Lombards - Wikipedia

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Lombards
The Lombards (/ˈlɒmbərdz, -bɑːrdz, ˈlʌm-/)[1] or
Langobards (Latin: Langobardi) were a Germanic
people[2] who conquered most of the Italian Peninsula
between 568 and 774.
The medieval Lombard historian Paul the Deacon wrote in

the History of the Lombards (written between 787 and 796)
that the Lombards descended from a small tribe called the
Winnili,[3] who dwelt in northern Germany[4] before
migrating to seek new lands. Earlier Roman-era historians
wrote of the Lombards in the first century AD as being one of
the Suebian peoples, also from what is now northern
Germany, near the Elbe river. They migrated south, and by
the end of the fifth century, the Lombards had moved into
the area roughly coinciding with modern Austria and
Slovakia north of the Danube. Here they subdued the Heruls
and later fought frequent wars with the Gepids. The
Lombard king Audoin defeated the Gepid leader Thurisind
in 551 or 552, and his successor Alboin eventually destroyed Lombard possessions in Italy: the Lombard
the Gepids in 567. The Lombards settled in modern-day Kingdom (Neustria, Austria and Tuscia)
Hungary in Pannonia. Archaeologists have unearthed burial and the Lombard Duchies of Spoleto and
sites in the area of Szólád of Lombard men and women Benevento
buried together as families, a practice that was uncommon
for Germanic peoples at the time. Traces have also been
discovered of Mediterranean Greeks and of a woman whose skull suggests French ancestry, possibly
indicating that migrations into the Lombard territory occurred from Greece and France.
Following Alboin's victory over the Gepids, he led his people into North Eastern Italy, which had
become severely depopulated and devastated after the long Gothic War (535–554) between the
Byzantine Empire and the Ostrogothic Kingdom. The Lombards were joined by numerous Saxons,
Heruls, Gepids, Bulgars, Thuringians and Ostrogoths, and their invasion of Italy was almost
unopposed. By late 569, they had conquered all of northern Italy and the principal cities north of the
Po River except Pavia, which fell in 572. At the same time, they occupied areas in central and southern
Italy. They established a Lombard Kingdom in north and central Italy later named Regnum Italicum
("Kingdom of Italy"), which reached its zenith under the eighth-century ruler Liutprand. In 774, the
kingdom was conquered by the Frankish king Charlemagne and integrated into the Frankish Empire.
However, Lombard nobles continued to rule southern parts of the Italian peninsula well into the
eleventh century, when they were conquered by the Normans and added to the County of Sicily. In
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lombards 1/26
this period, the southern part of Italy still under Lombard domination was known to the Norse as
Langbarðaland ('land of the Lombards'), as inscribed in the Norse runestones.[5] Their legacy is also
apparent in the name of the region of Lombardy in northern Italy.
Name
According to their traditions, the Lombards initially called themselves the Winnili. After a reported
major victory against the Vandals in the first century, they changed their name to Lombards.[6] The
name Winnili is generally translated as 'the wolves', related to the Proto-Germanic root *wulfaz
'wolf'.[7] The name Lombard was reportedly derived from the distinctively long beards of the
Lombards.[8] It is probably a compound of the Proto-Germanic elements *langaz (long) and *bardaz
(beard).
History
Early history
Legendary origins
According to their own legends, the Lombards originated in

Northern Germany/Denmark zone[9] including modern-day
Denmark. The Germanic origins of the Lombards is supported
by genetic,[10][11] anthropological,[9] archaeological and earlier
literary evidence.[9]
A legendary account of Lombard origins, history, and practices

is the Historia Langobardorum (History of the Lombards) of Wodan (Godan) and Frigg (Frea)
Paul the Deacon, written in the eighth century. Paul's chief looking out of a window in the
source for Lombard origins, however, is the seventh-century heavens...
Origo Gentis Langobardorum (Origin of the Lombard People).
The Origo Gentis Langobardorum tells the story of a small

tribe called the Winnili[3] dwelling in Northern ...and spotting the Lombard women
Germany/Denmark zone[4] (the Codex Gothanus writes that with their long hair tied as to appear as
the Winnili first dwelt near a river called Vindilicus on the beards
extreme boundary of Gaul).[12] The Winnili were split into
three groups and one part left their native land to seek foreign
fields. The reason for the exodus was probably overpopulation.[13] The departing people were led by
Gambara and her sons Ybor and Aio [14][15] and arrived in the lands of Scoringa, perhaps the Baltic
coast[16] or the Bardengau on the banks of the Elbe.[17] Scoringa was ruled by the Vandals and their
chieftains, the brothers Ambri and Assi, who granted the Winnili a choice between tribute or war.
The Winnili were young and brave and refused to pay tribute, saying "It is better to maintain liberty by
arms than to stain it by the payment of tribute."[18] The Vandals prepared for war and consulted
Godan (the god Odin[4]), who answered that he would give victory to those whom he would see first at
sunrise.[19] The Winnili were fewer in number[18] and Gambara sought help from Frea (the goddess
Frigg[4]), who advised that all Winnili women should tie their hair in front of their faces like beards
and march in line with their husbands. At sunrise, Frea turned her
husband's bed so that he was facing east, and woke him. So Godan
spotted the Winnili first and asked, "Who are these long-beards?," and
Frea replied, "My lord, thou hast given them the name, now give them
also the victory."[20] From that moment onwards, the Winnili were
known as the Longbeards (Latinised as Langobardi, Italianised as
Longobardi, and Anglicized as Langobards or Lombards).
When Paul the Deacon wrote the Historia between 787 and 796 he was a
Catholic monk and devoted Christian. He thought the pagan stories of his
people "silly" and "laughable".[19][21] Paul explained that the name
"Langobard" came from the length of their beards.[22] A modern theory
suggests that the name "Langobard" comes from Langbarðr, a name of
Odin.[23] Priester states that when the Winnili changed their name to
"Lombards", they also changed their old agricultural fertility cult to a cult
of Odin, thus creating a conscious tribal tradition.[24] Fröhlich inverts the
Paul the Deacon, historian order of events in Priester and states that with the Odin cult, the
of the Lombards, circa 720– Lombards grew their beards in resemblance of the Odin of tradition and
799 their new name reflected this.[25] Bruckner remarks that the name of the
Lombards stands in close relation to the worship of Odin, whose many
names include "the Long-bearded" or "the Grey-bearded", and that the
Lombard given name Ansegranus ("he with the beard of the gods") shows that the Lombards had this
idea of their chief deity.[26] The same Old Norse root Barth or Barði, meaning "beard", is shared with
the Heaðobards mentioned in both Beowulf and in Widsith, where they conflict with the Danes. They
were possibly a branch of the Langobards.[27][28]
Alternatively, some etymological sources suggest an Old High German root, barta, meaning “axe” (and
related to English halberd), while Edward Gibbon puts forth an alternative suggestion which argues
that:
…Börde (or Börd) still signifies “a fertile plain by the side of a river,” and a district near
Magdeburg is still called the lange Börde. According to this view Langobardi would signify
“inhabitants of the long bord of the river;” and traces of their name are supposed still to
occur in such names as Bardengau and Bardewick in the neighborhood of the Elbe.[29]
According to the Gallaecian Christian priest, historian and theologian Paulus Orosius (translated by
Daines Barrington), the Lombards or Winnili lived originally in the Vinuiloth (Vinovilith) mentioned
by Jordanes, in his masterpiece Getica, to the north of Uppsala, Sweden. Scoringa was near the
province of Uppland, so just north of Östergötland.
The footnote then explains the etymology of the name Scoringa:
The shores of Uppland and Östergötland are covered with small rocks and rocky islands,
which are called in German Schæren and in Swedish Skiaeren. Heal signifies a port in the
northern languages; consequently, Skiæren-Heal is the port of the Skiæren, a name well
adapted to the port of Stockholm, in the Upplandske Skiæren, and the country may be
justly called Scorung or Skiærunga.[30]
The legendary king Sceafa of Scandza was an ancient Lombardic king in Anglo-Saxon legend. The Old
English poem Widsith, in a listing of famous kings and their countries, has Sceafa [weold]
Longbeardum, so naming Sceafa as ruler of the Lombards.[31]
Similarities between Langobardic and Gothic migration traditions have been noted among scholars.
These early migration legends suggest that a major shifting of tribes occurred sometime between the
first and second century BC, which would coincide with the time that the Teutoni and Cimbri left their
homelands in Northern Germany and migrated through central Germany, eventually invading Roman
Italy.[32]
Archaeology and migrations
The first mention of the Lombards occurred between AD 9

