EET312

BIOMEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION
MODULE I

Prepared by
Dr. Thasneem Fathima N K
EEE Dept., MESCE
 MODULE I
◼ Human Physiological systems:Brief
discussion of Heart and Cardio-vascular
system-Physiology of Respiratory system -
Anatomy of Nervous and Muscular systems
◼ Problems encountered in measuring living
systems
◼ Bioelectric potential: Resting and action
potential - Generation and propagation -
Bioelectric potentials associated with
physiology systems (ECG, EEG and EMG).
 MODULE I

• Bio potential Electrodes: Theory – Surface

electrode – Microelectrode-Needle
electrodes.

• Transducers for biomedical applications:

Transducers for the measurement of
pressure, temperature and respiration rate.
 MODULE I
INTRODUCTION

Biomedical Instrumentation
Human Physiology
 BIO ENGINEERING
Application of knowledge gained by the
cross fertilization of engineering and the
biological sciences so that both will be
more utilized for the benefit of man.
 Biomedical Engineer

A person working in research or

development in the interface area
of medicine and engineering.
 Bioinstrumentation

The measurement of
biological variables.
This field of measurement is
often referred to as biometrics.
 Biometrics
◼ The branch of science that deals with
the measurement of physiological
variables and parameters is known as
biometrics
◼ Biomedical Instrumentation provides
the tools by which these
measurements can be achieved.
EXAMPLES OF PHYSIOLOGICAL MEASUREMENT
BIOELECTRIC POTENTIAL MEASUREMENT
a) ECG - A record of electrical activity of heart.
b) EEG - A record of electrical activity of
brain.
c) EMG - A record of muscle potential.
d) ERG - A record of potential from retina.

e) EGG - A record of potential from

gastro intestinal tract.
 Other Examples of Measurements
1)CARDIOVASCULAR MEASUREMENT
◼ Blood pressure measurement-
◼ Blood volume measurement-
◼ Blood flow measurement-
2)CARDIOVASCULAR SOUND MEASUREMENT
◼ Phonocardiogram
◼ Vibrocardiogram
◼ Heart sound measurement using steth.
 Other Examples of Measurements

◼ RESPIRATION MEASUREMENT
• Respiratory rate
• Respiratory air flow
• Respiratory volume
• Concentration of CO2 in the expired air
◼ TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
◼ SKIN RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT
 Desirable Features
1) Range
2) Sensitivity
▪ Ability of an instrument to measure a
small variation of a variable or parameter
3) Linearity
▪ The degree to which variations in the output
of an instrument follow input variation
4) Hysteresis
▪ eg. Mechanical friction in a meter
5) Frequency response
▪ Variation in sensitivity over the frequency range
of the measurement
6) Accuracy.
▪ Mechanical error in meter movements
▪ Error due to change in atmospheric condition
▪ Error due to poor frequency response
▪ Errors due to tolerances of electronic
components
7) Signal-to noise ratio
8) Stability
9) Isolation
10) Simplicity
 Man-instrument system
Control feedback

Stimulus Transducer

Man
Signal
Display
Transducer conditioning
equipment

Transducer

Recording, data processing and transmission of data

 Transducer
◼ Transducer is defined as a device capable
of converting one form of energy or signal
to another.
Different forms of energy include
◼ Mechanical energy
◼ Acoustic energy
◼ Hydraulic energy
◼ Thermal energy
◼ Electrical energy
◼ Chemical energy
◼ Optical energy
 Signal conditioning equipment
◼ Amplification
◼ Modulation and Demodulation
◼ Frequency selection
◼ Transmission
◼ Wave shaping
◼ Isolation
◼ Conversion
 DISPLAY / STORAGE
◼ Analog Display
◼ Digital Read out
◼ Loud speaker
◼ Indicator Lamp
◼ CRT
◼ Chart recorders
◼ Magnetic recording
◼ Photographic recording
◼ Printer
 Human body – A Miracle!
◼ Combination of electrical, mechanical, thermal,
hydraulic , pneumatic, chemical and various
other types of systems, each of which
communicate with an external environment,
and internally with the other systems of the
body.
◼ A multilevel control system and communication
network organized to perform many complex
functions.
➢A multicellular organism is formed of a large
number of cells that are not alike.
➢Cells which perform the same function are

found to be identical.
➢Such a group of cells similar in structure and
specified for a specific function is known as
a tissue.
➢Various kinds of tissues combine together to

form an organized part called organ.

