ON ETRUSCO-AEGEAN QUESTIONS. I: HERODOTUS’ HISTORY AS A MAIN SOURCE ON ETRUSCAN ORIGINS by Ledn Croteat IL i the purpose of these notes to bring to a synthesis phases of proto-history in and around the Aegean and Tyr Thenian seas which current Iiterature views as hardly rela- ted, Sires js placed in tare throughout this iterature on Etrus- can, Minoan, Mycenean, Phoenician, Acgean, ets, problems ‘as if euch one problem were self-sianding, which is rather plainly not the ease, This affirmation isnot intended to iaply that the authons in thie erature are uninformed of the com: prehensive nature of the isues they face in one or the other comer of the map, No one interested in etruscology Is today ‘unaware of the faci, for example, thal an “eleuseoid” lang. ge was written and spoken in the island of Lemnos in the Northern Acgesa Sea before the Athenian conquest some five centuries before the current era, The nature of the bond thus standing between the shores of Lemus and the strands of the Arno hus, however, remained thus far so obscure that au- ‘thors specialized Jn efruscology leuplieitly assume that their conclusions conceraings doings in Tialian Tuseany will not sffor if they largely ignore what went-on in. an around Ac= fgean Lemnos. However entered, this assumption Ie demons frably unfortunate on account of its making light of « bond of frst, not last, importanceMy interest in Etrusco-Aegean questions is of course not professional. T am Town in seienes, perhaps, us author of ‘works on biogeography and botany, not an historian or the Ike, Because of this, Tam not supposed —in the light of the standards now current to know anything at all of the sub- jects with whieh T am presently to deel, OF course, T cannot Ihave open quarrel. with standards of the kind, but 1 may ob- serve that a study of the biogeography of, e, g» Homninidac inevitably leads to considerations on the prehistory, proto-is- tory, finally history of Homo sapiens. One may “specialize” Jn the biogeography of Hominidae and the “prehistory” of Homo sapiens as entirely distinct aspects of knowledge only at the price of ignoring the rudiment that time and space are Dasle considerations for either and both. To be explicit: Bio- {geographic und historic method, respectively, have a. great ‘eal in common, whether the student of dispersal and history, protohisiory, prehistory, ele, is individually aware of it or hot hardly matters It fs not what man is pleased to believe Dut intrinsic flltingness which determines the Level that know ledge any form of knowledge, in fact— may ultimately atta, ‘The Mediterranean region offers unique interest from the standpoint of biogeography because three. different worlds ome Hato contact Within its ranges, there also determining a fourth. The three worlds that thore meet are —an easy guess indeed-- Asia, Afviea and the Americas, and their confluence determines a fourth world, Europe, which even when self standing in eppearaneo yet never fails exhibit links con- necting it abroad. In history and related sciences, the pano- rama Is not qulte as vast, for America is out of the picture However, Afri, Asia und Europe do intimately team around {he Mediterranean shores, and then from the ages when man first rose to Detter than simian status. It sure that Eqitue ‘eabatlus. and Gulsw are in Mediterranean range not exielly the same stuff, ut no one may understand the former better than the latter, and the other way around, who doer not ‘know that time and space are ofthe essence of the “teansmigea- tions” of both. ‘When canvassing the doings of man in Mediterranean range as a byproduct of my interest in the distribytion of planis end animals, felt challenged by the ovigins and mi- rations of a “nation” usually identified as “Pelasgian”. The Subject wes manifestly “mysterious”, and of vest scope and Significance. I hardly need sny that, Intending to get a Teast 2 few bearings on a subject of the kind, 1 turned first of all fo the pages of the Greek historian Herodotus who, as T hap- ‘ened to resall froon much easier day, had written about “Pelasgians”. T would never think of giving to the press these notes had I not speedily learned that Herodotus is today ther less well understood than advisable by reason of the in- herent quality of his reports on “Pelasgians” and much else. ‘This being the ease, Twill in the first part of these notes ana- lyse the Hrodtan understonding of "Pelasgians” as a preli inary toward more general conclusions. It is my distinct Teeling that, whatever he may eventually conclude, a student ff Etrusco-Aegean questions had better ezaefly know whal Herodotus dig say right atthe start Joh Linton Myzes —trustworthy authority by common consent among students of classical Greek language and his- tory-— wrote in a signed article: Pelaspians, contributed to The Encyclopedia Britannica, Bleventh Edition, (Handy Volume), Vol. XX, p65, 1911,() a follows: "Herodotus... describes aclual Peltsgians surviving and mutually intelligible (a) at lacie and Seslace on the Aslatc shore of the Hellespont, and () near Creston on the Steymon; in the latter area they have “Tyrrhenian” “neighbours”. A reeent edition of Herodotus fasted in Ialy (Bass, D.; Erodoto, I Primo Libro delle Storie, fa, fo p. GL42, 1956), thongh admitUng that “Creston” might bbe a misspelling of “Groton (aot, however, Croton in Southern Healy), places Creston: "Nella penisola Caleidiea sul golfo ‘Termaico”, which wholly agrees with Myres' understanding. ‘Tyrrhenian de understood by Bassi probably w mean “dwt {@) 1 ahoald he He to pai this monumental Wook wilh ed smog Ite scmowledgedcotrbalors Bees Say Hogi, ete, Proper [beara soen In ages ven for unsigned ees cowering ‘nythology, hoterieal evens ets Inpict tlerenoe to itll be find thraughont tar testis sltertions are sdeaed by etter Bowe following 181.Jing in towers” whl, as we are to learn, is suggestive whether fully corrector less than so Pallottino, who at this date is virtually the finel authority in everything of etruscology, understands the mater otherwise, In a work widely eireulated in different languages (), pp, 58-54, he shows himself together with the rest of modem gr. tice 09 “either definitely skeptical or extremely ceulious™ cont: ‘cerning Greck tradition. He sees as“ equelly hescleas hts, cally forthe most part the whole series of treditions eoncers hing the Pelasgiaus"; and he submits that Hellanicus” Mle. titieation of the Btruseans with the Pelasgians iss “Largely a learned hypothesis based on topoaymic similarities an due to the mania (sic) for looking everywhere jn the workd around Greece for traces of the Polasgians”, Indeed, Pallotine holds Hellanions to be proved wrong; “By the fact that other writers did speak of a Pelasgian eeeupation of Etruria, but earlier than or, many ease distinet from that of the Tyrrhenian, tnd that geographers vaguely refer to & land of the Pe siaus somewhere in Italy close to the land of the Etruscan ‘aking pointed reference to two lesser works of hs own, 4940, ‘and 1948-1049, he concludes aditting” “The possibility that ‘ancient tradition, recorded by Horodetus himself. (17), as to the presence in taly (at Cortona?) and in the Aegean (Hel Jespont) af Pelasgians speaking the saune tongue, can... be based upon observed affinities between the pre-tielleni¢ eth hic substrata of the two areas in question”. In a chapter fol lowing of his opus magraun (p. 75), Pallottino state, howe. ver, that: “We cannot overlook the unanimons, testimonies Aiven by historical tradition; they all speak of 1 far-reaching ‘domination of the sea oa the past of the ‘Tyzthenians or Ettus, ‘cans citing herein support the author of the “Homeric” hyzan o Dionysus, for whom the god was tavished by ‘Tyreheaian pirates whom Dionysus eventually turned into dolphins. He ‘thus continues: “Under the name of Pelaygians, they. were also held responsible for the stealing of Herts statue on the (1) Thaye before me, and wil eeatanty refer to, the 188 rebupsesion ‘in Bnalish ('Ptican Brooke) of Paton, Ms Te Masons, cord I should mention (thi Si om my ova) tel fe Brana brtnain Soar un Pee Cece ict a ss sia trap ha ta comdraton ofthe evidence he bt sanay out ined potting toa sharp siffernoe of opinion concerning Huredatue! 