and 16, by the Roman court historian Velleius Paterculus, who
accompanied a Roman expedition as prefect of the cavalry.[34]
Paterculus says that under Tiberius the "power of the
Langobardi was broken, a race surpassing even the Germans
in savagery".[35]
From the combined testimony of Strabo (AD 20) and Tacitus

(AD 117), the Lombards dwelt near the mouth of the Elbe
shortly after the beginning of the Christian era, next to the Expansion of early Germanic tribes into
Chauci.[34] Strabo states that the Lombards dwelt on both previously mostly Celtic Central
sides of the Elbe.[34] He treats them as a branch of the Suebi, Europe:[33]
and states that: Settlements before 750 bc
New settlements by 500 bc
New settlements by 250 bc
Now as for the tribe of the Suebi, it is the largest,
New settlements by ad 1
for it extends from the Rhenus to the Albis; and a
part of them even dwells on the far side of the
Albis, as, for instance, the Hermondori and the
Langobardi; and at the present time these latter, at
least, have, to the last man, been driven in flight
out of their country into the land on the far side of
the river.[36]
Suetonius wrote that Roman general Nero Claudius Drusus

defeated a large force of Germans and drove some “to the farther
side of the Albis (Elbe)” river. It is conceivable that these refugees Distribution of Langobardic burial
were the Langobardi and the Hermunduri mentioned by Strabo fields at the Lower Elbe Lands
not long after.[37] (according to W. Wegewitz)
The German archaeologist Willi Wegewitz defined several Iron

Age burial sites at the Lower Elbe as Langobardic.[38]: 19 The burial sites are crematorial and are
usually dated from the sixth century BC through the third century AD, so a settlement breakoff seems
unlikely.[39] The lands of the lower Elbe fall into the zone of the Jastorf Culture and became Elbe-
Germanic, differing from the lands between Rhine, Weser, and the North Sea.[40] Archaeological finds
show that the Lombards were an agricultural people.[41]
Tacitus also counted the Lombards as a remote and aggressive Suebian tribe, one of those united in
worship of the deity Nerthus, whom he referred to as "Mother Earth", and also as subjects of Marobod
the King of the Marcomanni.[42] Marobod had made peace with the Romans, and that is why the
Lombards were not part of the Germanic confederacy under Arminius at the Battle of Teutoburg
Forest in AD 9. In AD 17, war broke out between Arminius and Marobod. Tacitus records:
Not only the Cheruscans and their confederates... took arms, but the Semnones and
Langobards, both Suebian nations, revolted to him from the sovereignty of Marobod... The
armies... were stimulated by reasons of their own, the Cheruscans and the Langobards
fought for their ancient honor or their newly acquired independence. . . .[42]
In 47, a struggle ensued amongst the Cherusci and they expelled their new leader, the nephew of
Arminius, from their country. The Lombards appeared on the scene with sufficient power to control
the destiny of the tribe that had been the leader in the struggle for independence thirty-eight years
earlier, for they restored the deposed leader to sovereignty.[43]
To the south, Cassius Dio reported that just before the Marcomannic Wars, 6,000 Lombards and Obii
(sometimes thought to be Ubii) crossed the Danube and invaded Pannonia.[44][45] The two tribes were
defeated, whereupon they ceased their invasion and sent Ballomar, King of the Marcomanni, as
ambassador to Aelius Bassus, who was then administering Pannonia. Peace was made and the two
tribes returned to their homes, which in the case of the Lombards was the lands of the lower
Elbe.[46][47][48][49] At about this time, in his Germania Tacitus says that "their scanty numbers are a
distinction" because "surrounded by a host of most powerful tribes, they are safe, not by submitting,
but by daring the perils of war".[50]
In the mid-second century, the Lombards supposedly appeared in the Rhineland, because according
to Claudius Ptolemy, the Suebic Lombards lived "below" the Bructeri and Sugambri, and between
these and the Tencteri. To their east stretching northwards to the central Elbe are the Suebi
Angili.[51][34] But Ptolemy also mentions the "Laccobardi" to the north of the above-mentioned Suebic
territories, east of the Angrivarii on the Weser, and south of the Chauci on the coast, probably
indicating a Lombard expansion from the Elbe to the Rhine.[52][34] This double mention has been
interpreted as an editorial error by Gudmund Schütte, in his analysis of Ptolemy.[53] However, the
Codex Gothanus also mentions Patespruna (Paderborn) in connection with the Lombards.[54]
From the second century onwards, many of the Germanic tribes recorded as active during the
Principate started to unite into bigger tribal unions, such as the Franks, Alamanni, Bavarii, and
Saxons.[55][45] The Lombards are not mentioned at first, perhaps because they were not initially on
the border of Rome, or perhaps because they were subjected to a larger tribal union, like the
Saxons.[55][45] It is, however, highly probable that, when the bulk of the Lombards migrated, a
considerable part remained behind and afterwards became absorbed by the Saxon tribes in the Elbe
region, while the emigrants alone retained the name of Lombards.[56] However, the Codex Gothanus
states that the Lombards were subjected by the Saxons around 300 but rose up against them under
their first king, Agelmund, who ruled for 30 years.[57][58] In the second half of the fourth century, the
Lombards left their homes, probably due to bad harvests, and embarked on their
migration.[47][48][49][59]
The migration route of the Lombards in 489, from their homeland to "Rugiland", encompassed
several places: Scoringa (believed to be their land on the Elbe shores), Mauringa, Golanda, Anthaib,
Banthaib, and Vurgundaib (Burgundaib).[17] According to the Ravenna Cosmography, Mauringa was
the land east of the Elbe.[60]
The crossing into Mauringa was very difficult. The Assipitti (possibly the Usipetes) denied them
passage through their lands and a fight was arranged for the strongest man of each tribe. The
Lombard was victorious, passage was granted, and the Lombards reached Mauringa.[61]
The Lombards departed from Mauringa and reached Golanda. Scholar Ludwig Schmidt thinks this
was further east, perhaps on the right bank of the Oder.[62] Schmidt considers the name the
equivalent of Gotland, meaning simply "good land".[63] This theory is highly plausible; Paul the
Deacon mentions the Lombards crossing a river, and they could have reached Rugiland from the
Upper Oder area via the Moravian Gate.[64]
Moving out of Golanda, the Lombards passed through Anthaib and Banthaib until they reached
Vurgundaib, believed to be the old lands of the Burgundes.[65][66] In Vurgundaib, the Lombards were
stormed in camp by "Bulgars" (probably Huns)[67] and were defeated; King Agelmund was killed and
Laimicho was made king. He was in his youth and desired to avenge the slaughter of Agelmund.[68]
The Lombards themselves were probably made subjects of the Huns after the defeat but rose up and
defeated them with great slaughter,[69] gaining great booty and confidence as they "became bolder in
undertaking the toils of war."[70] During the reign of King Claffo, the Langobards occupied parts of
modern-day Upper and Lower Austria and converted to Arian Christianity. In 505 the Herulians
attacked and defeated them, obliging them to pay tax and withdraw to Northern Bohemia. In 508,
King Rodulf sent his brother to the Lombard court to collect tribute and extend the truce; however, he
was stabbed by Rometrud, sister of King Tato. Rodulf personally led his forces against Tato, but was
ambushed and killed from a hill.[71]
In the 540s, Audoin (ruled 546–560) led the Lombards across the Danube once more into Pannonia.
Thurisind, King of the Gepids attempted to expel them, and both peoples asked for help from the
Byzantines. Justinian I sent his army against the Gepids; however, it was routed on the way by the
Herulians and the sides signed a two-year truce. Revenging what he felt as a betrayal, Thurisind made
an alliance with the Kutrigurs who devastated Moesia before end of the armistice. The Langobard and
Roman army joined together and defeated the Gepids in 551. In the battle, Audoin's son, Alboin killed
Thurisind's son, Turismod.[72]
In 552, the Byzantines, aided by a large contingent of Foederati, notably Lombards, Heruls and
Bulgars, defeated the last Ostrogoths led by Teia in the Battle of Taginae.[73]
Kingdom in Italy, 568–774
Invasion and conquest of the Italian peninsula
In approximately 560, Audoin was succeeded by his son Alboin, a young and energetic leader who
defeated the neighboring Gepidae and made them his subjects; in 566, he married Rosamund,
daughter of the Gepid king Cunimund. In the same year, he made a pact with Khagan Bayan. Next
year the Lombards and the Avars destroyed the Gepid kingdom in the Lombard-Gepid War, the allies
halved the prize of war and the nomads settled in Transylvania.[74] In the spring of 568, Alboin, now
fearing the aggressive Avars, led the Lombard migration into Italy,[75] which he planned for years.[74]
According to the History of the Lombards, "Then the Langobards, having left Pannonia, hastened to
take possession of Italy with their wives and children and all their
goods."[76] The Avars have agreed to shelter them if they wish to
come back.[74] Various other peoples who either voluntarily joined
or were subjects of King Alboin were also part of the migration.[75]
Whence, even until today, we call the villages in which

