IT 107

▫ Conjunction [“and”]
CHAPTER 1: PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC ▫ Disjunction [“or”]
▪ Propositions, Logical Connectives and Truth
▫ Inclusive Disjunction
Tables
▪ Negation, Conjunction and Disjunction ▫ Exclusive Disjunction
▪ Conditional and Biconditional Propositions Truth Values vs Truth Table
▪ Tautologies and Contradictions ▪ Truth Value
▪ Logical Equivalence ▫ It is the assigned value to a given proposition.
▪ Arguments ▪ Truth Table
▪ Applications of Logic in Circuits
▫ It is the table which summarizes the truth values
of propositions. It displays all the possible
Introduction and Preliminaries
combinations of the given proposition, may be
Logic
▪ It is the discipline that deals with the methods of atomic or compound propositions.
▫ [Remark] There are 2n possible combinations
reasoning. It is specifically concerned with whether
of truth values to be considered in the truth
the reasoning is correct.
table.
▪ It allows us to determine the validity of an argument
that depends on its logical form, not one the How To Construct a Truth Table?
▪ [Step 1] Prepare all possible combinations of truth
particular meaning of the terms contains.
▪ Logical methods are used in mathematics to prove values for propositional variables. [This gives the
theorems in computer science to verify the total number of rows in the truth table.]
▫ The number of variables will give the initial
correctness of programs, in the natural and physical
number of columns.
sciences to draw conclusions from experiments, in
▪ [Step 2] Obtain the truth values of each connective
the social sciences and in our everyday lives to solve
and put these truth values in a new column.
a multitude of problems.
Proposition
▪ (Otherwise known as statement) is a declarative
sentence.
▫ Declarative sentences are simply statements that
relay information. It states the facts and lets the
reader know something specific. It always ends
with a period.
▪ It assigns one and only one of the two possible truth
values (or Boolean values): true (1) or false (0).
Examples:
▪ The only positive integers that divide 5 are 1 and 5
itself.
▪ The sun will come out tomorrow.
▪ a + b = b + c if a = c
▪ 5<1
▪ 10 - 1 = 9
Wrong Examples:
▪ 5-a = b
▪ What time is it?
▪ Help!
▪ Malolos is the best city in the province of Bulacan.
▪ This sentence is false. Negation
▪ Please pick up the pieces of papers. ▪ Let 𝑝 be a proposition. The statement “It’s not the
More on Propositions case that 𝑝” is called negation of 𝑝. It is denoted as
▪ In logic, statements are usually represented ¬𝑝 𝑜𝑟 ~𝑝 read as “not 𝑝”.
symbolically by the lowercase letters to represent ▫ Inserting in statement the word “not”.
propositional variables, i.e., variables that can be ▫ It is false that p.
replaced by statements. ▫ It is not the case that p.
▫ Atomic proposition – a statement that is not Remark: The symbol “~ “is called curl or tilde and is
decomposable into simple statement. used to symbolize negation (or denial or contradictory).
▫ Compound proposition – a statement formed Other symbols like “-” and “>” can also be used as
over the composition of different statements negation.
through logical connectives. Examples:
Logical Connectives ▪ 𝑝: “Today is Friday.”
▪ These are the devices used to link or join pairs of ▫ ~ 𝑝: “Today is not Friday.”
statement. ▫ ~ 𝑝: “It is not the case that today is Friday.”
▫ Negation [“not”] ▫ ~ 𝑝: “It is false that today is Friday.”

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▪ 𝑝: “The sun is not shining.” ▫ INCLUSIVE OR: If 𝑝 and 𝑞 are propositions

Correct Case: then 𝑝 OR 𝑞 is true if either 𝑝 is true or 𝑞 is true
▫ ~ 𝑝: “The sun is shining.” or if both 𝑝 and 𝑞 are true.
▫ ~ 𝑝: “It is not the case that the sun is not ▫ EXCLUSIVE OR: If 𝑝 and 𝑞 are propositions,
shining.” the “exclusive or” of 𝑝 and 𝑞 is denoted as 𝑝 ⊕
Wrong Case/s: [It introduces ‘double negation’.] 𝑞. This means that strictly one of the propositions
▫ ~ 𝑝: “It is not the case that the sun is not must be true in order for the exclusive disjunction
shining.” to be true.
▫ ~ 𝑝: “It is false that the sun is not shining.” ▫ Note: “unless” may also be used in
▪ 𝑝: “Five is an even number.” expressing the disjunction of two
▪ 𝑝: “I like Math.” propositions.