157, wherein Creston is mentioned, Myers aut Boa lacing Creston in'Thrace, Palatino in Kal, possibly cron In lew of the mit outed pion of Pale Terie ta Tegned of the credibility of Greek (redton Insofar “Flin cred to Typresians the fventin of the trumpet, and Toa Roane at urygians were accomplished musicians, Vou re ir wii Ci seca tat toe. eh tae maeninghl se that it was Massyas, Phrygian sod or ellen, Sci tno Se Roe eS Se Ss pate ie a oy a See aS ce oie con Sioa ernie coat at re SES eae ada Seas Sis canta aeoert Secbteasiiah cess trace Risse oncEy BOLETN DEL MUSED DE cise waTURALES ies Rea ft ga Sr Soa sere ee Juans on Lemnians The cles of Herodotas as key-athor loan on whore an rly, adi fro hy as Wo shall 18, Pg. 2185) of which Pallotnnhinsa wots ep ce B. 69): “In spite of objections to the contrary... a close ela: (©) Paton gpa te he Bracns” wih the fai atin cane withthe flowing sentence: ‘i deating wih he lens of anit The Toss a ton Theda Women, the fhe of sola ilo re ‘Bsory sua tnt mate's lene sweep athe fables hee Shou purporting to be history, are nothion more then souewhat ‘simple Improving", As the reader a008 ty learn, honens 8 wholylasdry fia, andthe whol o the hoses of argh 4 hae of oe hatin yet gute peal hed Be, {are from Pea ee nell fa ae eh at Sendo Feat hi, No one who knows hw ta racy a pen ill throw i away lore having cruced It ope The ea Imre hi Moma inv two af ‘Tey must Be erehad pen ere ng ete "SY OF SR ‘The review to be conducted in these notes of the fexts ‘which in Herodotus? hlatory bear upon ‘Tyrehenians, Pelas- ions, aud Lemnians will be all the clearer to a veader not Intimately informed of the question if a brief informative satement is offerod hore in connection with, to quote Pallot- tino, “Phe Problem of Eiruecan Osigins”. ‘These origins stand as subject to three different theories, as follows!) Autochthony —Aceording to this theory, tho Etmuscans evolved their ethnor on Tlaliaa soll from a stavting ‘point not to be sought outside af Ttaly in origin; it) Nordhern Provenance —Anclent Etruseans did immigrate into Ttly from. the north, whether Central or Eastern Europe; ii) Onental Provenance —‘The Btruseans eame to Italy from the east, most likely from Lydie. Of these three viewpoints the second 1s today langely discredited. Conceming the first and last, a state ‘of affair has arisen whieh Bloch (op. eit, p. 13) aptly summa> "ses, n my uiiderstanding, The French etruseologiat remarks iat, Palloting and Aitheim egree in works recently publish- ‘ed (1947 and 1950), that the problem of Etruscan origins has heen misslated. In their opinion, the cove of the issue is not toe sought inthe origin but in the development of the Eteus- can ethos, which is evidently much mixed. Bloch writes as follows: "L’ctude de cette formation semble exclare, pour M. Paliottino Pidée tradiionelle une migration ovientul, tandis, ‘que M. Aitheim; qui admet Vexistence d'éléments orientanx, troit copendant & Titelianité de Vensemblo du peuple. Le falt ftsuaque est un felt itaigue, Te peuple etrusque s'est formé tn Tali, ily a véen ily a deroulé son destin, c'est done i qu fonvient de suiyre son histoire sans faire appel & des récits égendaires, qu! demeurent incontdlables et stevérent ina tiles", Summing up, Bloch affirms his own position thus: “Convientsl ponr autant, de eonelure comme on nous le pro- pose, 4 Mevialité du récit raditionnel dHlorodote? Nous ne Te croyons pas, ef dans oct aspect négatif le thése que Yon nous présente devient peu acceptable”. In-words of the plalu fst: Bloch believes, sn this with Pallotiso and. Althoim, that the Etsuscan problem is one of development in Haly but, in las ageinet Palloting and Aldveim, be bolds that the Teaian ‘development of the Bivusean ethnos cannot be properly under-stood without making reference to Btruscan origins outside of Healy, that is, implicily in the Near East. As seen by a biogeographer — and 1 have slated already {hatin point of method biogeography and history do not hear Deing separated— Bloch's position ie the correct one ie pri ciple, Development follows origins, and is after all Largely de {termined by origins. My understanding of proper methodology is also in the present ease not theoretical at all, Phe plain fact 46 that « common bond of language does bind Etruscars ard Lemans, the shores ofthe Tyrrhentan: and of the Aegean seas, ‘and this plain jact cannot be bypassed in the name of dever tion to “development” and its study, This fact ix primordial in the sense of origins, and quite independent frosn whatever the Eiruscans happened to “develop? tn Italy, Either we ean properly place iin vegard alike of Etruria and Lemnos, ot ‘we may as well admit that the problem is fo yield no more sense in the former thar in the latter, whether by origins or by development. T do wiew of course what I have just stated as common- ‘sense, but it will surely be objected that by endorsing Bloch’ position, ever only in prineiplet, T but discredit myselt In the ‘pinion of « majority of living ctrascalogists who, inthe wake of Pallotting and Aitheim, insist today against Bloch on Its Van development against Aegean origins. In plain. words, It ‘will be expected that [ama openly to rally to “Oriental theory” ‘at the ond at Teast of these notes; and sinee T ain not speci list in elruseology, it will bo suspected meantime that 1 a iol informed of the obvious tiniginess of the txdition of Etruscan origins from Lydia brondcast by Herodotus, Is it not so that Mommsen did strongly condemn those who belie- ‘yen trash of the kind; and is itnot so that Pallottin, someti ‘mes when not always i of the saine mind as Mossmeen? To sel at rest without delay the qualms of the reader, T ‘will right here state that 1 do as a matter of fact believe in no theory, which will be amply clear in the progress of these no- {es Moreover I wm, af course, alive to the abwiows fact that the tradition, or logend, reported by Herodotus concerning the Lydian origins of the Etrscans ie —ar such right inere= Abie, So goes the tale which certain Lydians told Herodotus, and he reporl (100: Dice knueklebones, ball and every Siice plaything, saving draughts” were invented by the Ly- ‘any necording fo claim atthe same tine when ty sent 8 Salon fo ryrrhenia™ Helaboured by a mighty famine which fasted eighteen year, the Lydana fred at fist to beguile {hele hunger by eating and playing im alternate days. tm the het tower, the situation Became so ad that king As, 2m SE Manon decided hat sll hi Eydian subjects shoal bo dive {Tod ito two lot one to remain inthe land the other fo ent [pate The Kings son, Tytshents, tole command of the hal Sr cgrata led ito Stmpraa to enibark, and ofter having posed many nations be guided 110 the laud of the Kalan Ombre and toa new bone There they changed thelr nami ceurel to be Lydian and font their tenders name ¢P009~ Shously called themaeves Tyrehenians. “Paty not ute many ote fhe sae hy i ti largely mythical neo not be sat es evident, for example, {hat Herodotus di not hea i rom one of his contemporaries, the Lydian historian Xenia, who fag Torehebus inthe pace cof Tysrhenus or Tyaenin, ad aes iin the eponymous Sewo of Lydian dati. @) Moreover, Grek legend algo hat that the tention of die, backgamaon, diseus- throwing, Sveights and measures lighthouses, nally the alphabet is (0 Ye Stet to Patnmedes, sn of Nauplits, king of Euboes XS Inventor of the alphabet, Pred does indeod enters into competition with Cadhnts and Cecrope. F thre 1s any- thing teat all in Herod necowot this thet certain ea (tart oa aw hve wh ny at thenae cohen took the sae form te li of Tye, ean Gi Mereton unpre ete Pesnat and fopnyaia may 1, Rr nd ten oon eat Ae ‘Mfc plan dessa, emai ess 4 nation 86 [TiN Glerootus ‘tem, soe 1318" YU, 60 king Re Tar Tee ag beter Lycian Chl (re Contents GT Gee tes yap 1 30a; ae sree ten te tien Torben bt he ane of Sao fetni snd yssne Crave) lc std doen, santas oboe forthe ors Wo the sae emer ite nan fepooene abo! yer alone reer To tefan who ware not Grek eft the Aegean region to go o Hinly In encient tines, that is tong before 1000 bcs ao dente, ver bore Goa of the clase alle I Sey a Southern Kay iis extent, the legend picked up hy Hare dota snot ets ecu (oe Ftttin ap 49) when thse Gres raced aly they found nal ie eee Sn sor, tht hy had preseded fa these wate by bel ‘uvigtre spate of kind whieh elsely Yond ng flue Tynhenns and Petnglas of fe Aegean ranges Nr roves, crtain of the dels wish go with the Helos legend ow ae at corect te nam ay Heredoes ae colnet ase a Lydian yeni; str hat spe ald di Indulge tn year pre-mpt csts poay In view of eecurng a dowry which, beng ls not apes Jn Ei, seandalized thes more contervaive neghbons Goo orgy Plaats, Citta 3.88, scorer ae 2510); 6) Ue te that Lydtan” migrnons To Tly were (1) Patino (oy. eyo, 216) lees Sat th sateents of Pat Sieabo, Aeneas, ec, caning auiariel ran, oneal ‘te Het oe inc a eely Darel tos ee porte es by Astle tat the Bein tok the adit {ae cnmany Of tei women png unde the sue mle che esos ninco "word to bein. wiomlsance oe ui pc of ny win Pains tl ge nk {ein bebavou tnt ut ages with th Fgcan Soe whee fever the sect ‘heir “Pelasg- Cartan” Waster ef, gy Lennas Charece: intclly for the Burwsean baclground: Palloiing ses (9. ty , 200): "A aotale persistence of formal pater, tedalgiey, snd Mion telonging lo tho euler Medteratean and ortentsag hao diet and very caso relations withthe stile expenenceg the easter Greek wor, Leaf the etl and Inslands ses of Acois and Tonia mn westera Aula Minor; thee realtone wee love nuh for many dards (Pom the mide of te sith fo not in the nature of occasional raids, witness the perpetuation fn Tallon sol of & language otherwise bound with the Aegean region, and of a religion which was in very essential by far {oo righty