they dwell Gepidan, Bulgarian, Sarmatian, Pannonian,
Suabian, Norican, or by other names of this kind."[77]
At least 20,000 Saxon warriors, old allies of the Lombards, and

Rosamund forced to drink from the
their families joined them in their new migration.[78] The first
skull of her father by Pietro della
important city to fall was Forum Iulii (Cividale del Friuli) in
Vecchia. According to Samu
northeastern Italy, in 569. There, Alboin created the first Lombard Szádeczky-Kardoss, the cup could
duchy, which he entrusted to his nephew Gisulf. Soon Vicenza, be a gift from Bayan, as it was a
Verona and Brescia fell into Germanic hands. In the summer of nomad habit to make cups from the
569, the Lombards conquered the main Roman centre of northern enemy's skulls
Italy, Milan. The area was then recovering from the terrible Gothic
Wars, and the small Byzantine army left for its defence could do
almost nothing. Longinus, the Exarch sent to Italy by Emperor Justin II, could only defend coastal
cities that could be supplied by the powerful Byzantine fleet. Pavia fell after a siege of three years, in
572, becoming the first capital city of the new Lombard kingdom of Italy.
In the following years, the Lombards penetrated further south,

conquering Tuscany and establishing two duchies, Spoleto and
Benevento under Zotto, which soon became semi-independent and
even outlasted the northern kingdom, surviving well into the
twelfth century. Wherever they went, they were joined by the
Ostrogothic population, which was allowed to live peacefully in
Italy with their Rugian allies under Roman sovereignty.[79] The
Byzantines managed to retain control of the area of Ravenna and
Rome, linked by a thin corridor running through Perugia. Lombard grave goods (sixth–
seventh century), Milan, Lombardy
When they entered Italy, some Lombards retained their native
form of paganism, while some were Arian Christians. Hence they
did not enjoy good relations with the Early Christian Church. Gradually, they adopted Roman or
Romanized titles, names, and traditions, and partially converted to orthodoxy (in the seventh
century), though not without a long series of religious and ethnic conflicts. By the time Paul the
Deacon was writing, the Lombard language, dress and even hairstyles had nearly all disappeared in
toto.[80]
The whole Lombard territory was divided into 36 duchies, whose leaders settled in the main cities.
The king ruled over them and administered the land through emissaries called gastaldi. This
subdivision, however, together with the independent indocility of the duchies, deprived the kingdom
of unity, making it weak even when compared to the Byzantines, especially since these had begun to
recover from the initial invasion. This weakness became even

more evident when the Lombards had to face the increasing power
of the Franks. In response, the kings tried to centralize power over
time, but they definitively lost control over Spoleto and Benevento
in the attempt.
Langobardia major
Duchy of Friuli
Duchy of Tridentum Plutei of Theodota, mid-eighth
Duchy of Persiceta century, Civic Museums of Pavia.
Duchy of Pavia
Duchy of Tuscia
Langobardia minor
Duchy of Spoleto and List of Dukes of Spoleto

Duchy of Benevento and List of Dukes and Princes of Benevento
Arian monarchy
In 572, Alboin was murdered in Verona in a plot led by his wife,