[Sort Of Review]
▪ Compound Propositions
▫ It is a combination of propositions formed from
existing propositions using logical connectives. Inclusive Disjunction Examples:
▫ Propositional Connectives ▪ 𝑝: “Plaridel is the capital of Bulacan.”
▫ It is an operation that combines two ▪ 𝑞: “Malolos is one of the cities found in Region III.”
propositions to yield a new one whose truth ▪ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞: “Plaridel is the capital of Bulacan or
value depends only on the truth values of the Malolos is one of the cities found in Region III.”
two original propositions. ▪ 𝑝: “3 is an even number.”
Conjunction ▪ 𝑞: “A century is 100 years.”
▪ Let 𝑝 and 𝑞 be propositions. The propositions “𝑝 and ▪ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞: “3 is an even number, or a century is 100
𝑞” is denoted by 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞. This is also read as “the years.”
conjunction of 𝑝 and 𝑞”. The conjunction “𝑝 ^ 𝑞” is
true if both 𝑝 and 𝑞 are true.
NOTE:
▪ “but” has the same logical meaning as “and”
▪ Other words used to conjoin two propositions.
▫ moreover, furthermore, yet, still, however, also,
nevertheless, although, and so forth, comma (,)
and colon (:) are also used to conjoin two
propositions

Exclusive Disjunction Examples:

▪ 𝑝: “I am looking at my seatmate.”
▪ 𝑞: “I am looking at my teacher.”
▪ 𝑝 ⊕ 𝑞: “I am looking at my seatmate or I am
looking at my teacher.”
▪ 𝑝: “I can take a plane going to Romblon.”
▪ 𝑞: “I can take a ferry going to Romblon.”
Examples: ▪ 𝑝 ⊕ 𝑞: “I can take a plane or a ferry going to
▫ 𝑝: “Today is Friday” Romblon.”
𝑞: “It is raining today.”
𝑝 ∧ 𝑞: “Today is Friday and it is raining today.”
▫ 𝑝: “I am sick”
𝑞: “I cannot take the exam.”
𝑝 ∧ 𝑞: “I am sick and I cannot take the exam.”
Disjunction
▪ Let 𝑝 and 𝑞 be propositions. The “disjunction of 𝑝
and 𝑞” is denoted by 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞. This is also read as “𝑝 or
𝑞”.

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Notes on Compound Propositions Examples:

• To connote groupings: ▪ 𝑝: “I am late.”
• “both” goes with “and” ▪ 𝑞: “I cannot take the seatwork.”
• “either” goes with “or” ▪ 𝑝 → 𝑞: “If I am late then I cannot take the
• “Neither 𝑝 nor 𝑞” is the same as “not either 𝑝 or 𝑞” seatwork.”
▪ 𝑝: “Today is Monday.”
Exercises [Part 1] ▪ 𝑞: “I have a test today.”
▪ Use the symbols ~, ^ and v, and write the ▪ 𝑝 → 𝑞: “If today is Monday, then I have a test
following statements. today.”
▫ both p or q and r Let 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 be propositions:
▫ p or both q and r ▫ 𝑝: It is a long weekend.
▫ either p and q or r ▫ 𝑞: I will stay at home.
▫ p and either q or r ▫ 𝑟: Lucky is not going to watch Riverdale.
▫ neither p nor q ▪ If it is not a long weekend, then Lucky is not going
to watch Riverdale.
▪ If it is a long weekend, then I will stay at home.
▪ I will stay at home if it is a long weekend.
▪ I will stay at home whenever it is a long weekend.
Note on Conditional Proposition
▪ 𝑝 → 𝑞 is false when 𝑝 is true and 𝑞 is false [a true
statement cannot imply a false one]
EXAMPLE
▪ 𝑝: “1 > 2” F
▪ 𝑞: “4 < 8” T
▪ 𝑝→𝑞: “If 1 > 2 then 4 < 8” T
Exercises [Part 2] ▪ 𝑞→𝑝: “If 4 < 8 then 1 > 2 “ F
Use the symbols ~, ∧ and ∨ to write the following ▪ As observed, the truth values for the conjunction -
statements. [Note: Use grouping symbols.] “p ∧ q” and “q ∧ p” are always the same. Also, the
▫ 𝑝: “-6 is a positive number.” truth tables for the disjunction “p ∨ q” and “q ∨ p”
▫ 𝑞: “3 is a positive number.” are identical.
▫ 𝑟: “√5 is an irrational number.” ▪ However, it is false that the truth values for p  q
1. -6 and 3 are both not positive numbers and q  p are the same as seen in the previous
2. -6 and 3 are not both positive numbers example.
3. either -6 is a positive number or 3 is a positive number
and √5 is irrational
4. √5 is irrational but -6 is not a positive number
5. either -6 is a positive number or 3 is a positive number
but they are not both positive numbers

