Linear Momentum of a Particle:

The momentum of a single particle is a vector p defined as the product of its

mass m and its velocity v. That is,

p = mv ----------------------------(1)

Momentum being the product of a scalar by a vector is itself a vector. Because

it is proportional to v, the momentum p of a particular particle depends on the
reference frame of the observer; we must always specify this frame.

In symbolic form Newton’s second law of motion in terms of momentum

(which called the ‘quantity of motion’) becomes

F= -----------------------------(2)

If our system is a single particle of (constant) mass m, this formulation of the

2nd law is equivalent to the form F = ma, which we have used up to now. That
is, if m is a constant, then

F= = (mv) = m = ma

The relations F = ma and F = for a single particles are completely

equivalent in classical mechanics.

In relativity theory the 2nd law for a single particle in the form F = ma is not
valid. However, it turns out that Newton’s 2nd law in the form F = is still a
valid law if the momentum p for a single particle is defined not as mov but as

p= ---------------------------(3)

This result suggested a new definition of mass with compare equation (1) and
equation (2),

m=

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Mechanics (2nd Semester)
so that the momentum could still be written as p = mv. In this equation v is the
speed of the particle, c is the speed of light and mo is the ‘rest mass’ of the body
(its mass when v = 0). From this definition we must expect the mass of a
particle to increase with its speed.

Linear Momentum of a System of Particles:

Suppose that a instead of a particle we have a system of n particles, with
masses m1, m2, m3 etc. if we assume that no mass enters or leaves the system,
so that the mass M(=∑mi) of the system remains constant with time. The
particle may interact with each other and external forces may not act on them
as well. Each particle will have a velocity and a momentum. Particle 1 of mass
m1 and velocity v1 will have a momentum P1 = m1v1, for example. The system
as a whole will have a total momentum p in a particular reference frame,
which is defined to be simply the vector sum of the momentum of the
individual particles in that same frame, or

P = P1+P2+-----------------+Pn (1)

or, P = m1v1+m2v2+-----------------+mnvn (1)

By definition we know, the centre of mass of n number of particles along a

straight line relative to same origin is

xcm = = (3)

or, xcm = ∑mixi

where x1, x2,………………., xn are the distances of the masses from the origin
from which xcm is measured.

For, n number of particles lying in a plane, the centre of mass is at x cm, ycm,
where

Xcm = ∑mixi and ycm = ∑miyi

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Mechanics (2nd Semester)
For a large number of particles (say n particles) not necessarily confined to a
plane but distributed in space, the centre of mass is at xcm, ycm, zcm, where

Xcm = ∑mixi , ycm = ∑miyi , zcm = ∑mizi (3)

In vector notation each particle in the system can be described by a position

vector ri in a particular reference frame and the centre of mass can be located
by a positon vector rcm. These vectors are related to xi, yi, zi and xcm, ycm, zcm in
equation (3) by

ri = i xi +j yi +k zi and rcm = I xcm+ j ycm+ k zcm

Thus the three scalar equations of equation (3) can be replaced by a single
vector equation

rcm = ∑miri

or, Mrcm = ∑miri = m1r1+m2r2+………………+mnrn

or, M = m1 +m2 +………………+mn

or, Mvcm = m1v1+m2v2+……………..+mnvn

where, vm is the velocity of the centre of mass.

or, M = m1 +m2 +……………+mn

or, Macm = m1a1+m2a2+……………+mnan;

where acm is the acceleration of the c.m.s.

Now, from Newton’s 2nd law, the force F1 acting on the first particle is given by
F1 = m1a1. Likewise, F2 = m2a2, etc. so that, we can write,

Macm = F1+F2+……………..+Fn = Fext (5)

where, Fext is the external forces action on all the particles. Because, according
to Newton’s 3rd law, the internal forces (i.e. F1,F2 etc) will occur in equal and
opposite pairs so that they nothing contribute to the sum.
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Mechanics (2nd Semester)
If we compare equation (1) and (4), we see that,

P = Mvcm (6)

which is an equivalent definition for the momentum of a system of particles.