Rosamund, who later fled to Ravenna. His successor, Cleph, was
also assassinated, after a ruthless reign of 18 months. His death
began an interregnum of years (the "Rule of the Dukes") during
which the dukes did not elect any king, a period regarded as a time
of violence and disorder. In 586, threatened by a Frankish
invasion, the dukes elected Cleph's son, Authari, as king. In 589,
he married Theodelinda, daughter of Garibald I of Bavaria, the
Duke of Bavaria. The Catholic Theodelinda was a friend of Pope
Gregory I and pushed for Christianization. In the meantime,
Authari embarked on a policy of internal reconciliation and tried
to reorganize royal administration. The dukes yielded half their
estates for the maintenance of the king and his court in Pavia. On The Frankish Merovingian King
the foreign affairs side, Authari managed to thwart the dangerous Chlothar II in combat with the
alliance between the Byzantines and the Franks. Lombards
Authari died in 591 and was succeeded by Agilulf, the duke of

Turin, who also married Theodelinda in the same year. Agilulf successfully fought the rebel dukes of
northern Italy, conquering Padua in 601, Cremona and Mantua in 603, and forcing the Exarch of
Ravenna to pay tribute. Agilulf died in 616; Theodelinda reigned alone until 628 when she was
succeeded by Adaloald. Arioald, the head of the Arian opposition who had married Theodelinda's
daughter Gundeperga, later deposed Adaloald.
Arioald was succeeded by Rothari, regarded by many authorities as the most energetic of all Lombard
kings. He extended his dominions, conquering Liguria in 643 and the remaining part of the Byzantine
territories of inner Veneto, including the Roman city of Opitergium (Oderzo). Rothari also made the
famous edict bearing his name, the Edictum Rothari, which established the laws and the customs of
his people in Latin: the edict did not apply to the tributaries of the Lombards, who could retain their
own laws. Rothari's son Rodoald succeeded him in 652, still very young, and was killed by his
opponents.
At the death of King Aripert I in 661, the kingdom was split between his children Perctarit, who set his
capital in Milan, and Godepert, who reigned from Pavia (Ticinum). Perctarit was overthrown by
Grimoald, son of Gisulf, duke of Friuli and Benevento since 647. Perctarit fled to the Avars and then to
the Franks. Grimoald managed to regain control over the duchies and deflected the late attempt of the
Byzantine emperor Constans II to conquer southern Italy. He also defeated the Franks. At Grimoald's
death in 671 Perctarit returned and promoted tolerance between Arians and Catholics, but he could
not defeat the Arian party, led by Arachi, duke of Trento, who submitted only to his son, the philo-
Catholic Cunincpert.
The Lombards engaged in fierce battles with Slavic peoples during these years: from 623 to 626 the
Lombards unsuccessfully attacked the Carantanians, and, in 663–64, the Slavs raided the Vipava
Valley and the Friuli.
Catholic monarchy
Religious strife and the Slavic raids remained a source of struggle

in the following years. In 705, the Friuli Lombards were defeated
and lost the land to the west of the Soča River, namely the Gorizia
Hills and the Venetian Slovenia.[82] A new ethnic border was
established that has lasted for over 1200 years up until the present
time.[82][83] King Liutprand (712–744) "was a
zealous Catholic, generous and a
The Lombard reign began to recover only with Liutprand the
great founder of monasteries"[81]
Lombard (king from 712), son of Ansprand and successor of the
brutal Aripert II. He managed to regain a certain control over
Spoleto and Benevento, and, taking advantage of the disagreements between the Pope and Byzantium
concerning the reverence of icons, he annexed the Exarchate of Ravenna and the duchy of Rome. He
also helped the Frankish marshal Charles Martel drive back the Arabs. The Slavs were defeated in the
Battle of Lavariano, when they tried to conquer the Friulian Plain in 720.[82] Liutprand's successor
Aistulf conquered Ravenna for the Lombards for the first time but had to relinquish it when he was
subsequently defeated by the king of the Franks, Pippin III, who was called by the Pope.
After the death of Aistulf, Ratchis attempted to become king of Lombardy, but he was deposed by
Desiderius, duke of Tuscany, the last Lombard to rule as king. Desiderius managed to take Ravenna
definitively, ending the Byzantine presence in northern Italy. He decided to reopen struggles against
the Pope, who was supporting the dukes of Spoleto and Benevento against him, and entered Rome in
772, the first Lombard king to do so. But when Pope Hadrian I called for help from the powerful
Frankish king Charlemagne, Desiderius was defeated at Susa and besieged in Pavia, while his son
Adelchis was forced to open the gates of Verona to Frankish troops. Desiderius surrendered in 774,
and Charlemagne, in an utterly novel decision, took the title "King of the Lombards". Before then the
Germanic kingdoms had frequently conquered each other, but none had adopted the title of King of
another people. Charlemagne took part of the Lombard territory to create the Papal States.
The Lombardy region in Italy, which includes the cities of Brescia, Bergamo, Milan, and the old capital
Pavia, is a reminder of the presence of the Lombards.
Later history
Falling to the Franks and the Duchy of Benevento, 774–849
Though the kingdom centred on Pavia in the north fell

to Charlemagne and the Franks in 774, the Lombard-
controlled territory to the south of the Papal States was
never subjugated by Charlemagne or his descendants.
In 774, Duke Arechis II of Benevento, whose duchy had
only nominally been under royal authority, though
certain kings had been effective at making their power
known in the south, claimed that Benevento was the
successor state of the kingdom. He tried to turn
Benevento into a secundum Ticinum: a second Pavia.
He tried to claim the kingship, but with no support and
Lombard Duchy of Benevento in the eighth
no chance of a coronation in Pavia.
century
Charlemagne came down with an army, and his son