Give examples of or tell why no such example exists:

1. A false implication with a false conclusion
2. A true implication with a true conclusion.
Conditional Propositions 3. A true implication with a false conclusion
▪ If p and q are propositions, the compound statement 4. A false implication with a false hypothesis
“if p, then q” is called an implication or conditional 5. A false implication with a true hypothesis
statement and is denoted by p  q: 6. A true implication with a false hypothesis
▫ p is called the hypothesis (or antecedent)
▫ q is called the conclusion (or consequent)
NOTE:
▪ 𝑝→𝑞 is equivalent to the following expressions:
▫ 𝑝 implies 𝑞, If 𝑝 then 𝑞, 𝑞 if 𝑝, 𝑞 whenever 𝑝, 𝑝
is sufficient for 𝑞, 𝑝 is necessary for 𝑞

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 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞: “7 > 12 if and only if 7 is even.” T

 𝑝: “A square is a quadrilateral.” T
 𝑞: “A triangle has four vertices.” F
 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞: “A square is a quadrilateral if and only if a
triangle has four vertices.” F

Note on Conditional Proposition

▪ Given the conditional proposition p  q, then
▫ the converse of p  q is the implication q  p,
▫ the contrapositive of p q is the implication ~q
~p,
▫ the inverse of p  q is the implication of ~p~q
EXAMPLE: Let p: it is hot; and q: I will go to the mall
▪ Implication
▫ p  q: If it is hot, then I will go to the mall.
▪ Converse
▫ q  p: If I will go to the mall, then it is hot.
▪ Contrapositive
▫ ~q  ~p: If I will not go to the mall, then it is
not hot.
▪ Inverse
▫ ~p  ~q: If it is not hot, then I will not go the
mall.

Biconditional Propositions
▪ If p and q are propositions, the compound
proposition “p if and only if q” is called a
biconditional proposition and is written p↔q.
▪ The connective “p if and only if q” is the
conjunction of p → q and its converse q → p,
the truth value of proposition p↔ q is defined by the
truth table below.
NOTE:
▪ 𝑝↔𝑞 is equivalent to the following expressions:
▫ 𝑝 is equivalent to 𝑞, 𝑝 if and only if 𝑞, 𝑝 is
necessary and sufficient for 𝑞, if 𝑝 then 𝑞 and
conversely
Examples:
▪ 𝑝: “David is the son of Ricky.”
▪ 𝑞: “Ricky is the father of David.”
▪ 𝑝↔𝑞: “David is the son of Ricky if and only if
Ricky is the father of David.”
▪ 𝑝: “12 is divisible by 2.”
▪ 𝑞: “12 is even.”
▪ 𝑝↔𝑞: “12 is divisible by 2 if and only if 12 is
even.”
Note on Biconditional Proposition
▪ 𝑝↔𝑞 is true when both 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 has the same logical
truth value
EXAMPLE
 𝑝: “7 > 12” F
 𝑞: “7 is even” F

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