➢Each organ has a complex structure and
carries out definite function.
➢Several organs with similar functions are
united to form an organ system.
➢Organs of a system function in a

coordinated manner to carry out a major life

process.
 Organ Systems
1) Skeletal system
◼ The bones and cartilages form the skeleton.
The skeletal system acts as supporting
framework of the body. Also it protects the
internal organs.

2) Muscular system
◼ It is formed of muscles. It is concerned with
the movement of the body parts and
locomotion.
 Organ Systems
3) Digestive system
◼ It consist of alimentary canal and the
associated digestive glands. This
system is meant for feeding , digestion
and absorption of food materials.
4) Circulatory system
◼ The heart , arteries, capillaries and veins
constitute this system. Transport of nutrients,
oxygen, and hormones to cells throughout the
body and removal of metabolic wastes
(carbon dioxide, nitrogenous wastes).
 Organ Systems
5) Respiratory system
The nostrils, nasal passages, naso-pharynix,
larynx, bronchi, bronchioles and lungs constitute
this system. This system is responsible for the
exchange of gases between the organism and its
environment

6) Excretory system
Kidney , ureters, urinary bladder and urethra
form this system. It is concerned with the
removal of waste products from the body.
 Organ Systems
7) Nervous system
◼ The brain spinal cord, nerves and sense organs
form the nervous system. This system has
several functions.
◼ It receives information of external and internal
changes to give rise to sensations.
◼ It transmit information among different parts of
the body in the form of propagated potential
changes.
◼ It controls and co-ordinates other systems.
 Organ Systems
8) Endocrine system
It consists of endocrine glands or ductless
glands which produce hormones for regulating
the functions of other organs and tissues within
the body.
9) Reproductive system
It includes both male and female reproductive
systems.
 Chemical factory
◼ Cardiovascular: Closed hydraulic system
with a four chamber pump
◼ Elastic tubing – blood vessels
◼ Collects fluid from the main hydraulic system
and pumps it through the oxygenation
system.
◼ Respiratory system: Pneumatic system –
air pump with valving arrangements
◼ Dual air input system – nasal cavities
◼ The nervous system
◼ Communication network
◼ Center self adapting central information
processor or computer – The brain
◼ With memory, computational power, decision
making capability etc.
◼ Communication lines – Nerves

◼ Sensory devices

◼ Waste disposal system

PHYSIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
OF HUMAN BODY
 CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

◼ Complex hydraulic system.

◼ Transports oxygen, carbon dioxide, chemical
compounds and blood cells.
◼ Heart is divided into 2 parts.
◼ Four chambers : Left atrium, Right atrium, Left
ventricle, Right ventricle
 Heart valves
1. Tricuspid valve: b/w right atrium & ventricle.
◼ 3 flaps
◼ Prevents backward flow of blood from RV to RA.
2. Bicuspid mitral : b/w left atrium & ventricle.
◼ 2 flaps.
◼ Prevents backward flow of blood from LV to LA .
3. Pulmonary valve: at RV.
◼ 3 half moon cusps.
◼ Does not allow blood to comeback to RV.
4. Aortic valve: b/w LV & aorta.
◼ Does not allow blood to comeback to LV from aorta.
 Layers of heart
1. Pericardium:
◼ Outer layer.
◼ Keeps outer surface moist and prevents friction.

2. Myocardium:
◼ Middle layer
◼ Main muscle , made up of soft cylindrical tissues.
◼ Automatic in action , contracting & relaxing throughout life.

3. Endocardium:
◼ Outer layer.
◼ Provides smooth linings for the blood flow.
 Blood vessels
1. Arteries:
◼ Thick walled.
◼ Carry oxygenated blood away from heart.

2. Veins:
◼ Thin walled.
◼ Carry deoxygenated blood towards heart.

3. Capillaries:
◼ Smallest.
◼ Blood cells flows through them.
Structure of heart
 Circulatory system

◼ Pulmonary circulation:
◼ Deoxygenated blood flows from RV through pulmonary artery ,
to the lungs.
◼ It is oxygenated and then flows through pulmonary veins to LA.
◼ Systemic circulation
◼ Blood flows from LA to LV and is pumped through aorta and its
branches ,out into the body parts.
◼ Through arterioles blood is transported to capillaries in the tissue ,
where its gives up oxygen and takes up carbon dioxide.
◼ Blood returns to heart through superior vena cava or
inferior vena cava, and to the RA
 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
◼ Pneumatic system.
◼ An air pump(diaphragm) alternately creates +ve and –
ve pressures in a sealed chamber(thoracic cavity).
◼ Air is sucked into and forced out of a elastic bag(lungs).
◼ Lungs is connected to outside through nasal
cavities,phyranx,layrnx,trachea,bronchi and bronchioles.
◼ Alveoli- tiny holes within lungs.
◼ Oxygen is taken into the blood from the incoming air
and co2 is transferred from blood to air under control
of pneumatic pump.
 NERVOUS SYSTEM
◼ Control and communication network of
the body.
◼ Consist of :
1. Central part : consist of brain & spinal cord.
2. Peripheral part : consist of nerves & group of
neurons.
 Brain
◼ Consist of 4 parts:
1. Brain stem.
2. Fore brain.
3. Cerebrum .
4. Cerebellum.