developed and involved to represent but easal syneretism of “Ttallote” myths and cults, To this very extent ind inch could be added which I expect to bring to book ‘when times comes Bloc Is not without justification in his sresing the account of Herodotus as not easily to be diamls- ‘sed wholesale. Indeed, believers, in the “eutochthony” of Btruscans have a rather hard row to foe quotations do not seem necessary. when reckoning with the massive evidence ‘which demonstrates that, wrong in every detail perhaps, He- “ rodotus is right ia the ullimate fundamental of the Biruseans being of "Aegenn” origin, t seems unfortunate that an sathor ‘who like Bloch is master of certain aspects of the problem should finally postulate (op. cit, p. 25) the arrival in Ttaly: “Vers le début du VI side, un noyan de navigutours asieti- ques” in order thus to account forthe liaeans in the peninst- Ja, A critical reader of the literature finds it without difficulty to berepleted with a mixture of obvious error and truth, whieh is the reason why in the end the literature is confuse and eon fusing. We have facts aplenty, but do we know enough to sya- thetize them to a fuller purpose? T wonder, and of course I do subscribe to no theory. ‘ho begining of the fith centary) forthe Agari arte of Brae 2 fo. follow uch the same potters ax those of the eastern Grea ward soa to create what In fat has come to be known ‘Tone irasan art” 1 am enter are fiat when faring to Aeol, aol st, n ques of arse experence” he Brave oavlgtors fd eaters ofthe sth ceatory id wot go ther tse out what fut be ‘Greek end "Tonat” (Uhey could find I gute a exlly {e'Gortnm, Aegina, Athen, ste form shorter vorat). They went be to thai od “Pesaran” rede wll owing What they ed fd they were dit, sloneEtrasa tthe rtf which Palle tine speaks to the very extent that what in 1 i Tonlau” is shot Urea and threagh with "Pelagia. ‘The boo bert mows its hive, sad what Palloing hare reports le doubters evdence of tho stongert forthe Hlrscan repeating Mle rain peel from the Islands and hover of the Aegean Sot he woaln text cot sationthe conclusion that time is not to be wasted if we agree can. Aidly and fally once more to xeview what Herodotus imparts ‘concerning “yethenians, Plasgiens, and Lena Por the To ‘Tyres ouside ofthe Aegon westor Herodotus gives but afew statements whl, hough intresting are oot mediately materi to thee noes. Of the two heyceferens erin histone Lv mined ead whe aa tring the purported doings of the Lydinn Ale und his son The she wl prety ota al Lavon en he Lame ‘ans ae mentioned by hin several Une, partclany Tn tard ofthe Persian Ware are au such ao of our concer and T do not expect to consider. The customary indices to Hero- tory, te by Powel canot af cone 7 eled pon im eiical work beatce vin seas, Tei malt hy Tween wd th ay same me a 1 ery eiffereat moments tne hry. To useate Powell Indexes fr Lemnos (neuding Lemans: op. ets 2 p, 7a) sx esos OF thenr a quite notable one (VINE 79/3: p, 57) rfers to Lamnians i the Peloponnese slated to Pe: roreale. By thr eforenee wich has capital hnportanes (@) Rather carouly, Powell Be ri ates In one of his maps Creston in ey retry hes Cn le 2) derstanding of Pao, ut why 80 in vew of is wa ee Jao. nent fo be qunted~ T wou po know. : for the whole of Greck history and language, (!) and as such ‘Mill be Found diseassed in the progress of these notes— the Sis references by Powell come (0 vefer to there very distinct Subjest, that i: i) Proto-hstorieal Lemniane of Lemnos, im Tnediately involving also fhe Lesion Minyse; 51) Historical Tomanian of Lennnos, whether stil Pelasgian or alresdy “ionl- Tat following the Athenian conquest; Hi) Lemnians of the Peloponnese, fe, Parorestse and, Ukely, Gaueones. The vik Of trusting an index, end going hopelessly wrong next there Gites is thus clear; and thatthe index of Herodotus has inde ‘ean trusted in the worst possible sense is obvious to him who ‘rlfcally. investigates the claim, widely held throughout the Siterature that the “Phoenician” Cedimus invented, or at least, Drought to Greece the “alphabet”, understanding as such the alphabet, eneesiral 40 outs, Which is commonly called "phoe- ‘The issue with proper Hesodotan exegesis here implicitly raised is a0 fondamental in regard of the whole of these notes (Gee alo the misinterpretation nade of Creston as Cortona, p. Go) that immediataly opening a parenthesis in reference to the Phocnicle” whieh sived Cadmus seams to be quite necessery. te a most revealing passage (Hh, 42 ff. 1: p. 180), Herodotts states that intending to set his mind at rest about what Fayp- Hans and Grecks, respectively understood as the god Hercules, Ihe undertook to voyage to Tyre in Phoenisia there to question the priests of a famed temple to thal god. These priests told him, among othes, that: "The temple of the god was establi- GH he pemmge in question iy often found mossy misinterpreted to the Ackcone were sstoahthenous of the Peloponnese How ike iteptetation alt be thougt of 4 poste bein view of author of the pasate of Herodotus (165850. 75) ‘aplcty iteming Hay An order to possssthenaeves of the ds tre of to Nortuesa Peloprasese clasatly known as chic, the seyag Aetineans led fo sapel the Tonans ab aniquo on he ‘pox is whey beyond me Whatorer fhe cu, wel now scholars Bee ‘ame Ht with pointed eference to Morodotn, VI, 73, Dy et fo powsont a thooughly garbled) aceount of Acca, Tentans, etshed atthe founding of Tyre and the years that they (the Phoe- aicians) have dwelt in Tyre are two thowsand and three us. dred”, The date thus given, 2750 B, C., has been proved by archaeological data (Conteneu, 6.1 La Gfvilistion Phénicten. ne, p. 4. 1949) to be correct, Elsewhere, Herodotus gives CL ‘MB/1: p, 178) chuonological references for Cadmms and the ‘War of Troy (®) which assign to Cadmus a date about 1500 B, G, and to the War of Troy about 1250 B.C, The later date is quite satiafactory (see, e.g, Blogen, C, W, et al: Troy, Vol iv. 1958; Mylonas, G.E.: Archacology 15(1): 8. 1900), and it 4s Ukely that the former may algo he accepted es vail. The Aiscovery and development of sylabic und alphebetie welling is still clouded, but anticipating on notes to come I inight hot unressonahly state thal the Cypro-Minoan sevipt (a fore: Munner of Linear B, so called; seo Chadwick, .: The Dect herment of Linear B, p. 20. 1056) was jn use axoume 1500 BG, and that semitie alphabets eventually leading to. one now in use had their active start between 1000 ancl 1250 1. ‘long w line: Sinsi—Lakish— Byblos (Abiram). The Phoe- hictan thelassoersey did nol develop itt after the ruin af the Aegean one, thal i, later than 1100-1000 B.C, bet preponderant only after the latter date, which explains why, to the exception of Cyprus whieh clung to its own partial script, alphiabels of semitic origin did not become current in Acgenn before 800 B. C, There is good season to belleve Uhat Herodotus was well informed of the alphabet which hint self used (ses, gy mention of sar aud sigma (1, 198/19. 73)) ‘nd F still empioy with litle modifieation to jot dow these notes. I¢ must accordingly be possible thal when mentioning (x, 59/2: p. 378) *Cadmean lotta” which hie had seen chased ‘pon “cauldvous” in the temple of Apollo Isinenius nt ‘Thebes in Bovotis, and saying that those letters niost resembled lo. nian” Letters, Herodotus could, and aid not refer to anything like the alphabets more or less diseclly imported ftom Phar nicia into Grecce aud its islands after 1000 B.C, What those (0) Powol prints the pasage Jn queton fn Sie asf lterolated. 120, the interpaator wae rather well later no Lea Pee Herod, “culos and tins “lie cout be ey eet rom te specimens played, arate too fasly "ed ‘here hy Tnnny (iste de P Ase Aatriure de Pnde Weta Catt pp. 2m, 201 206 figs, 0.104), Wil Sein tot ore noe pel i ny Shows ©) we ase snely ot or from the siya signs ree ty reported from Lerna near Myceoae, and found by Casey (het a ea» ea hes ateat wih nee of "Linea In pain yor we fas Uhre omer ply ong Cyprus, Crete Tees een which Suny ayer of Linear Ay Line By a surely abo af ono ofthe olhess Cypuote” syllabi orp Cad tnus hose ae in pte of a toged Tyan vgn er tainly not semiio™ ould on no gud whiteyer have o- Saved into Crees an apa! fo compere the one be coe cent oy se 0 8 Pine tn Gans sta certainly uo to degre to compare with, ey Meal “alovea) of Arad” (Herod, Vl 0272: p.B), one of the muthentcally Phosniinn opin of eres pest fect fated to perth ai Salamia Pave foo beste ame in oo ent lt “Myer wo ir detryed; and so Intdeguateonea wis er maine Uhl tren ethos shed te ng amber from te Eanon Jno Hap smmatines qr 3) Cob had to contac the sais oversea of “Cretan” sige Ai he ther bande find‘thatsealonship is establsed hetwess Cyprus and the toast much later to become Phoenila In the pollcal sease efor 2001, (Costa ap tp. 3D ad hats she fen colony. suing Cyprus portant se User {Ras shames) sinaltantouty th Se settnent of the town by Harts around 1750 BC. (op cep 9). Conladng tla Herodotoas tll "Phoeniate” inaference fo tines “Then nt 300s hey Tt of dors rte, couerny ty reperctng sare rytbng and’ anything ef maskin swarming win 4 fof everything and’ eorlng i Webs IL (om Move o Hon, p 8 8), fhe dete sey eco ay forged Qe ly the ‘ore tif remains to be seen wha tere Cade being Grove, ad what “alphabet” dia Paumele Haven, it any ng.