Louis the Pious sent men, to force the Beneventan duke
to submit, but his submission and promises were never kept and Arechis and his successors were de
facto independent. The Beneventan dukes took the title prínceps (prince) instead of that of king.
The Lombards of southern Italy were thereafter in the anomalous position of holding land claimed by
two empires: the Carolingian Empire to the north and west and the Byzantine Empire to the east.
They typically made pledges and promises of tribute to the Carolingians, but effectively remained
outside Frankish control. Benevento meanwhile grew to its greatest extent yet when it imposed a
tribute on the Duchy of Naples, which was tenuously loyal to Byzantium and even conquered the
Neapolitan city of Amalfi in 838. At one point in the reign of Sicard, Lombard control covered most of
southern Italy save the very south of Apulia and Calabria and Naples, with its nominally attached
cities. It was during the ninth century that a strong Lombard presence became entrenched in formerly
Greek Apulia. However, Sicard had opened up the south to the invasive actions of the Saracens in his
war with Andrew II of Naples and when he was assassinated in 839, Amalfi declared independence
and two factions fought for power in Benevento, crippling the principality and making it susceptible to
external enemies.
The civil war lasted ten years and ended with a peace treaty imposed in 849 by Emperor Louis II, the
only Frankish king to exercise actual sovereignty over the Lombard states. The treaty divided the
kingdom into two states: the Principality of Benevento and the Principality of Salerno, with its capital
at Salerno on the Tyrrhenian Sea.
Southern Italy and the Arabs, 836–915
Andrew II of Naples hired Islamic mercenaries and formed a Muslim-Christian alliance for his war
with Sicard of Benevento in 836; Sicard responded with other Muslim mercenaries. The Saracens
initially concentrated their attacks on Sicily and Byzantine Italy, but soon Radelchis I of Benevento
called in more mercenaries, who destroyed Capua in 841. Landulf the Old founded the present-day
Capua, "New Capua", on a nearby hill. In general, the Lombard princes were less inclined to ally with
the Saracens than with their Greek neighbours of Amalfi, Gaeta, Naples, and Sorrento. Guaifer of
Salerno, however, briefly put himself under Muslim suzerainty.
In 847 a large Muslim force seized Bari, until then a Lombard gastaldate under the control of
Pandenulf. Saracen incursions proceeded northwards until Adelchis of Benevento sought the help of
his suzerain, Louis II, who allied with the Byzantine emperor Basil I to expel the Arabs from Bari in
869. An Arab landing force was defeated by the emperor in 871. Adelchis and Louis remained at war
until the death of Louis in 875. Adelchis regarded himself as the true successor of the Lombard kings,
and in that capacity he amended the Edictum Rothari, the last Lombard ruler to do so.
After the death of Louis, Landulf II of Capua briefly flirted with a Saracen alliance, but Pope John VIII
convinced him to break it off. Guaimar I of Salerno fought the Saracens with Byzantine troops.
Throughout this period the Lombard princes swung in allegiance from one party to another. Finally,
towards 915, Pope John X managed to unite the Christian princes of southern Italy against the
Saracen establishments on the Garigliano river. The Saracens were ousted from Italy in the Battle of
the Garigliano in 915.
Lombard principalities in the tenth century
The independent state of Salerno inspired the gastalds of Capua to

move towards independence, and by the end of the century they
were styling themselves "princes" and as a third Lombard state.
The Capuan and Beneventan states were united by Atenulf I of
Capua in 900. He subsequently declared them to be in perpetual
union, and they were separated only in 982, on the death of
Pandulf Ironhead. With all of the Lombard south under his
control, except Salerno, Atenulf felt safe to use the title Princeps
Gentis Langobardorum ("prince of the Lombard people"), which
Arechis II had begun using in 774. Among Atenulf's successors the
principality was ruled jointly by fathers, sons, brothers, cousins,
and uncles for the greater part of the century. Meanwhile, the
prince Gisulf I of Salerno began using the title Langobardorum
Gentis Princeps around mid-century, but the ideal of a united
Lombard principality was realised only in December 977, when
Gisulf died and his domains were inherited by Pandulf Ironhead,
who temporarily held almost all Italy south of Rome and brought Italy around the turn of the
the Lombards into an alliance with the Holy Roman Empire. His millennium, showing the Lombard
territories were divided upon his death. states in the south on the eve of the
arrival of the Normans.
Landulf the Red of Benevento and Capua tried to conquer the
principality of Salerno with the help of John III of Naples, but with
the aid of Mastalus I of Amalfi, Gisulf repulsed him. The rulers of Benevento and Capua made several
attempts on Byzantine Apulia at this time, but late in the century, the Byzantines, under the stiff rule
of Basil II, gained ground on the Lombards.
The principal source for the history of the Lombard principalities in this period is the Chronicon
Salernitanum, composed late in the tenth century at Salerno.
Norman conquest, 1017–1078
The diminished Beneventan principality soon lost its independence to the papacy and declined in
importance until it fell in the Norman conquest of southern Italy. The Normans, first called in by the
Lombards to fight the Byzantines for control of Apulia and Calabria (under the likes of Melus of Bari
and Arduin, among others), had become rivals for hegemony in the south. The Salernitan principality
experienced a golden age under Guaimar III and Guaimar IV, but under Gisulf II, the principality
shrank to insignificance and fell in 1078 to Robert Guiscard, who had married Gisulf's sister
Sichelgaita. The Capua principality was hotly contested during the reign of the hated Pandulf IV, the
Wolf of the Abruzzi, and, under his son, it fell, almost without contest, to the Norman Richard
Drengot (1058). The Capuans revolted against Norman rule in 1091, expelling Richard's grandson
Richard II and setting up one Lando IV.
Capua was again put under Norman rule after the Siege of Capua of 1098 and the city quickly declined
in importance under a series of ineffective Norman rulers. The independent status of these Lombard
states is in general attested by the ability of their rulers to switch suzerains at will. Often the legal
vassal of the pope or the emperor (either Byzantine or Holy Roman), they were the real power-brokers
in the south until their erstwhile allies, the Normans, rose to preeminence. The Lombards regarded
the Normans as barbarians and the Byzantines as oppressors. Regarding their own civilisation as
superior, the Lombards did indeed provide the environment for the illustrious Schola Medica
Salernitana.
Genetics
A genetic study published in Nature Communications in September 2018 found strong genetic
similarities between Lombards of Italy and earlier Lombards of Central Europe. Lombard males were
primarily carriers of subclades of haplogroup R1b and I2a2a1, both of which are common among
Germanic peoples. Lombard males were found to be more genetically homogeneous than Lombard
females. The evidence suggested that the Lombards originated in Northern Europe, and were a
patriarchal people who settled Central Europe and then later Italy through a migration from the
north.[10][84]
A genetic study published in Science Advances in September 2018 examined the remains of a
Lombard male buried at an Alemannic graveyard. He was found to be a carrier of the paternal
haplogroup R1b1a2a1a1c2b2b and the maternal haplogroup H65a. The graveyard also included the
remains of a Frankish and a Byzantine male, both of whom were also carriers of subclades of the
paternal haplogroup R1b1a2a1a1. The Lombard, Frankish and Byzantine males were all found to be
closely related, and displayed close genetic links to Northern Europe, particularly Lithuania and
Iceland.[85]
A genetic study published in the European Journal of Human Genetics in January 2019 examined the
mtDNA of a large number of early medieval Lombard remains from Central Europe and Italy. These
individuals were found to be closely related and displayed strong genetic links to Central Europe. The
evidence suggested that the Lombard settlement of Italy was the result of a migration from the north
involving both males and females.[11]
Culture
Language
The Lombardic language is

extinct (unless Cimbrian
and Mòcheno represent
surviving dialects).[86] It
declined beginning in the
seventh century, but may
have been in scattered use
until as late as about the
year 1000. Only fragments
of the language have
survived, the main
evidence being individual
words quoted in Latin
texts. In the absence of
Lombardic texts, it is not
possible to draw any
conclusions about the
language's morphology
and syntax. The genetic
classification of the
language depends entirely
on phonology. Since there
is evidence that Lombardic
participated in, and indeed
The West-Germanic languages around the sixth century CE
shows some of the earliest
evidence for, the High
German consonant shift, it
is usually classified as an Elbe Germanic or Upper German dialect.[87]
Lombardic fragments are preserved in runic