Brain stem:
➢ Connects spinal cord to the centre of brain.
➢ Main part is medulla oblongata ,lowest section of brain stem.
➢ Contains centre's for regulating work performed by heart , vasomotor centre
&respiratory centre.
➢ Pons: above medulla & in front of brain stem.
➢ Midbrain: lies in upper part of brain stem.
➢ Diencephalon: above midbrain.
◼ Fore brain:
◼ Consist of thalamus & hypothalamus.
• Hypo thalamus:
➢ Centre for temperature regulation, metabolism and fluid
regulation.
➢ Centre's for thirst ,sleep and for subjective feelings &
emotions.
• Thalamus:
➢ Relaystation for sensory pathways.
➢ Recognizing heat and pain.
◼ Cerebrum:
◼ Consist of 2 hemispheres, left & right.
◼ Left hemisphere Subdivided into frontal lobe &
temporal lobe.
◼ Right hemisphere:- parietal and occipital lobe.

◼ Frontal:-voluntary action , mental control.

◼ Temporal:-control hearing, speech.

◼ Parietal:- control major sensing function.

◼ Occipital:-vision control.

◼ Outer layer of brain:- cerebral cortex.

◼ Centre for intellectual functions.
◼ Cerebellum:
◼ Locates behind cerebrum.
◼ Acts as physiological micro computer.

◼ Coordinates various sensory & motor nerves to

smooth out muscle motions.
◼ Consist of 2 hemispheres.

◼ Regulates coordination of muscles.

◼ Enables person to maintain balance.

Membrane of brain:
◼ meninges.

◼ 3 layers:
◼ Dura
◼ Arachnoid matter.

◼ Piamater.

◼ Cerebrospinal fluid: protects brain and carries

waste.
 Spinal cord
◼ Length 38 to 45 cms.
◼ Consist of cylinder of nerve tissues.
◼ Consist of white matter on surface.
◼ Gray matter inside.
◼ White matter contain fibers running b/w cord and
brain only.
◼ Motor & sensory fibers responsible for link b/w
brain & body and reflex action.
◼ Gray matter-contains neurons that control reflexes.
◼ Central nervous system consist of billions
of neurons.
◼ Ability to transmit electrical signals- fundamental
property.
◼ Nerve impulses.
◼ Basic unit of nervous system- neuron.
◼ Main parts: nucleated cell body ,axon & dendrites.
◼ Dendrites: conducts impulses towards cell body.
◼ Axon: conducts away from cell body.
 Problems encountered in
measuring a living system
◼ Inaccessibility of variables to
measurement
▪ Physical size of transducer is very high
compared to space available for measurement
▪ Medical operation required to place a
transducer
◼ Variability of the data
▪ Physiological variables are represented by
statistical or probabilistic distribution
◼ Lack of knowledge about interrelationships
◼ Interaction among physiological systems
▪ Due to large number of feedback loop involved
in the major physiological systems
◼ Effect of the transducer on the
measurement
◼ In many situations, the presence of the
transducer changes the reading significantly.
◼ Artifacts
▪ Movement of subject, Cross-talk
▪ Electrical interference
▪ Random noise generated within the measuring
instruments
◼ Energy limitation
◼ Eg: Resistance measurement require flow of
electric current
◼ Some transducers generate heat

◼ Care must be taken to avoid the possibility of

energy concentrations that might damage
cells or affect the measurement
◼ Safety considerations
◼ Must in no way endanger the life or normal
function
◼ Should not cause undue pain, discomfort.
Sources of Bioelectric Potentials
Electrical Activity of Excitable cells
Bio electric potentials produced as a
result of electrical activity of a certain
class of cells – EXCITABLE CELLS