‘viangle: Lyeia —Giliela— Southern Syria including of course Cyprus. The nations and peoples of this tiangle were allied im every sense with the Cretans, and active ith them all slong the seclor of land and sea comprised between Crete sand ‘Thasos, This state of affairs ruled until Cretan. po-ver same to its demise sometimes around 1600 B.C. (see Inumer- wwahr, Archaeology 18(1): 6. 1960) {0 be replaced by a Myce- ‘ean maritime empire whieh waxed strong after the final bur ing of Knossos in 1400 B. C. Cadaus was accordingly not a Phoenician in the historical meaning of the term, nor did ever bring to the Thebes an alphabet of semitie origin: Whst le did bring to Rocoti, if anything, was a ayliabary of “Cypriote” type, and it becomes quite understandable that other semi- luythical figures Tike Cecrops and Palamedes, are suid to have Invented “writing”. They “invented” it, most likely, in the ‘sense that all they bogan to Keep graphie recounts ita style heretofore unknown to the dwellers of the region among Attica, Euboea, and Boeotia, 1 wilt return later ov the subject here briefly outlined, ‘ut to close this parenthesis iu the sprit in which It as opened will right here conclude as follows 5) No ane may at all hope to understand Herodotus who proves table or unwilling to reconstruct the word in which le lived, and of which he heard, Herodotus is a source of ulmest importance for the whole of “Hlllenic” protohietory and history, und whatever he states is —at bottom, when not an the wuvface in every ease— worthy of trust. As an historian, he ls left behind, doubtless, by Thucy- ides whose masterful introduction to the events of the Pelo- Dounesian War i, to say the least, impressive even today, but 1s a chronicler he havdly finds his match anywhere: i) Those ‘who refer to Herodotus as authovty for the “alphabet” having deen introduced from “Phoenicia” to “Greece” at the hand ‘of Gadmus mistake the shell for the met, and iti likely that they have not read Herodotus’ history beyond the index; ii) When critically interpreted, Herodotus’ history “dovetail almost to perfection withthe latest data from archaeology. So generally does the Greek tradition when interpreted likewise, Quotations do not seem desirable only to prove that authors who discredit this history and tradition at some page in thelr work flatly contradict themselves on the seore of its signlfie Temee and value at some other page in the some work. Heroin references mata the Btrsco Peas ‘Lemafan question are_given here only in estentials leaving i to the reader to know them In the original if he should so Aesire, No comments are offered on each reference because ‘hey will be disenssed apart and together at the end. The re {erences in question stand as follows: 1) (4, 66-68/1; p, 25) —"And esguiing (Crocaus) found thatthe Lncedacmoniane whee est eminent ofthe Do a tee fh nn Fore wer he vipa rut whereof the one wi in ald Snie Pelagia, nic other Greek and the one hath never doperted from is Some hut the other hath wandered exceeding far. But what Tone Pelagians spake Tain ot le to aay with catanty Towbet,ifane may infer from those that il remain of the Pelagians wo ellie the ely of Creston above the ‘yerhenins Coho once were neighbours 10 the people now tulled Dorian at th tine wen hey Snbaited the land which Sev ced Tian) end sho of the Pong wo stashed Splaca and Seylas in the Haespont (having en fellow couatyuen ofthe Albeniaos ad of alle ober ties tat were elaians and have changed thelr ame) SAC ny, oo amay infer from thet, the Pelaany were speskervof bubastan tongue, Therefor I al the Pelagians Yee ke thse then the Albenins, who are 4 Plaga Face, armed’ now fone at the tine that they changed Into Greats. The Gredk people, a it seeneth to mo, hath Used the sume tongue always since ever begas..-and from Small beginning it hath waxen Into a greet mtd Decne ‘nuny Davari nations were added then, and among thom ae dink, the Pelagians BG, 180/1: p. 75) —CHerodotan stetement resumed): ‘The Ionlans are a mixture of different uations: Abantes from ‘Enboea who ave no part even the name of Toulans”, Minyae from Orchomenus mixed wilh Abantes, Cadmeans, Dryopes, Phocians, “Areadiane” who axe Pelasgien, “Fpidaurians” who are “Dorians", and many other kinds2 OLED B=. MUSEO DE CHENEAS NATURALES Jampus ee it Gant Cadmus and those who came with ee tae gente hein Sera re land the Athenians next instructed the rest of the Greeks, “The ‘when they were alzeady coming to be numbered among the for these Pelasgians who had been neighbours of the Athe- 2s ee te de Bua ‘whose nme they learned much later, they consulted the oracle Seid, ey vel the sates of the gos And the Gn ‘iu a manner of speaking, until yesterday or the day before. Aescribed their forms... Now the former things are said by the priestess at Dodono, ut the later (concering Home snd Hesiod) by me", Thesprotie which ip now part of Greece ‘as formerly Pelasgia, In Grook, Iss is Demeter. fv) (1, 174/1: p. 190) “And concerning the rite of Demetes, which the Greeks eall Rhesmophovia, I will also hold my ton- [pues save Tor go much as may with reverence be ssid thereo Hi gwse tho danghiters of Danas that brought the rite out of aypt and taught the Pelasgian women; but afterwards, when fall the inbabltanls of the Peloponnese were driven out by the Dovians, the rite was uttely Jost; and the Areadians, who remained in the Peloponnese end were not driven out, alone preserved it, +) (LV, 45/1: p. 328) “The grandehltdren of the mariners of Acgo were driven out of Lemnos by the Pelasgians who avished the Athenian women from Preuron” vi) (V, 26/2: p. 968) "To be valor of the sea oust... he (Darius) appointed Otenes... Having obtained ships from the Lesbians, he (Otanes) took Lemnos and Tmbros which at that time were both still Inhabited by Pelasgians, Now the TLemnians and Imbrians fought well; but for all thelr resisting they were brought low at las”. ‘il) (Wh, 198-140/2: p. 485) —(atatements in part resumed. Long before 470 B. C. (date of the Athenian eonguest of the Hellespontian towns), the Atlenians allowed Pelasgions (0 dwelt in the land below the Hymetius as a reward for the Tatler having built the wall around the Acropolis (Ihe so cal Jed "Pelasgian Wall” or "Pelasgicum)”, Whatever the reason, the Athenians eventually decided to get rid of the Pelasgians fand cated them to depart. They Went to Lemnos and other fplaces, but being familiar with Athenian wags, those who had etted in the former Islands armed regular warships, and Alescendod upon the coasts of Altica setzing Athenian women fatlending the festival of Artomis inthe village of Brauron. ‘These women begot children to the Lemnians, who were ins: tracted by their mothers in "Atte" tongue and “Athenfan™ rays, This led to brawls with the eblidren of pure Pelasgian ork, and wishing to do away with it the Pelasgians mass fred both their Athenian women and thelr offyprings. ‘This ‘Mrocions deed bectme proverbial, and its perpetrators werepunished by the gods with Darreness in humans and animals. Having consulted the oracle, the Pelasgians were fold to malee ‘slonement to the Athenians according to whatever penalty the latter might exact, The Athenlans demanded that Lemos itself be surrendered in the best of conditions, but the Pele Glans mockingly replied that they would eomply only then, Wheu a ship from Athens would reach Lemnos the same day of sailing in the teoth of « north wind. ‘The conditions could pot be met because of obvious geographic reasons, Lemnos Jing to the novtheast of Athens, but "exceeding many years After when the Chersonesus in the Hellespont had fellen to the Athenians, Millindes the son of Cimon reached Lemnes on the samme day in a ship from Blaeus in the Chersoneus when the seasonal winds were blowing, and commanded the Pelasgians to depart out of the island, patting them in mind of the prophe- cy which the Pelosgians had never expected tobe flied upon, them". ‘The men of one of Lemnos’ main towns, Hephaesta, obeyed, but the inen of Myrina, the remaining main town, te. fused, Miltiades then put siege fo it and eventually conquered {he whole of the island. wii) (VIE, 9695/2: p. 505-506) “The Tonians furnished (to the feet of Xerxes) an hundred ships, and were armed 28 ‘the Greeks. Now according to the Grecks the Ionlans were cal: led Pelasgians so long as they dwelt in the Peloponnese, that part which is now called Achala, and before Danatis and Xuthus eame to Peloponnese... And the men of the éstes fre nished seventeen ships, and they were armed as Gresks. They also are a Pelasgian people, but afterwards i fell out that ‘wore caliedTonlans in the same manner as the Tonians of the ‘twelve cities who eame