inscriptions. Primary source texts include short
inscriptions in the Elder Futhark, among them the
"bronze capsule of Schretzheim" (c. 600) and the silver
belt buckle found in Pforzen, Ostallgäu (Schwaben). A
number of Latin texts include Lombardic names, and
Lombardic legal texts contain terms taken from the The runic inscription from the Pforzen buckle may
legal vocabulary of the vernacular. In 2005, Emilia be the earliest written example of Lombardic
Denčeva argued that the inscription of the Pernik language
sword may be Lombardic.[88]
The Italian language preserves a large number of Lombardic words, although it is not always easy to
distinguish them from other Germanic borrowings such as those from Gothic or from Frankish. They
often bear some resemblance to English words, as Lombardic was akin to Old Saxon.[89] For instance,
landa from land, guardia from wardan (warden), guerra from werra (war), ricco from rikki (rich),
and guadare from wadjan (to wade).
The Codice diplomatico longobardo, a collection of legal documents, makes reference to many
Lombardic terms, some of them still in use in the Italian language:
barba (beard), marchio (mark), maniscalco (blacksmith), aia (courtyard), braida (suburban
meadow), borgo (burg, village), fara (fundamental unity of Lombard social and military organization,
presently used as toponym), picco (peak, mountain top, also used as toponym), sala (hall, room, also
used as toponym), staffa (stirrup), stalla (stable), sculdascio, faida (feud), manigoldo (scoundrel),
sgherro (henchman); fanone (baleen), stamberga (hovel); anca (hip), guancia (cheek), nocca
(knuckle), schiena (back); gazza (magpie), martora (marten); gualdo (wood, presently used as
toponym), pozza (pool); verbs like bussare (to knock), piluccare (to peck), russare (to snore).
Social structure
Migration Period society
During their stay at the mouth of the Elbe, the Lombards came into contact with other western
Germanic populations, such as the Saxons and the Frisians. From these populations, which had long
been in contact with the Celts (especially the Saxons), they adopted a rigid social organization into
castes, rarely present in other Germanic peoples.[90]
The Lombard kings can be traced back as early as c. 380 and thus to the beginning of the Great
Migration. Kingship developed among the Germanic peoples when the unity of a single military
command was found necessary. Schmidt believed that the Germanic tribes were divided into cantons
and that the earliest government was a general assembly that selected canton chiefs and war leaders in
times of conflict. All such figures were probably selected from a caste of nobility. As a result of the
wars of their wanderings, royal power developed such that the king became the representative of the
people, but the influence of the people on the government did not fully disappear.[91] Paul the Deacon
gives an account of the Lombard tribal structure during the migration:
. . . in order that they might increase the number of their warriors, [the Lombards] confer
liberty upon many whom they deliver from the yoke of bondage, and that the freedom of
these may be regarded as established, they confirm it in their accustomed way by an arrow,
uttering certain words of their country in confirmation of the fact.
Complete emancipation appears to have been granted only among the Franks and the Lombards.[92]
Society of the Catholic kingdom
Lombard society was divided into classes comparable to those found in the other Germanic successor
states of Rome, Frankish Gaul and Spain under the Visigoths. There was a noble class, a class of free
persons beneath them, a class of unfree non-slaves (serfs), and finally slaves. The aristocracy itself was
poorer, more urbanised, and less landed than elsewhere. Aside from the richest and most powerful of
the dukes and the king himself, Lombard noblemen tended to live in cities (unlike their Frankish
counterparts) and hold little more than twice as much in land as the merchant class (a far cry from
provincial Frankish aristocrats who held vast swathes of land, hundreds of times larger than those
beneath his status). The aristocracy by the eighth century was highly dependent on the king for means
of income related especially to judicial duties: many Lombard nobles are referred to in contemporary
documents as iudices (judges) even when their offices had important military and legislative functions
as well.
The freemen of the Lombard kingdom were far more numerous than in Frankish lands, especially in
the eighth century, when they are almost invisible in surviving documentary evidence. Smallholders,
owner-cultivators, and rentiers are the most numerous types of person in surviving diplomata for the
Lombard kingdom. They may have owned more than half of the land in Lombard Italy. The freemen
were exercitales and viri devoti, that is, soldiers and "devoted men" (a military term like "retainers");
they formed the levy of the Lombard army, and they were sometimes, if infrequently, called to serve,
though this seems not to have been their preference. The small landed class, however, lacked the
political influence necessary with the king (and the dukes) to control the politics and legislation of the
kingdom. The aristocracy was more thoroughly powerful politically if not economically in Italy than in
contemporary Gaul and Spain.
The urbanisation of Lombard Italy was characterised by the città

ad isole (or "city as islands"). It appears from archaeology that the
great cities of Lombard Italy—Pavia, Lucca, Siena, Arezzo, Milan—
were themselves formed of small urban cores within the old
Roman city walls. The cities of the Roman Empire had been
partially destroyed in the series of wars of the fifth and sixth
centuries. Many sectors were left in ruins and ancient monuments
became fields of grass used as pastures for animals, thus the
Roman Forum became the Campo Vaccino, the field of cows. The
portions of the cities that remained intact were small, modest,
contained a cathedral or major church (often sumptuously
decorated), and a few public buildings and townhouses of the
aristocracy. Few buildings of importance were stone, most were
wood. In the end, the inhabited parts of the cities were separated
from one another by stretches of pasture even within the city
walls.
Lombard states
Lombard state on the Carpathians (sixth century)