In words, equation (6) states: “The total momentum of a system of particles is
equal to the product of the total mass of the system and the velocity of its
centre of mass.”

We have seen equation (5) that Newton’s 2nd law for a system of particles can
be written as

Fext = Macm (7)

in which Fext is the vector sum of all the external forces acting on the system;
we recall that the internal forces acting between particles cancel in pairs
because of Newton’s 3rd law. If we differentiate equation (6) with respect to
time we obtain, for an assumed constant mass M,

=M = Macm (8)

Comparison of equation (7) and (8) allows us to write Newton’s 2nd law for a
system of particles in form

Fext = (9)

This equation is the generalization of the single particle equation F = to a

system of many particles, no mass entering or leaving the system.

Conservation of linear momentum of a system of

particle:
Suppose that the sum of the external forces acting on a system is zero. Then
from equation, Fext = we can write,

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Mechanics (2nd Semester)
 =0 or, p = constant

When the resultant external force acting on a system is zero, the total vector
momentum of the system remains constant. This simple but quite general
result is called the principle of the conservation of linear momentum. We shall
see that it is applicable to many important physical situations.

The total momentum of a system can only be changed by external forces

acting on the system. The internal forces being equal and opposite produce
equal and opposite changes in momentum which annul one another, for a
system of particles.

P1 + P2 + ………………..+ Pn = P

So that when the total momentum P is constant we have

P1 + P2 + ………………..+ Pn = constant = Po (1)

The momenta of the individual particle may change, but their sum remains
constant if there is no net external force.

Angular momentum of a particle:

Consider a particle of mass m and linear momentum p at a position r relative
to the origin O of an internal reference frame Fig (b). We define the angular
momentum l of the particle with respect to the origin O to be

l=r p (1)

Angular momentum is a vector. Its magnitude is given by

l = rpsin (2)

where is the angle between r and p; its direction is normal to the plane
formed by r and p. the sense is given by the fight hand rule, the direction of l.

We can also write the magnitude of l either as,

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Mechanics (2nd Semester)
 l = (rsin )p = pr1 (3)

or, l = r(psin ) = rp1 (4)

in which r1(=rsin ) is the component of r at right angles to the line of action of

p and p1(=psin ) is the component of p at right angles to r. angular
momentum is often called moment of (linear) momentum and r1 in equation
(3) is often called the moment arm. Equation (4) shows that only the
component of p perpendicular to r contributes to the angular momentum.
When the angle between r and p is 0° or 180°, there is no perpendicular
component (p1= psin = 0); then the line of action of p passes through the
origin and r1 is also zero. In this case both equations (3) and (4) show that the
angular momentum l is zero.

Relation between torque and angular momentum:

We have seen that F = d(mv)/dt = dp/dt for a particle. Let us take the vector
product of r with sides of this equation, obtaining

r F=r

But r F is the torque, or moment of a force, about origin. We can then write,

τ=r (1)

Again, we know the definition of angular momentum l = r p

Differentiate from this equation we obtain, = (r p)

We have, = p+r

But dr is the vector displacement of the particle in the time dt so that is the
instantaneous velocity v of the particle. Also p equals mv, so that the equation
can be rewritten as

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Mechanics (2nd Semester)
 = (v mv) + r (2)

Now v mv = 0, because the vector product of two parallel vectors is zero.

Therefore

=r (3)

Inspection of equation (1) and (3) shows that τ = dl/dt (4)

which states that the time rate of change of the angular momentum of a
particle is equal to the torque acting on it.

Angular momentum of a system of particles:

Let us consider a system of many particles. To calculate the total angular
momentum L of a system of particles about a given point, we must add
vectoriallyType equation here. the angular momenta of all the individual
particles of the system about this same point. For a system containing n
particles we have, then,

L = l1+l2+………………+ln = ∑
in which the (vector) sum is taken over all particles in the system.