from Athens (sc). And the Acolians Furnished threescore ships, and they were armed ay Grecks; and the Greeks say that of old they were ealled Pelasgi™ ix) (VIN, 44/2: p. 585) “Tho Athenians, in the days when the Pelasgians possessed what is now called Greeec, wene Pe. lasgians and were named Cranai, But in the days of king Cecrops they were called alvo Ceeropidae; and when Tvoch. theus received the kingdom, they legen to be named. Atle. hans; and when Ton the son of Xuthus became ruler of the Athenian host they were called after him Tonians”™ Serine by a reader who is not far with the back cunt of pace, vers, un nen which Herat imel fies for geentd, thee and lke passages easily make Uitte 12 a re tomy nied ey pra, sca ‘Spvceily cans of tne oF the ef copie fat on, tian eat gun Tobe eacused enly ered fhe one at these, puwnges rep. 0, HW {2G hint ado oo oe od at aly Wrst iistat,wtver th eam ean scout fr Hered ae etna among the nations of the Pctoponese fr emt certain that Tess i snd Inthe Norern Aegean? wot tant ers ers ‘Talus whe has no pereeption of Herodotur ow mes ard what rece i ingunderstand the Greek historian, Very meh spe- ‘ialized in one particnlar field of tory, areal et, - sect uen ol nn Hoe ey, Fie fh ayen, carom, pheysian, le) (2) Hi) Around 200 B.C, the- ear us ot sina hte tte ivan weit, possibly closely alled with lyrans and Thralons, Phe, 4 tbe di spe an Indo Buropcan language foerantar of ‘he hoing currently ented ns claseal Grek, andy ee aging with the natives slrendy nt the spot they started thee 'allenizaion” in Tengsnge when not immedaly ncaa i) Around 1350 B.C. (hat acorn To the legend se {ree generations before the Tropan Wat) Greece aus sours invaded hy teibes from the northwest of the seme lengeage nd origin as the earliest! immigrant. This ie the oo Sieh (9 hs i ny ante by Pat (oo it. 286 ft) who mene eee vt thal ovr soa es sae ony the ingng of Teas bong ena Seu ie’ tty fee Incue: “Fu select sch tne actor i ene ee Tout of on Me er etn mae es iy mnt“ eee as ag nH cl ea i Sse tery Ode se a aa her ep ett ep cranial Sn HOT boundary: Cuucasus—Persian Galt, “segea reign, of Hast saw oelyserutse, te "aay en Ce, Hs ‘Safe fl aga ta Sa FESS se ay i S S aa hay oo tain wi mae’ tear ors the Fad Esc op ar ae ne erin nase ii en regu a en trp tt Se ruc decinngeace ea, ‘nent pac ae ance ae at ay aa ene Achaian invasion (); iv) Around 1100 B.C. a third wave eame in of invaders allied with the Achaeans and Proto-Grocks, as nt identity them (Le, the “Greeks” of the 2000 B. C. Invasion). This isthe Dorian énvasfon. ‘The first invasion did implant early forms of Greek speech, and itis to it that the “Myeaenenns” owed their language, ‘whieh has proved to be archaic “hellenic”. @) The second invasion but extended and deepened In this respect the effects of the first, ‘The third invasion, or Dorian, finally. eansed the usage of old, “aslonie” tongues to drop out virtually alto- ether n Grete and the southern Aegoan Islands. GD a Achaea inven Is not cepa by the malty of aden ‘Ni gat te olnon of lr one bat oly wisi ‘ls To safe Aeboan Stab sie at gto esesty ‘nur the page of Oe Homer pooms, wise vd, ‘Son tba (or avai te sbectindx of "vom Myce Tomer 0 by 8: Weber hone woul matiate vo Trae of te ipestinc te bess fon of hues does tier a erp ty the age ofthe tet tet nd then note Rpm ace fr anew are tH (net 18) ‘ether of Cath ent Toy to wollbe jf fin of “hnna’™ Satara he when of the work mentioned LNAS"onyare ef te soos of een though happen {5 Maggy Gone One would sow lan the rel of ead Gece yer efor Wbsersopiion op yb 1D, aCe at the benows of “geen” nan: De cin and ay on ‘uber of parte book has the Sri ot waliag ts purcur jot wheter operant Ber mI ould oe ges when te set rae oa eBay Shere eras fore ping fat ay 0 sae see a peel ars inthe prema ents ren it's ay futon of wha Westen wpe Ho oot fe seuss tte Acme sad of the ne fosmid, ant ihn a! tin ersten al mths art (2) Dy decipherig “Linens BY achat Venus established to fact bo yond doubt, Lngitoaliy he ining are most portant, Mtoe {Giiy even ore far reaching.‘The development of the “Greek” ethnos is accordingly complex, and it presupposes the gradual “hellenization” of @ large amount of “Carians”, “Tyrshenians”, “Pelesgians, et Jn thin respect, ii intrsing that Novthwestern Greece, the cradle of the “pure Greeks", remained throughout classical {fives snueh Behind the ret of “Hells” in every cillral Considering that, unlike Achaeans and Doriaas, Ionians do not figure among the original invaders of Grovee, Th Seems clear thatthe Ionians could only arigiuste from « “ael- ling:pot” active on Greek soll in which “Hellenes™ and “Po. Jasgians” jointly had hind. A glanee st the position and ex. lent of the Arcadian dialect (see Fly. 1A) is enough to reveal ‘hat the speakers ofthis dilect ar its forms were sorely hem ‘med in by Acheans ("North-West Greeks”) and Dorian after 1850/1100 B. C. The arrogant assumption of “vacial™ purity and nobility on the past of the Dorians, the military charac. {er of Spartan life and organization, the impossibility of diffe. ront “Hellenic” groups the agree beyond the range sf loose onfederncies etc, are transparenty clear in thelr ultimate raison d'étre if veterred to such wadiment as I have just vere {red to being before the reader. That the “Hlellenes" would not identify themselves ws such until comparatively late in heir history Is reasonabie considering how long they endured a "Pelaagians”, “Achaeans”, “Dotians",“lonians”, “Argives™, le, in speech tnd even more in spit "Today we have arcstoge! data on hand yasty beyond Herodons" own range, an s0 we can dispose of questions ait pierce whi he could ot eve Hope to cle Howe ver Herat had anise af information sea once ‘hich edo ot have, tnd ifs trangpnrent toa ean eae of hk won tat thse sree wore feluble sees Fandamentl ven i trea in cert detail isa: Hasan “ao ne man iar ‘a a member ofthe Dorin ree relate #2) that“ oe hens malslpe upwards Banat the daughter of esate Dorian king be fod tmvebom Happ’, This afimton yas ma ivetea hy Nesedotu, tare some say ohn whom he Detsed Th ftimation i of conse repose ex reat ngs gate atone sche oraaly Epics hana ond Hagan reat of mos estate. Ife RGU rst ee erpli n ovo wa, a noo tt nae oo ern incl tre "ona gee anys ghd fo claim for heures the wii Sedo he Avan, gy ty ead King om eee etal Heng sae Sl eninge ud eer ee rims eden og tna o Heer dae ree Roig at tec thon 0B, wick sett ata tno Syria enn of the gene rec ti lant unas So sel, he tin SP gine gps! Only ey save sade ad ec eng ierodts th navenex even more natal wits "Pe tle” tngunge doe break down ay sat de oct Capt dented Devon Lota and Asan ‘hile question sonsring he substaatit ey (Sta a ve ed ppt sed hy et tor fats Chadwicy oe typi g 2) Ste a {cnr pte by Cady: NowhWet Gao Boston {Srallan Ae rope). These sueron to ia extent Peetat tinge war avted nt dna hens Hire te Porky Asneny snd Donan Invest Weitont e at, psa ue antiga, the ferent Taco uta afta Jn he pro of ee ss Atechata's “Peaagine et e ike To (2) Substantial smut e underscored, for in detail tings were not quite those all vee or examples Heroiots atime (141: 73) fh even val song te Tonia af the Eastern Aegean fur die Font diets ware spown, thr by des ead idan 2) Meas, Is: Prene oll iy Cava)s 3) phen, Colophon, Labedas, Tes, Chnscmene; Phocata (all im Ld) Li) Samos, 1) ‘Chios and ‘Erytare fon the continet, Seaedltely teeing Chins), Tamas {© Tlerodotng alo tlle oy (00612 p. 78), tho oncoming Tonos Iiurdored the Carine and too see women 1 sms rather pro Ibe that the tines diferecer above are the byproduct of Tonlan spe (eel of coarse by ne means Gitar) Bevin been fer Iftnoe in loa varant bythe Tangunges nnd ales fvady a the spol, heer Caran, Lydian, etAnsrtes In Acts an parcsnsly in Actes spoken fn ‘Thesis, te name of the god Ayal in Ue Rone apaon ox Apis) becomes dplaun. Hany may wel he lg whe derives op. cl, 129) Apolo from the saycbelelontey ofthe ents Abie, bacattesrtin of heat of Apolo inca alt (omen, protateras, apes) tease {it's od o the gate or te ks Moreover ns ayers vei ares tone pillar with palnfod head se up More the de of hanes than which nothing sould be center ee appens tate we shall en, de seek of asd seo be tween the Helepont and eaaly-ocota wes hos fects Senin” who. apoke an setrscla™ Tangge This cases ange was ible by “Asolo” Greks, adhe question onda tegiinate whether is sheer ‘colncdecs hat potas pio ApatnIn esc, ‘Together with Tonia and Arclan, Aes onthe xo cele "Acac dtl in totes ont Ghee Shou vain sper i cht o Oyen te a bond alageter ipso sis te a ae ‘est at any be anderson han ao yea ‘su pas conn Aveda oC in Area a Gynt wee “ne una oa mtn (or Cypmis "wo el largely cel iy Bae ims avendy “elena he wegen ok {Pino language (iy of nelle! ang a oh 3. vintage) ley toon foe 12508 Cane 1 he pnenenn” wont ie ars ie nt lode ae ncn” Cet soe) seh git eaot by ny Heston to give a lecture in Gx istry, only to underscore imum af goneraiice toga ‘better understanding of what Hervdotus sats Ihde sage Ure ued ve pf). wl cat reas