-final IPPR: Minimum Distance Classification 17.2

Contents of the Lecture

N. Diehl, V-2022-final IPPR: Minimum Distance Classification 17.3

Literature - Text Books

Burger, Wilhelm; Burge, Mark J.: Digital Image Processing:

N. Diehl, V-2022-final IPPR: Minimum Distance Classification 17.4

Image Processing - Pattern Recognition

1. Pattern Recognition and Classification

2. Pattern Recognition Systems

N. Diehl, V-2022-final IPPR: Minimum Distance Classification 17.5

Pattern Recognition and Classification

Features Classifier Classes

Automation and human intervention

Pattern Recognition - Example

Features Pine-nuts (Pinienkerne)

Pattern Recognition - Example

N. Diehl, V-2022-final IPPR: Minimum Distance Classification 17.8

N. Diehl, V-2022-final IPPR: Minimum Distance Classification 17.9

The feature vectors represent points in the n-dimensional feature space.

A pattern class w can be interpreted as a “hypercloud” of points

For the purpose of recognition,

N. Diehl, V-2022-final IPPR: Minimum Distance Classification 17.10

More feature properties

N. Diehl, V-2022-final IPPR: Minimum Distance Classification 17.11

N. Diehl, V-2022-final IPPR: Minimum Distance Classification 17.12

N. Diehl, V-2022-final IPPR: Minimum Distance Classification 17.13

N. Diehl, V-2022-final IPPR: Minimum Distance Classification 17.14

Signatures - geometry based features

N. Diehl, V-2022-final IPPR: Minimum Distance Classification 17.15

N. Diehl, V-2022-final IPPR: Minimum Distance Classification 17.16

- Based on the discriminant

N. Diehl, V-2022-final IPPR: Minimum Distance Classification 17.17

Pattern Recognition - Example

Iris flower dataset

N. Diehl, V-2022-final IPPR: Minimum Distance Classification 17.18

Pattern Recognition - Example

N. Diehl, V-2022-final IPPR: Minimum Distance Classification 17.19

Pattern Recognition - Example

N. Diehl, V-2022-final IPPR: Minimum Distance Classification 17.20

N. Diehl, V-2022-final IPPR: Minimum Distance Classification 17.21

Image Processing - Pattern Recognition

1. Pattern Recognition and Classification

2. Pattern Recognition Systems

N. Diehl, V-2022-final IPPR: Minimum Distance Classification 17.22

Pattern Recognition Systems

N. Diehl, V-2022-final IPPR: Minimum Distance Classification 17.23

Pattern Recognition Systems

N. Diehl, V-2022-final IPPR: Minimum Distance Classification 17.24

Pattern Recognition Systems

N. Diehl, V-2022-final IPPR: Minimum Distance Classification 17.25

Supervised and Unsupervised Learning

N. Diehl, V-2022-final IPPR: Minimum Distance Classification 17.26

1. Pattern Recognition and Classification

2. Pattern Recognition Systems

N. Diehl, V-2022-final IPPR: Minimum Distance Classification 17.27

Classification Methods - Overview

Statistical classifiers - Bayes Classifiers - discussed in the next chapter

Neural networks - discussed in later chapters