As time goes on, the total angular momentum L of the system about a fixed
reference point may change. This change, dl/dt, can arise from two sources: (i)
torque exerted on the particles of the system by internal forces between the
particles and (ii) torques exerted on the particles of the system by external
forces.

If Newton’s 3rd law holds in its so-called string form, that is, if the forces
between any two particles not only are equal and opposite but are also
directed along the line joining the two particles, then the total internal torque
is zero because the torque resulting from each internal action-reaction force
pair is zero.

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Mechanics (2nd Semester)
Hence the first source contributes nothing. For our reference point, therefore,
only the second source remains and we can write

τext = dl/dt

where τext stands for the sum of all the external torques acting on the system.
In words, the time rate of change of the total angular momentum of a system
of particles about the origin of an inertial reference frame is equal to the sum
of the external torques acting on the system.

Kepler’s law of planetary motion:

The earliest scientific attempts to understand the solar system were made by
the Greeks. A detailed description of the conclusions of Greek astronomy was
given by Ptolemy (2nd century). His system is known as the Ptolemic or
geocentric theory. It assumes that the earth is stationary at the centre of the
universe, with the sun, moon, planets and stars all revolving about the earth in
complex orbits. This theory was accepted for almost fifteen centuries and
greatly influenced philosophy and literature as well as science.

In the sixteen century Copernicus suggested that the sun was at rest at the
centre of the universe, with the earth, moon, planets and stars all revolving
about the sun which is known as the Copernican(Copernicus) or heliocentric
theory.

The growing controversy over the two theories stimulated astronomers to

obtain more accurate observational data. Such data were compiled by Tycho
Brahe (1546-1601). His data on planetary motions were analyzed and
interpreted for about twenty years by Johannes Kepler (1571-1630), who had
been Brahe’s assistant.

Kepler found important regularities in the motion of planets. These

regularities are known as ‘Kepler’s three laws of planetary motion’.

1. All planets move in elliptical orbits having the sun as one focus (The
law of orbits).
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Mechanics (2nd Semester)
 2. A line joining any planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal
times (The law of areas).
3. The square of the period of any planet about the sun is proportional to
the cube of the planet’s mean distance from the sun (The law of
periods).

Explanation: In Fog-(a) shown a elliptical orbital path. F1 and F2 are two focus
of this path. According to Kepler’s
1st law a planet move in this
elliptical orbits having the sun as F1
and F2 focus. In this Fig. shown the
sun F1 focus.
Now, we consider the planet moves
from position A to B in time t and
this same time the planet moves
from C to D. So that we can write
according to the 2nd law of Kepler’s,
area AF1B = area CF1D. Figure (a)

Again we consider the time period of planet about the sun is T and the planet’s
mean distance from the sun r, so we can write according to 3rd law of Kepler’s,
T2 r3 .

The law of universal gravitation:

The force between any two particles having masses m1 and m2 separated by a
distance r is an attraction acting along the line joining the particles and has
the magnitude
F=G (1)
where F is a universal constant having the same value for all pairs of particles.
G has the dimension L3/MT2, and is a scalar.
Now we can express the paw of universal gravitation in vector form. Let us
displacement vector r12 point from the particle of mass m1 to the particle of

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Mechanics (2nd Semester)
mass m2, as Fig-(2) shows. The gravitation force F21, exerted on m2 by m1, is
given in
F21 = -G r12 (2)
In which r12 is the magnitude of r12. The
minus sigh in equation (2) shows that
F21 direction is opposite to r12; that is,
the gravitational force attractive, m2
feeling a force directed toward m1.
The force exerted on m1 by m2 is
clearly
F12 = -G r21 (3) (3)
In equation (3) and (2) note that R21 = - Figure 2
r12 [Fig.-2(a,b)]. So that, as we expect, F12 = -F21 [Fig-2(c)]; that is, the
gravitational forces acting on the two bodies form an action-reaction pair.