shot and begin the discussion ot tha pase ig with the first, as follows: bd Te evident that, whatever e may thin, for whow the Athenians rte asthe paragon of the Greco, Herodotan hia sthervise than we do, He deliberately reset the steeaieg ft the adjstive: Grek (tent) tothe Dorian, tsignng the ‘tenia toa racially dtiaet calgary of create Se tenzed” Peasgans, Tie iv not seer byproduct of Devan ride (erootes snot vty Kind to Athans and Toni), Era dedlongealy ged on the fact that ined fo tho “crete of the Grell he Doin hnd faded clan teeing the pares smog hem 2 tintin whch ee Father Solated net would conc o underscore. By com tr the Atheatan had gown onthe spot, a twee rom the “eetton of Ae Pelagians mised ith whatever Stray smyeenmen” sock might he srt, Lah to he grat Sdvantageof a ermting, Hort sedom allt tes the taco af “ellensatint™in the development of a tal more ov es rater fs han sore) trian Hl fi mut pla st or good hd the Dorian af Toast tora ay tbe Spartans in Hert owt ies Sad demas ted les aentaon® {o Become "oreo than ha te Ad Tam at atoms o understand how Palin, owe, ey contd gat oof te tet to whch tay ao piney eer (ose tly vedas "Cs" te Pallotion, op cts 3 oven thet reson (yaaiever the apelin) es be saa {tt Coron af Ta What tena out of asl i ether Teaver lye than wh did ont Myre (108) aod_ Bas Cit, andthe Geek Tox sommes oem. Quen Yomi Is fox tn to adn tht erodotan definite acl Zon of “Tyrrhenian” near Pesto stereo ything Stay and at Herat report “raion” (9 On Cove tnt and intend sdence do perfectly ove teuint Patting Powsh ele Tet and Stern) evkdenc, to Deyn wih as fant that Herodotun dos bag In Tye Zranlane whee sesng te Hogue bonds of Cesta, Pacnns and Scyasan iy norma snot of ss Ipiing than ia all shaved in a cman, tng. A step thing Fig 2) the cles an regione sieted by Hered fant slanis of Lomnos imply highest cre (2) In the porno tography, Patino does ist (op lt 72) Hiss iv Stat Htrseht XX, HMB, pp. M0 av author of an ele "Erootoasioctonst® he whole anand dell tome,of « *Pelasgian” speaking region ofthe Northern Aegean. Sinee Wis certain that the Lermnians spoke an etruseoid language, and it should be difficult Indeed to assiga to the Tyrrhenians ‘of Thessaly any other, () it soems foregone that Herodotus, 4.57 is a veference of capital Importauce. In ultimate fact It oes nol confliet with the other reference, Heredotts, 1.98 ff. ‘hich assigns to the Etruscans an origin immediately oat af Lydia. The map is eloquent (Fig. 2) in the sense of Hs ont ning a Pelasgian (=Tyrchenian) cradle inthe Cente. to Northern Aegean Sea, its shores and islands, If Pallotino, Powell ec» do at one hand rule Creston out of this eradle {nto Haly, sti Pallotino is himself wholly satisfied that Pe. Jasgian—Tyrthenian inhabited the range in question, and out. side of it, Nothing could be clearer, this thne jointly and fh nally by Pallottino and Herodotus, both, ‘The weary angument, what should we finally understand ss Pelasgians ead of couree right here. In a definite seogea phic and linguistic senso are to be understood as Pelsagoos the inhabitants of the islands and shores of the Aegean Sen generally north of « boundary: Smyrna--AWens, Originally they were not Greek-speaking and only become such bya tony process of “hellenisation” whieh, Begun on the Greek inainand, gradually moved eastward over and accoss the. Aegean Sea eventually to culminate with the conquest of Alessader the ‘Great. The “hellensstion” of Pelasgian Attion is shrouded tn the mist of legends centering around figuren such us Cessops ‘nd Rrechtheus:(erodotus, VIN, 14/2" p. 585), but the obo of Lemnos, for exatpte, isu definite historic fact, Batore, and in the process of being absorhed into the body of “Welle si, the Polat i contate massively tthe te and culture of tho Goock mainland ts ilands ony pasta rote: To a mighty Peau tide westward fora as bes mweced in tne a quile as mighty Hellenie tide eastward, and except inthe polis! and linguistic tense, iP so tasks (0) Palltino does of cours cancars, He sbscribea withoot quaion to Ae apuonymy: Tyrhenianetresane fo thes pT) whats ‘he Sen and the Ge ‘ti nt always eagy to dlsertinale what Belongs 16 one or the ather moment, “pure Greeks" (more oF les, Dorian), ‘Teenised Pelagia” nore orl, Tonia of Ac) aly "pave Palanplans” (og Lenin) coexiting,ndvancing Tetrting. fighting interbreeding in Herodotes’ ow tines Wwe thin telus of fo score niles: Did we aot have wh us the etc” le of Leos we could hardy he sre wht Tungunge the Pelagians spoke north of Sura and. Athens Gala af wht tise dvs pve nd other pera igre dovamenta reveal, we know today. fortunately hough to understand that ie not without reason thal gene Fellyouth of Singraa and Athene ancient ators (ea ©, Hecodtus 1470 4/15 p. 88) would place Gacins and thle Lindreds Sertiniced at clove quarters Pelaegians, Caran, tes do thanveves brea up inte aie groupe, whether Ty ‘henians, elon, Lemniaos, Parorestae le, ic a surly ‘tho Grecks thomasnes ate pulverized into Thesalotes, oeotlans, Atineans,Argivey TAcrdaeronns, ety and nol fo Tong ago the men of Francs Spain aly woud break up into seperate hosts of Nornany Provengal Gallons, Anda Thue Pledaontees, Siolans, ie ‘is totey aay of oa ations and sublanguagess this quicksilver of pirates nevi tor, adventurers, songueror id sigured eld hay Deven out to ft tho frames of Iagange ofthe 20 called oder scent kind some Tifeen centres go, hense not All einical authors agree in every detail and Iabels fa some ance que fiting and presse wear out thin by eoaventionel Sxl at ate ewes ad ven 0 he wh ie Stands the nlnnprings ofthe argument can micely ote ata How wih the data wiih Herodotarsuppton Wing forthe ten around hin. and their medi descendants he ook of ours for granted hat everybody would know atthe tine, Sthiah i nol necessary what wo Kaow, and 90 are sendy 0 Uk for granted. The arguments which Herodoti pins are noverlclss hy far not obscure. He has, to begin wth Peles Glans song a tne: Helespont—Thesstly, and cannot be fatoe tat buings Lemnos right inthe heart of things wi Cevinin Tyrrhenian on the lft being certain that the “‘hellenisation” of the Pelasgo- Caviostyrehenian workd was hy not far completed even in 500B. ©. (approximate date of the conquest of etruscoid-speaking Lemnos by the Athenians); it being certain likewise (vee Ar shacology 13(1) : 2 nap.) 1960) that before 1200 B.C. u lic ‘ely stream of traffic oversox had brought “myceneean” pols tery to Sicily, Iapygia (approaches of Tarauto)) finally the Gulf of Naples; it being well known that al least around 1000 B. G. navigators and merehants fron the Aegean had set foot ‘on the Lipari Islands off northeastern Sicily in quest of obsl dian (Tayloar, L. W., Mycaenesn Pottery in Tlaly and adjas ‘ent Areas, 1958), there preceding Rhodians and Cypriotes} it ‘being well established that obsidian was likewise sought and ‘aud worked out by the primitive dwellers of Attia. (Aghfos Kosmas; see Mylonns, G. F, Aghios Kosmas. 1959) whose cul. ture represented a fusion of mainland and Cyeladie (ons Ga ian) tradition when the tibes around the site of the coming Athens were but Granal or a the most Cecropiane (see Herod, ‘us, VIL, 44/2: p, 585) ; it being finally assured that when the Greeks of 850700 B.C. began aetive colonleation of Souther aly they found in thelr way an Etruscan thalassocracy tn full strenght (Pallotino, op. et, p. 77): 1 do not soe all how the “Problem of Etruscan Origins” so called, can in any ‘way be obscure, It Js obvions, to begin with, that between 1800 3, C, (and earlier) and 1000 B, C, steady streams of Tyzthenians, and Pelasgians and Carians, ete. much sooner then of "Greeks ached the seas between Fguria and Sieily swarming out of the Aegean Sea Herodotus ie doubtless well informed for ‘example there, where he asings to Gavians asitiation of prime importance (1871/1; p. 88) In the fleets of the Knosslan (i, oan) thalussoeraey. This. vast movement toward the seas of Italy did of conrse not empty the “Pelasgian sradle” in the Northern Aegean of all its inhabitants, whieh is reason ‘why two “Tyrsheno-Pelasgian” centers soon arose, an older one ft the Aegean, a younger one in the Tyretenian (and other) seas, both evolving eventually on thetr own, but oth shating hy language, seafaring capacities, religion, and custome, ‘The facls are are indeed so clear in refereuce to traditions, Hae aulstc, archaeological date as one that, as we head, they have Bot gone unreported. The trouble has accordingly nol Boon with factual fgnorance sf the "Problem of the Brusca Ort. had remit unsto t this very ons, a8 might Se Hs nub a tat en alot of the mo ant winch tp of te vigor Hin soe eon {00 and 0. three than ate et) item Speck and Sean we hey sly ong ‘Sidi tomes Mra, Pattee Go te proper Sood Gara 0 Is not my intention to cover the entirety of the subject, for I will seturn to it with detalt in a second instalment of these notes, I may however, right ere observe that, coherent fon the Aegean side with Pelaggians, Tyrshenians, Caviens, ete, the