Lombard state in Pannonia (sixth century)
Kingdom of Italy and List of Kings of the Lombards
Lombard warrior, bronze statue,
Principality of Benevento and List of Dukes and Princes of eighth century, Pavia Civic
Benevento
Museums
Principality of Salerno and List of Princes of Salerno
Principality of Capua and List of Princes of Capua
Religious history
The legend from Origo may hint that initially, before the passage from Scandinavia to the southern
coast of the Baltic Sea, the Lombards worshiped the Vanir. Later, in contact with other Germanic
populations, they adopted the worship of the Æsir: an evolution that marked the passage from the
adoration of deities related to fertility and the earth to the cult of warlike gods.[93][94]
In chapter 40 of his Germania, Roman historian Tacitus, discussing the Suebian tribes of Germania,
writes that the Lombards were one of the Suebian tribes united in worship of the deity Nerthus, who is
often identified with the Norse goddess Freyja. The other tribes were the Reudigni, Aviones, Anglii,
Varini, Eudoses, Suarines and Nuitones.[95]
St. Barbatus of Benevento observed many pagan rituals and traditions among the Lombards
authorised by the Duke Romuald, son of King Grimoald:[96]
They expressed a religious veneration to a golden viper, and prostrated themselves before
it: they paid also a superstitious honour to a tree, on which they hung the skin of a wild
beast, and these ceremonies were closed by public games, in which the skin served for a
mark at which bowmen shot arrows over their shoulder.
Christianisation
The Lombards first adopted Christianity while still in Pannonia, but their conversion and
Christianisation was largely nominal and far from complete. During the reign of Wacho, they were
Orthodox Catholics allied with the Byzantine Empire, but Alboin converted to Arianism as an ally of
the Ostrogoths and invaded Italy. All these Christian conversions primarily affected the aristocracy,
while the common people remained pagan.[97]
In Italy, the Lombards were intensively Christianised, and the pressure to convert to Catholicism was
great. With the Bavarian queen Theodelinda, a Catholic, the monarchy was brought under heavy
Catholic influence. After initial support for the anti-Rome party in the Schism of the Three Chapters,
Theodelinda remained a close contact and supporter of Pope Gregory I.[98] In 603, Adaloald, the heir
to the throne, received Catholic baptism.[99] However, the lack of spiritual involvement of most of the
Lombards in religious disputes remained constant, so much so that the opposition between Catholics,
on the one hand, and pagans, Arians and schismatics, on the other, soon took on political significance.
The supporters of Roman orthodoxy, led by the Bavarian dynasty, were politically the proponents of
greater integration with the Romans, accompanied by a strategy of preserving the status quo with the
Byzantines. Arians, pagans and schismatics, rooted above all in the northeastern regions of the
kingdom (Austria), were instead interpreters of the preservation of the warlike and aggressive spirit of
the people. Thus, to the "pro-Catholic" phase of Agilulf, Theodolinda and Adaloald followed, from 626
(Arioald's accession to the throne) to 690 (definitive defeat of the rebel Alahis), a long phase of the
revival of Arianism, embodied by militarily aggressive kings like Rothari and Grimoald. However,
tolerance towards Catholics was never questioned by the various kings, also safeguarded by the
influential contribution of the respective queens (largely chosen, for reasons of dynastic legitimacy,
among the Catholic princesses of the Bavarian dynasty).[100]
In the seventh century, the nominally Christian aristocracy of Benevento was still practising pagan
rituals such as sacrifices in "sacred" woods.[101] By the end of the reign of Cunincpert, however, the
Lombards were more or less completely Catholicised. Under Liutprand Catholicism became tangible
as the king sought to justify his title rex totius Italiae by uniting the south of the peninsula with the
north, thereby bringing together his Italo-Roman and Germanic subjects into one Catholic State.[102]
Beneventan Christianity
The Duchy and eventually Principality of Benevento in southern

Italy developed a unique Christian rite in the seventh and eighth
centuries. The Beneventan rite is more closely related to the
liturgy of the Ambrosian rite than to the Roman rite.[103] The
Beneventan rite has not survived in its complete form, although
most of the principal feasts and several feasts of local significance
are extant. The Beneventan rite appears to have been less
complete, less systematic, and more liturgically flexible than the
Roman rite.
Characteristic of this rite was the Beneventan chant, a Lombard-

influenced[103] chant that bore similarities to the Ambrosian chant
of Milan. The Beneventan chant is largely defined by its role in the
liturgy of the Beneventan rite; many Beneventan chants were
assigned multiple roles when inserted into Gregorian chantbooks,
appearing variously as antiphons, offertories, and communions,
for example. It was eventually supplanted by the Gregorian chant
in the eleventh century. The Rule of Saint Benedict in
Beneventan (i.e. Lombard) script
The chief centre of the Beneventan chant was Montecassino, one
of the first and greatest abbeys of Western monasticism. Gisulf II
of Benevento had donated a large swathe of land to Montecassino in 744, and that became the basis
for an important state, the Terra Sancti Benedicti, which was a subject only to Rome. The Cassinese
influence on Christianity in southern Italy was immense.[104] Montecassino was also the starting point
for another characteristic of Beneventan monasticism, the use of the distinct Beneventan script, a
clear, angular script derived from the Roman cursive as used by the Lombards.[105]
Art
During their nomadic phase, the Lombards primarily created art that was easily carried with them,
like arms and jewellery. Though relatively little of this has survived, it bears resemblance to the
similar endeavours of other Germanic tribes of central Europe from the same era.
The first major modifications to the Germanic style of the Lombards came in Pannonia and especially
in Italy, under the influence of local, Byzantine, and Christian styles. The conversions from nomadism
and paganism to settlement and Christianity also opened up new arenas of artistic expressions, such
as architecture (especially churches) and its accompanying decorative arts (such as frescoes).
Lombard shield Lombard S-shaped A glass drinking Lombard

boss fibula horn from Castel Goldblattkreuz
northern Italy, Trosino
seventh century,
Metropolitan
Museum of Art
Lombard fibulae Altar of Ratchis Eighth-century Crypt of

Lombard sculpture Sant'Eusebio,
depicting female Pavia.
martyrs, based on a
Byzantine model.
Tempietto
Longobardo,
Cividale del Friuli
Architecture
Few Lombard buildings have survived. Most have been lost, rebuilt, or renovated at some point, so
they preserve little of their original Lombard structure. Lombard architecture was well-studied in the
twentieth century, and the four-volume Lombard Architecture (1919) by Arthur Kingsley Porter is a
"monument of illustrated history".
The small Oratorio di Santa Maria in Valle in Cividale del Friuli is probably one of the oldest preserved
examples of Lombard architecture, as Cividale was the first Lombard city in Italy. Parts of Lombard
constructions have been preserved in Pavia (San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro, crypts of Sant'Eusebio and San
Giovanni Domnarum) and Monza (cathedral). The Basilic autariana in Fara Gera d'Adda near
Bergamo and the church of San Salvatore in Brescia also have Lombard elements. All these buildings
are in northern Italy (Langobardia major), but by far the best-preserved Lombard structure is in
southern Italy (Langobardia minor). The Church of Santa Sofia in

Benevento was erected in 760 by Duke Arechis II, and it preserves
Lombard frescoes on the walls and even Lombard capitals on the
columns.
Lombard architecture flourished under the impulse provided by

the Catholic monarchs like Theodelinda, Liutprand, and
Desiderius to the foundation of monasteries to further their
political control. Bobbio Abbey was founded during this time.
Some of the late Lombard structures of the ninth and tenth