The law of gravitation from Kepler’s 3rd law:

We get the law of gravitation from Kepler’s 3rd law as well as get the Kepler’s
3rd law from law of gravitation. For that, consider the travelling path of
planet’s circular.
Let, a planet (mass m1) moves in circular orbit having the sun centre, r1 is the
radius of this circular path. If ω1 is the angular speed of this planet, then the
centrifugal force
F1 = m1ω12r1 = m1 ( )2r1 = (1)
Similarly, we can write another planet
F2 = m2ω22r2 = m2 ( )2r2 = (2)
From equation (1) and (2),

= (3)

According to Kepler’s 3rd law T2 r3 ; so that = .

Therefore, from equation (3), we get
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Mechanics (2nd Semester)
 = =

∴ =

so that for any one planet, F = k (4)

where K is the proportional constant. According to Kepler’s law, we remark
that K are equal for all planets.
We know that every action has an equal and opposite reaction. So that like as
planet sun will be attracted by planet which is equal to F and the force is
related to the mass of sun. For that we replace K by GM, where M is the mass
of sun and G is a constant. Therefore, from equation (4) we get,
F= (5)
where F is the mutual attractive force between planet and sun. Equation (5) is
the Newton’s gravitation law.

Kepler’s 3rd law from law of gravitation:

Let, a planet (mass m) moves in circular orbit having the sun (mass MS)
centre, r is the radius of the circular path, v is the linear speed of planet at
circular path. So that, the centrifugal force of planet F1 = .
According to the gravitational law, the gravitational force between sun and
planet,
F=
Now, equilibrium of motion, F1 = F
or, =

∴ v2 = (1)

If T is the time period of planet, T =

or, v2 = (2)

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Mechanics (2nd Semester)
From equation (1) and (2) we get,

or, T2 = r3 (3)

or, T2 = constant r3; when is a constant.

or, T2 = r3 (4)

equation (4) represents the Kepler’s 3rd law.

The motion of planets and satellites:

The motions of bodies in the solar system can be deduced from the laws of
motion and the law of universal gravitation. As Kepler pointed out, all planets
move in elliptical orbits, the sun being at one focus. We shall neglect the forces
considering only the interaction between the sun and a given planet.

Consider two spherical bodies of masses M and m moving in circular orbits

under the influence of each other’s gravitational attraction. The centre of mass
of this system of two bodies lies along the line joining them at a point C such
that mr = MR (Fig.- 3). It there are no external forces acting on this system, the
centre of mass has no acceleration. In this case we choose C to be the origin of
our reference frame. The large body of mass M moves in an orbit of constant
radius r, both having the same angular
velocity ω.

Since these gravitational forces are simply

an action-reaction pair, the centripetal
forces must be equal but oppositely
directed. That is, mω2r exerted by M on m

must equal mω2R exerted by m on M. Figure-3

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Mechanics (2nd Semester)
That this is so follows at once, for mr = MR so that mω2r = Mω2R. The specific
requirement, then, is that the gravitation force on either body must equal the
centripetal force needed to keep it moving in its circular orbit, that is

= mω2r (1)

If one body has a much greater mass than the other, as in the case of the sun
and a planet, its distance from the centre of mass is much smaller than that of
the other body i.e. r>>R. Then equation (1) becomes

GMs = ω2r3; where Ms is the mass of the sun.

Again, we know, ω = or, ω2 = ; where T is the period of the

revolution. So that, GMs = r3 (2)

Equation (2) is a basic equation of planetary motion.

If we know the mass of the sun Ms and the period of revolution T of any planet
about it, we can determine the radius of the planet’s orbit r from equation (2).
Since the period is easily obtained from astronomical observations, this
method of determining a planet’s distance from the sun is fairly reliable.

Equation (2) holds also for the motion of artificial satellites about the earth;
we need only substitute the mass of earth Me for Ms in that equation.

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Mechanics (2nd Semester)