picture is no Test so on the Tialian side with Btruscaus, ow wily coherent 3 the picture init later aspects it be lear ft ned of epg the main jan today into the han of the aesialintaif ll "Etruscan inthe me inner ead dor, We erdey slew hom onthe 7a man te iat ce fo Re ra ieomenacitics Sheree as) etnlsed ‘ies on fhe northern cos of Aen i TB. Ge and Ca oS i founded before 800 B. C. By ly ae en, er te Seto Concent” Grostlyspsking, Cypren to Ge a Norton Spin) ae docomentble {ove Berna Bren Toe Sly ‘ele re i) Teng tlre th al of ame ad ‘in B.c)In plain worse Goio Pelagia ngage Smite ‘RetMesicances fy le two sla a Spin aor thea Grete sand ar the werors ced of heir og. Tis ope ‘whole wey betwen the tsp sad te crown CavlorPeuaglon wave abl archi te Drona! fortathors of fa Btasene belong Iay poriaps erer So'Gctemine, tut hat te plied of Mtoe nee «a sing led to hat of re Gre Laon that i a Caen {ange eame tobe spoon in Taly ish mse consegance ot Three mena ‘f sotimons preva story asf entre’ wos iat why moat soli tat on “Grels” and. “Phoetianr their veckonag while aking Nght of Cavl-Plsgans and Biase‘contrary around three main centers of reference, namely North. fem Etruria, Southern Etvucia, Adviatie Hleuria, as Tollowss 1) Northern Etruria — ‘his is the Elban, ore-tich end of useany, whose main cities were Populonia and Velulonta, hoth active in the Barly fron Age, tha is, at no leer tine that Detween 1000 and $00 B. G. () Those eitles wre accordingly ‘most intimately involved With the development of the #0 al fed *Villanovan” culture. As Palloting warns (op. cin p. 20) it would not be true thet: "The appearance of the Vilianovan culture marks the appenrance of the Etsuscans", but itis tute ‘hat from its beginnings tll the fulluess of historial time “Phis civilization develops without any-break or sudden trans. formation”. In plain words: The Etruscan id. nol stat the *Villovan” phase of iron culture, but took it in hand not long after its inception and molded it uninterruptedly afterwards, Paliottino does bring to record (op. eit, p. 78 ff) numerous examples drawn from tradition, linguistics (og, the oeurrence of @ tribe in Eastern Sardinia called Aesaronenses, suggestive of the Etruscan word aisar, “gods"), industry, architecture, te, intimately binding Northern Eteuria with Sardinia af the suraghi age, and to e lesser extent alzo. with Corse. To the references given by the Roman etrusealogist whieh the reader miay consult in the orjginal, three sboutd be added whish soems to be material, Dus: §) Ashhy (1. signed artistes Sar- dina in Bneyel, Brit, xi ed. (Handy Volume), 24, p. 214 ff A011) obsorves that nuraghi and related tombe dei gigenti and domus de gianas are distibuted over the whole island to the Virtual exception of ity nordheastern extremity. They are by contrast most frequent toward the eenter of the of the inland and the so called Nurra (west of Sassari and north of Algheo0, 4 yoleanie region forming the northwestern tip of Sardinia) Ashby further wries: "Numerous fragments of obsidian arson: ‘heads and chips are also found in and near them (the nuraght) ( Whether the Birwcen ening in —tane of thse to cle Smpee phillies celationship withthe arse of Lana sorth of the hee Butween Tuscany and Ligue remaina ta be seen, T pony aml That Lgucanaetleents would be atte ser noe ke, ‘an aay Romain, cospaton isnot untoward, ail ovr the inland. The ony place where sidan is known tobe found in Sandie a alata sat he Panta Tebinn, © snouatln southeast of Onto") adm elng pro: Sally inprened iy the creumstane tit the odern town Of Ales southeat of Osan i snl ntfs from, fa en Mahe stant cae a Sus ts Pt ‘This name vrongy sugges the tran, word for an 0 feta; i) The eariet own name of Sardinia i enna, ‘sponta wih prove, Iam sure, exceedingly int to tunertand an other than Polsgoyrabanen.C)Aevaroneoay, Uli Ycnaan do tye very ich tothe same In the i plying very cary occupation of Sardinia by Tyerbnlans het “pon exploiting cbldan, a uaple which they are nowt Ive cletbnre sought oni whether a Mle of te Aegan or the Lipa Inands of the Soutien yrenian Sea stely a note tne thn 1000 B-Cxposbly uch ether It has boa. {sid by Bos (coop) tit Tyetonian may mean “he wh ‘Tvl na tower’ which i quite a2 suggestive once more at the fact that there a Sunn tcl dae dh fn raraght called a we bear, Nusa, in which dat stood in Flomsan times cy of Narn.‘ Sanh Tyrsenians woo ot som to have ejayed friendly oltonshige with eto thonos Serdaians (probably, an Ther Afsow ot Liguian (1) Piya aod Boasts re clan) ‘modern ind of risa in he Dal ‘iliation Phiniieme, p27. 109) that thee names are not Poe Ilan, an tat the Carthusians got hold of Ives ony around (Go B.C The ety of Lampescis on the Hellespont bore the re (Ged dasgnation of Plane A bay ofthe Halare falda fovea it cllod Alctin. Phocaleu ond liom were he asia Ses fn of he ie ge here “yee ‘lane sland for odin alreaty In iD? By B) now de te Mien Alien of Tly” and Alcult ef Spain tally bearing emparizon, 11 he Trem at north of the Gargano Pensa fm to Advatc Sex ave found Pianos and Polagoau ti former ioe esate inthe Tyrbeoian Sea (Planes Me ef ba). Line es in the Mediterranean Between Lampofuse and. Malla (ab qu, Malia,'a nase rather not difcitto match im Aegean fange Gee Cape Nels (Crete), tito (Adhuns), at) 1 we fae ther erode certain nls of the ao calle “Uae” “Lady of Blo and the ao ealed "Phoenan” jewels found In Spalstock), whieh nsounts atone or te many nareght and come Inve naive onder tn gar 0 yen yo iy suming Yowertucler, te following ot nie 29 at der Senta evr) at thr i A St tn ican ae he pots af Gnae 8 serve hy Sb (EH To Frm gna sien ph 1), rg ars Lowen deed ei ett of {ttle tte naan cnet Wt Wee ‘ia nor. As dee agate ner (Cates Pe aga te) the nn steal conde In rg of fond howe srodnd whieh were roped the sella del ngs sie abe at the yer nee tn an vo, ands compara beweor the pres thd ene gh econ ih seat. te i I cate. ty beleved toy Gn, ote ChrlePcer, Ch Ee Vs sine 8 Cage 7018) thal the merge a an of Sadat iintely sated need pons Sproat ont of cary Carhagon amend nn ot whom at Nar in Southern Strdini ald eben bene {ebiished abost simultsnzouly wit Carthage, te exouned UT, and no lng ate Ute apposite a Be ——— ‘can with mach difficulty”even without resting renee Fara thatthe Se Eee eae a Sree eee ealotine de ext ‘rita (op. city». 88th. 3)" of ‘authors it ath Meath Pt, mb Sri eae pe seman he Sar er a ial Staaten hs ae anne oe tpaime ty rer ck Si pe Yen's work (umlmown to me) may be far from rafec i i Scares Gh oo a ee Seon ir tem ne ieee | Royer omar a a SLI Sane ae es sek ranteets mip mmo ie een eg ac LET DAL MUSEO DE CIENCIAS WATURALES © Pechaps acceptable st the Punic end of history, this chrono logy leaves however mich to. be desired on the Tyrrhenian fone, when the age and early bonds are considered in the di- tection of Sardinia of cities such as Velulonia and Populonia. ‘The strange neglect of the phase of Mediterranean. history influenced by ‘Tyrhenians as yet not become Etruscans bet- sween ca, 1500 and 1000 B.C; and the constant crediting of the hightighis ofthis history to either Phoenicians or “Greoks" js obvious responsible or opinions which a better undersiand- fs hound, el us hope, substantially to Concluding insofar ws Northers Btruria: 1) Immediately after the beginnings of the "Vilanovan” age, if not simulti- neously wit if Tyreheuians long before established in Sardinia rnoved on and to the iron mines fronting Eiba on the const of ‘Tuscany, where they settled founding Vetulonia and Populo~ nila That they snaintained for a time relations with whatever part of them had remained behind in Sardinia is proved by the evidence which Pallottio reports; that these relations fwere interfered with by non-Tyrrhenian pirates for @ tine ‘iso seems sure; ft) Considering that Tyethenians were aetive Jaining obsidian in the Lipast Islands around 1000 B.C. it appe= Js very probable that the Tyrbeatan eceupation of Sardinia Tasted several centuries ftom about 1500 B. C. to about 1000 BiG, a span long enough to aeoount for en abundant crop of local Tymhenian building; Jil) Tt is of course obvions that ‘Tyrthenians would not be responsible for the beginning of the “Villenovan” caltural phase of continental Haly; quite ts obvious, however, is that they controlled and extended it Shorily foom its inception at the and of “Ialfotes", whose fron mines the Tysthenians did appropiate. 