EXCITABLE CELLS form a part of

nervous, muscular or glandular
tissue.
Cell are encased in a semipermeable
membrane that permit some substances
to pass through the membrane while
others kept out
Surrounding the cells of the body are the
body fluids. These fluids are conductive
solutions containing charged ions. The
principle ions are Na+ , K+ , Cl-
BIO ELECTRIC POTENTIALS
◼ RESTING/ACTION POTENTIAL

A Nerve Cell has ELECTRICAL

POTENTIAL across its cell membrane
because of a difference in the number
of Positively and Negatively Charged
IONS on each side of the Cell
Membrane.
RESTING POTENTIAL
POLARISED STATE
BIO ELECTRIC POTENTIALS
◼ The Italian scientist Luigi Galvani found
that nervous tissues display Electrical
Activity in the form of a Nerve Impulse,
which is a flow of electrical charges along
the Cell Membranes of a Neuron.
◼ This Electrical Activity is due to Movement
of ions (charged particles) across the Cell
Membrane.
◼ SODIUM - Na+, AND POTASSIUM - K+.
BIO ELECTRIC POTENTIALS
◼ The movement of these Ions is affected by their
ability to pass through the Cell membrane, their
Concentration Inside and Out of the Cell, and
their Charge.
◼ A difference in electrical Charge between Two
Locations is called a POTENTIAL.
◼ A Nerve Impulse causes a movement of ions
across the cell membrane of a neuron… Similar
to a ripple passing along the surface of a pond.

◼ The cell membrane of a neuron contains

thousands of tiny molecules known as GATES.
(Sodium and Potassium)

◼ These Gates allow either Sodium or Potassium

ions to pass through ;not both.
◼ In its resting state (no stimulus is applied), the
cell has a negative charge along the inner
surface of its membrane and a positive charge
along the outer portion.

◼ This unequal charge distribution results in a

potential gradient .this potential is known as
Resting potential. So the cell in a resting state
is said to be polarized.

◼ As a result the cell becomes a tiny biological

battery.

◼ Experiments have shown that the internal

resting potential within a cell is approx. -90 mV
with reference to the outside of the cell.
◼ When the cell is excited , the outside of the cell
membrane becomes momentarily negative with
respect to the interior. This process is called
depolarization and the cell potential changes
to approximately +20 mV.

◼ Repolarization then take place a short time

later when the cell regains its normal state in
which the inside of the membrane is again
negative with respect to the outside.

◼ Re-polarization is essential in order to re-

establish the resting potential.
◼ The DEPOLARIZATION and REPOLARIZATION of
a Neuron Membrane is called an ACTION
POTENTIAL.

◼ Action Potential is another name for a Nerve

Impulse or simply an impulse.

◼ This discharging and recharging of the cell

produces the voltage waveforms which can be
recorded by a suitable method using
microelectrodes.
 POLARIZATION
◼ As a result of its Resting Potential, the
Neuron is said to be POLARIZED.
◼
◼ POLARIZED = Negatively Charged on
the inside of the Cell Membrane, and
Positively Charged on the Outside.

◼ A Neuron maintains this polarization until

it is stimulated.
 THRESHOLD POTENTIAL
◼ A STIMULUS must be of Adequate Strength to
cause a neuron to conduct an impulse.
◼ The MINIMUM LEVEL of a STIMULUS that is
REQUIRED to Activate a neuron is called the
THRESHOLD.
◼ Any Stimulus WEAKER than the Threshold will
produce NO impulse ( i.e. the cell will not be
depolarized and no action potential is generated
).
◼ Any Stimulus STRONGER than the Threshold
WILL produce an impulse.
 All Or Nothing Law
◼ There is either an impulse to a stimulus or
there in not. (ALL OR NOTHING).
◼ Action potentials occur maximally or not at
all. In other words, there's no such thing
as a partial or weak action potential.
Either the threshold potential is reached
and an action potential occurs, or it isn't
reached and no action potential occurs.
 REFRACTORY PERIOD
◼ After a cell is stimulated, a finite period of
time is required for the cell to return to its
pre-stimulus state.