2) Southern to Centrat Etruria — From this end of Tus- ‘cany with the important eltes of Vali, Tarquinia, and Caere, “Gear to, but none exactly on, the coast, Pallottine reports (op. ell, p. 70 11) evidence of "inflitrations” from the gout hy coastal or sea routes, La ‘Tolfa, « trachgtie hill between (Caere and Tanquisia ie dotted (Pallotino, p. 118) with: "Many “pina! Etruscan villages” that ae as yet prnetealy untouched ify ihe archaeologist, though itis already understood (Paliot-i 8 toot nr Mawnan a ta, She Gy fa th stn " of ee ‘bronze and the beginning of the iron age in Aj iia and on the coasts of Sicily, patie culture mets influences are present, ‘The ing to the great southern cities oncuding Insofar at Southern to Cent Southern to Central Bera: 4 aly stlement of “Iyrchmtang” pohly sponge can ston nat on cc a La Tl whe ee ‘ene pela to tn cstasment othe grea tice othe a Einascans; i) These cities engulfed wis ss ssf. steadily, progressive culture eatly “Villanovan" villegeer 1th "The canal atin het ting a ean ees ne pola to Sarda bt to the ente te: Sia “lepyge, Mot 4 the asc ron the sou af bth the Tyna agian, and commerce te cies of Southon as lta dl share nthe proses of Novthera trai te 28h of on ining ) This phe of "yrehensaion™ a be virtually imultandows with that proseding fw Sarde ee mises, but its reois might be sought away from that island, ‘ae coment age ron 1000. fam ceo a osiby rather Tong before then la Apuia, se 8) Adria Riraria— Yon we on Vacano (opt 82) wits "der boners Augcamente verdench diesen eee, villages; 1 a a tn a of tee Gu wa nica as Ya two Gre ea tans oh ieee ame Sond ma tala bhai sr ata Saari eat teon coe Pah er en etn 8 Bes Be Bota ‘bcl net yacht ne uses te edt she 187 fe). Guaratertatsly, Deranbé Brea brie ae imetrichen Spltzen und Messerchen aus der Umgebung: von Perugia und aus den Abruszen, deren niichste Verwandte sich fn Apulia gefunden haben und draiben in Stidgriechland, in des Nahe von Sparta”; « datum no less significant that the fone contsibuted by mmerwahw (Archaeology 18(D: 8. 1960) to the effect that on a veet (Seogilo del Tonto) facing Taranto ‘ood trading station of "Mycaenean” oxigin with an appa- Tent monopoly of Rhodian vases, This eouter was the fermninas for the overland trade of the “Terramare people", who eon. iwoled “the bronse industry of Tuscany”. I is probable that Tmunerwalir takes of the “Tervamare people” and of “Myese- pean” quite conventional, very broad understanding, but 0is obvious that lapygia where the tradition said hd ended the veel of Minoan” fleet tying to return to Crete after a rows expedition to Sieily— was actively trading with the arly "Tealotee” and thelr Tyrrhenian successors. "The linguistic situation at vasious points of the coasts of Adviaile Tay und Yugoslavia is complex. In the Piesnum (@allottino, op. et, p. 20) We find “IiUeAnown dialects", and penples named Iapuze, cognate with the Fapodi of Istria. and tie Lapyy! of Apia, In the Btruscan stetor by the Lower Po (elsina (Bologia), Spina, Nerzabotto) and in the alpine vale eye north if the Adige the state of affairs is less than clear eis carvenily taken for granted that the sector in question ‘was colonized hy Kivuscans from Tuscany, but those who so Delieve easity run into difflentties, witness Antonioll, She wai- tes (Arte degll Bhruschi, p. 10. 1955) that Felsina was already important in the "Villanovan” age, only immediately to. edd THsaoa® but once (op, sty p. 4), sang aftr Diodorus Si ‘Ge that when ts Coy lan Greeks arrived i Lipa they found {Ge inde ‘wih but an "Auaonine” resmant of fs former bab Hest wo: “Lived in perp far of rad fom the yeni Pate with whom the Gresks had inmetistly to Hight. tse eooriagly probable tat the “orchensaton™ of Maly” aor of Roma wes (ar from representing = tale of pacifle pentalon Thnmghoet aid I is qucatan whether the "Anson seteent bt the Lips Teande and parts of Sly did not Inca, af lent een TiS) a 0D, Gy Conta Tian mucel eng De 0 | "aling*tyrPhenan® hots, Sea We eng instant,Uhat the gzeatesttevtrial expansion of Biruvi ito he val eyo the Po di nt take place before the mil ofthe I sae lury Hardly more slisfactory i the tangle af apineey eon ng around thes ealed Rieti lmguage ul the ola Jeys of Raster Italy. Coment learned spltfon bee a We thls langue was kept alive by Hitascans,ceighaly’ nent Tuscany, foread to seak refuge from Ganlb selec Iovcany the valley of the Bo which “purely from the histrea ook of the play wonld not he abmard. However, Plant (Ve the Lingue' dlitia Antica oltre il Latino, p 900 1, $909) "o ert that thie cannot be tr, Decmuse Rhacte difere hart ‘ascan Kiswscan almost av much aw doet Lanner, new understandig, Pisani coins «theory thet Tale spect eet ofthe “iat tguistce preino-europeo dele a, et almeno, deialesttentionale’ finaly desing tit he Biriscan Iahguoge isthe hyprodiet of the ifating ot thet “strato Bngustco™ with "element importa, fe'6 Gd) te 0% Pallotin isnot far from agromng with Pea fern Understands Rhoce op. et) aly mst A peeing ne ropean diet presenting certsn aff with Bossa ‘venture to sy that were one ta substi tothe rales ecas ze couclusions of Pisani and Palotng he would a eo coy anthers of bolng sorely presed when alow tae te 4 gentinely coherent intnpretation of the "aiane” angus Gonetuing Insotar as Adriatic Rtrurias 1) Spina, Pelsina, Maczabotto were most kely not eataliohed by the Teche? ian of Tescany. They were sndspendent selleinsts af Tee "alas orginally in Tepyla-Aputin. who eveuteay slid ovthovard {the mouth of the Po, thence fo pensation alpine valleys inorder to Pither and contol wie eine ceee teal Europe: The age of tis seienent te had te aoe, Dat 10000 0 B.'s a sate guess; I) There Tyhonle eee not exactly ofthe same stk ay those whe went tetas cay therefore they were ny allied to them witha bioed Tae gusts Donde, ence the. ditference between Rhee so "tras; i) it sof course not inprobeble lat the tors las of Tuscany and of the Adriatic seton kept ieee touch mostly becase of commercial reasons; Nie nae all agsinst reason to sageat not very well working, napa ‘hess the possi at Inst that apy lapuse eat a ‘the origin of Rhaetic are not satisfactory. ‘These theo- Be a 5) The Bann pn td is dente Hi sot a sg tin devon sant Sw a een fut competent background of ogi, Tear, wha Aer the vintage ae opel nt of lace vary Ing ‘Bows calnzaton of iy wae 9 ery srt vr te rn ce te fl ee Wo af Hr Hc contr yeni conn 0 ‘Riba ta ie wer fo vay frm iat {nts Sadi the met pot Sint pecan ge, See Apl te hey sh cars anguoge but frst esl det Scena ie ere 4 His by fax oot posse hat rs dd recive Jnmigrants ls fom “helnie” sources at diferent tes before and after 1000 B, C, but these accretions did notthe Desically Tyrshenian substratum of Ktruscan life end custome. @) 8) Naturally, the Tuscan ‘Tysshenians did freely mix with native “Itaiotes”, the nature. of the interelatonshipe resulting being at time challenging (see, for exarmple, Pater, 4 sity moat elose to Rome by language yet wilting to stand by Etruria fo ite uter destruction). 8) Much pointess weiting on the political organization of Etruria into a loose confederney of vitlually independent cities woven together by contrast by religious und “wtionel™ bonds of the tighest could easily he avoided. ‘The polieal Formation of the Biruscans unswered the original mencant Jism of setiers streaming in from different point of the coms Duss but even more molds of ancestral thought and tradition, ‘Thelr twelve major cities exsentially reproduced ‘on tetany soll the type of organization af some Aegean ““lodveapatin, ie Hewes, p. OH. 1055 giving referents nis, Aiton); ere by Thosalene and Peete to Dionysus of Halicromaes linia ‘sate of “gin (00 for hla eae ls twins dy Achaea “Greske” Ge )5 Gunn by Blevins who sopplaned Un ng Gamers (op typ Of cng sveve the "Grek" sting ty these ‘epinds and traitons resins 10 e ste, Cervera any 's xedied to Theszatons (with whim Tvodata places tebe aos) and to elegans, which spe frig, Came wight ee ‘een a Ubriaw dsgaaton, but Kemares ls ld enous Goes sme to avis cauon In tking what Livi aft for grantee fe spat Concluding: Te proces of formation a fhe Eicaers Dedocapelis wis setter sea, nor reine, no bare ee asthe process of formation of "Halla" or oma “Tate, bot {he compleiies of tat do not aller, he Hin Tent slots fundamental sity. DEL asco DF CENCAS ATURALES = ‘which shows once move that development comiot be ander. Monn ning dep arf oii arate A etalon of Herodat, £37, flow witout mach Sia fon added considerations dea from oer Eels rami: More of eoaie fo come betore the render inthe sent pation of thes notes ae ee a erm a rs i eee auton See gets btn a Sore earn Sa we ire hr see Scns sit agains Tee RE eee ann GEES st waranty %, Boeotian ia vango 4. B: ‘The nexus in spec = Arcadian (heavy bltek at Je) and Cyprlole ume mn torially quite remote— dialects,‘entities focal for Tyrrhenian and Delasgians by He. ite a er 9 ah 8 a Tig, 2--The two “Pelggo-yrtenians” isos ceters inAegean ‘and Ttalian range, respectively, in heavy black. eee tipped are sions of Meifiable proto see gt Cacesynreiat” occupation, STOW re eee? Kogean ping toward aly i idle from We [eteagoCavieTymbenian” grains ative in ny ince 200 sa 100 B.C Aros deena secondary migrations ofthe sme etale Hone eine trom Sania, Sell, pull, ee spon eee tetimate Birncan occupation, (NEA. toe cee uy nt the ace As fe) 3 Sex vaelug 10 IC ated serves edd o suggest ew Eten tre on navigation nostra seat The douche vows wih esto. an Nee phenlan Seu emphasize the ws YoU spec saa Mats of the Ansonivenon of the pas age al Bastern Sil fom a northern center probably voting Lato