◼ This is because the energy associated with

the action potential is developed from the
metabolic processes within the cell which
take time for completion. This period is
known as refractory period.
 ABSOLUTE RERACTORY
PERIOD

◼ The brief period of time following the

generation of action potential during
which the cell cannot respond to a new
stimulus.
◼ This lasts around 1 msec in a nerve cell.
 RELATIVE RERACTORY
PERIOD
◼ Period of time following the ABSOLUTE
RERACTORY PERIOD during which
another action potential can be triggered
by means of a STRONGER STIMUATION.
◼ This lasts around several msec in a nerve
cell.
Propagation of Action Potential
◼ An impulse is not an electric current; it is
a wave of Depolarization and
Repolarization.
◼ Or a nerve impulse is actually the
movement of an action potential along a
neuron as a series of voltage-gated ions
channels open and close.
◼ An impulse is much SLOWER than an
electric current.
◼ There is either an impulse to a stimulus or
there in not. (ALL OR NOTHING).
Types of Body electrical
signals
⚫ ECG (Electrocardiogram)
⚫ EEG (Electroencephalogram)
⚫ EMG (Electromyogram)
⚫ EGG (Electrogastrogram)
⚫ ERG (Electroretinogram)
⚫ EOG (Electroocculogram)
ECG
⚫ ECG stands for electrical activity of heart.
⚫ The electrical activity means depolarization
and repolarization of cardiac tissues. The
heart is made up of cardiac muscles.
⚫ The action potential is initiated in the special
excitatory cells known as SA (Sinoatrial)
node.
Normal Impulse Conduction
Sinoatrial node

Atrioventricular(AV) node

Bundle of His

Bundle Branches

Purkinje fibers
Impulse Conduction & the ECG
Sinoatrial node

AV node

Bundle of His

Bundle Branches

Purkinje fibers
The “PQRST”

⚫ P wave - Atrial
depolarization

•QRS - Ventricular
depolarization
• T wave - Ventricular
repolarization
Recording of ECG
12 leads
Lead I
Lead II
Lead III
aVR
aVL
aVF

V1 to V6
The ECG Paper
⚫ Horizontally
⚫ One small box - 0.04 s
⚫ One large box - 0.20 s
⚫ Vertically
⚫ One large box - 0.5 mV
The ECG Paper (cont)
3 sec 3 sec

⚫ Every 3 seconds (15 large boxes) is marked

by a vertical line.
⚫ This helps when calculating the heart rate.
 Normal Sinus Rhythm
Parameters

⚫ Rate 60 - 100 bpm

⚫ Regularity regular
⚫ P waves normal
⚫ PR interval 0.12 - 0.20 s
⚫ QRS duration 0.04 - 0.12 s
Any deviation from above is sinus
tachycardia, sinus bradycardia or an
arrhythmia
For more presentations www.medicalppt.blogspot.com
ECG Machine & Monitor
 EEG
Electrical Activity of brain
How it is generated
⚫ The action potentials generated by the
neurons inside the brain.
⚫ Summation of action potentials of many
neurons.
Types of waves
⚫ Alpha wave
⚫ Beta wave
⚫ Delta wave
⚫ Theta wave
⚫ Gamma wave
Alpha Wave
⚫ Characteristics:
- frequency: 8-13 Hz
-amplitude: 20-60 µV
⚫ Easily produced when quietly sitting in relaxed position with eyes closed
(few people have trouble producing alpha waves)
⚫ Alpha blockade occurs with mental activity
Beta Waves
⚫ Characteristics:
-frequency: 14-30 Hz
-amplitude: 2-20 µV
⚫ The most common form of brain waves. Are present during mental
thought and activity
Theta Waves
⚫ Characteristics:
-frequency: 4-7Hz
-amplitude: 20-100µV
⚫ Believed to be more common in children than adults
Delta Waves
⚫ Characteristics:
-frequency: 0.5-3.5 Hz
-amplitude: 20-200µV
⚫ Found during periods of deep sleep in most people
⚫ Characterized by very irregular and slow wave patterns
⚫ Also useful in detecting tumors and abnormal brain behaviors
Gamma Waves
⚫ Characteristics:
-frequency: 36-44Hz
-amplitude: 3-5µV
⚫ Occur with sudden sensory stimuli
Recording EEG
International 10 – 20 system
EEG Recording
Movement in reference lead
EEG Machines
 EMG
Electrical Activity of Muscles
 INTRODUCTION
⚫ Electromyogram (EMG) is a technique for
evaluating and recording the activation signal of
muscles.
⚫ EMG is performed by an electromyograph, which
records an electromyogram.
⚫ Electromyograph detects the electrical potential
generated by muscle cells when these cells
contract and relax.
INTRODUCTION Contd.

EMG Apparatus Muscle Structure/EMG

 ELECTRICAL
CHARACTERITICS

• Measured EMG potentials range between

< 50 μV up to 20 to 30 mV, depending on the
muscle under observation.
• Typical repetition rate of muscle unit firing is about
7-20 Hz.
EMG Contd.

⚫ EMG signals are

also collected over a
specific period of
time.
Thank you