centuries have been found to contain elements of style associated
with Romanesque architecture and so have been dubbed "first
Romanesque". These edifices are considered, along with some
similar buildings in southern France and Catalonia, to mark a
transitory phase between the Pre-Romanesque and full-fledged
Church of Santa Sofia, Benevento
Romanesque.
List of rulers
Notes and sources
Notes
1. "Lombard" (https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/lombard). Collins English
Dictionary.
2. *Christie 1995. "The Lombards, also known as the Longobards, were a Germanic tribe whose
fabled origins lay in the barbarian realm of Scandinavia."
Whitby 2012, p. 857. "Lombards, or Langobardi, a Germanic group..."
Brown 2005. "Lombards... a west-Germanic people..."
Darvill 2009. "Lombards (Lombard). Germanic people..."
Taviani-Carozzi 2005. "Lombards, A people of Germanic origin, conquerors of part of Italy from
568."
3. Priester 2004, p. 16: "From Proto-Germanic winna-, meaning "to fight, win"
4. Harrison, D.; Svensson, K. (2007). Vikingaliv. Värnamo: Fälth & Hässler. p. 74. ISBN 978-91-27-
35725-9.
5. "2. Runriket – Täby Kyrka" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080604203505/http://www.lansmuseu
m.a.se/runriket/taby.html). Stockholm County Museum. Archived from the original (http://www.lans
museum.a.se/runriket/taby.html) on 4 June 2008. Retrieved 1 July 2007.
6. Christie 1995, p. 3.
7. Sergent, Bernard (1991). "Ethnozoonymes indo-européens" (https://www.persee.fr/doc/dha_0755-
7256_1991_num_17_2_1932) [Indo-European ethnozoonyms]. Dialogues d'Histoire Ancienne (in
French). 17 (2): 15. doi:10.3406/dha.1991.1932 (https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fdha.1991.1932).
8. Christie 2018b, pp. 920–922.
9. Christie 1995, pp. 1–6.
10. Amorim 2018a. "Late Bronze Age Hungarians show almost no resemblance to populations from
modern central/northern Europe, especially compare to Bronze Age Germans and in particular
Scandinavians, who, in contrast, show considerable overlap with our Szólád and Collegno
central/northern ancestry samples... Our results are thus consistent with an origin of barbarian
groups such as the Longobards somewhere in Northern and Central Europe..."
11. Vai 2019. "[T]he presence in this cluster of haplogroups that reach high frequency in Northern
European populations, suggests a possible link between this core group of individuals and the
proposed homeland of different ancient barbarian Germanic groups... This supports the view that
the spread of Longobards into Italy actually involved movements of people, who gave a
substantial contribution to the gene pool of the resulting populations...This is even more
remarkable thinking that, in many studied cases, military invasions are movements of males, and
hence do not have consequences at the mtDNA level. Here, instead, we have evidence of
maternally linked genetic similarities between LC in Hungary and Italy, supporting the view that
immigration from Central Europe involved females as well as males."
12. CG, II.
13. Menghin 1985, p. 13
14. Priester, 16. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie, I, 336. Old Germanic for "Strenuus", "Sibyl".
15. Ibor and Aio were called by Prosper of Aquitaine, Iborea and Agio; Saxo-Grammaticus calls them
Ebbo and Aggo; the popular song of Gothland (Bethmann, 342), Ebbe and Aaghe (Wiese, 14).
16. Priester 2004, p. 16
17. Von Hammerstein-Loxten 1869, p. 56
18. PD, VII.
19. PD, VIII.
20. OGL, appendix 11.
21. Priester 2004, p. 17
22. PD, I, 9.
23. Nedoma, Robert (2005).Der altisländische Odinsname Langbarðr: ‘Langbart’ und die
Langobarden (https://www.academia.edu/36246147/Der_altisländische_Odinsname_Langbarðr_L
angbart_und_die_Langobarden). In Pohl, Walter and Erhart, Peter, eds. Die Langobarden.
Herrschaft und Identität. Wien. pp. 439–444
24. Priester 2004, p. 17
25. Fröhlich 1980, p. 19
26. Bruckner 1895, pp. 30–33
27. The article Hadubarder in Nordisk familjebok (1909). (http://runeberg.org/nfbj/0531.html)
28. Wilson Chambers, Raymond (2010). Widsith: A Study in Old English Heroic Legend. Cambridge
University Press. p. 205.
29. Smith, William (1875). A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. London: John Murray. p. 119.
30. Orosius (1773). The Anglo-Saxon Version, from the Historian Orosius, by Ælfred the Great
together with an English Translation from the Anglo-Saxon (https://archive.org/details/anglosaxonv
ersi00barrgoog/page/n559/mode/2up/search/scoringa). Translated by Barrington, Daines (Alfred
the Great ed.). London: Printed by W. Bowyer and J. Nichols and sold by S. Baker. p. 256.
Retrieved 7 May 2020.
31. Widsith, line 30
32. Cardini 2019, p. 80
33. Kinder, Hermann (1988), Penguin Atlas of World History, vol. I, London: Penguin, p. 108, ISBN 0-
14-051054-0.
34. Menghin 1985, p. 15
35. "Velleius, Hist. Rom. II, 106. Schmidt, 5" (https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/V

elleius_Paterculus/2D*.html#ref:Langobardi).
36. "Strabo, VII, 1, 3" (https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0198:boo
k=7:chapter=1&highlight=langobardi).
37. Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, chapters II and III.
38. Wegewitz (1964). "Das langobardische Brandgräberfeld von Putensen, Kreis Harburg". Problemi
della civilita e dell'economia Longobarda. Milan (published 1972). pp. 1–29.
39. Menghin 1985, p. 17
40. Menghin 1985, p. 18
41. Priester 2004, p. 18
42. Tacitus, Annals, II, 45.
43. Tacitus, Annals, XI, 16, 17.
44. Cassius Dio, 71, 3, 1.
45. Menghin 1985, p. 16
46. Priester 2004, p. 21
47. Zeuss 2012, p. 471
48. Wiese 1877, p. 38
49. Schmidt 2018, pp. 35–36
50. Tacitus, Germania, 38–40
51. Ptolemy, Geogr. II, 11, 9.
52. Ptolemy, Geogr. II, 11, 17.
53. Schütte. Ptolemy's Maps of Northern Europe. pp. 34 (https://archive.org/stream/ptolemysmapsofn
o00schrich#page/34/mode/2up/search/angles), and 118 (https://archive.org/stream/ptolemysmaps
ofno00schrich#page/118/mode/2up/search/angles).
54. Codex Gothanus, II.
55. Priester 2004, p. 14
56. Hartmann 2011, p. 5, II, pt I
57. Codex Gothanus, II.
58. Menghin 1985, pp. 17–19
59. Priester 2004, p. 21-22
60. Cosmographer of Ravenna, I, 11.
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Media related to Lombards at Wikimedia Commons
Beck, Frederick George Meeson; Church, Richard William (1911). "Lombards" (https://en.wikisour
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The medieval Lombard historian Paul the Deacon wrote in

According to their own legends, the Lombards originated in

A legendary account of Lombard origins, history, and practices

The Origo Gentis Langobardorum tells the story of a small

The footnote then explains the etymology of the name Scoringa:

Archaeology and migrations

The first mention of the Lombards occurred between AD 9

From the combined testimony of Strabo (AD 20) and Tacitus

Suetonius wrote that Roman general Nero Claudius Drusus

The German archaeologist Willi Wegewitz defined several Iron

the land east of the Elbe.[60]

Kingdom in Italy, 568–774

Invasion and conquest of the Italian peninsula

Whence, even until today, we call the villages in which

At least 20,000 Saxon warriors, old allies of the Lombards, and

In the following years, the Lombards penetrated further south,

recover from the initial invasion. This weakness became even

Duchy of Spoleto and List of Dukes of Spoleto

In 572, Alboin was murdered in Verona in a plot led by his wife,

Authari died in 591 and was succeeded by Agilulf, the duke of

Religious strife and the Slavic raids remained a source of struggle

Falling to the Franks and the Duchy of Benevento, 774–849

Though the kingdom centred on Pavia in the north fell

Charlemagne came down with an army, and his son

Southern Italy and the Arabs, 836–915

Lombard principalities in the tenth century

The independent state of Salerno inspired the gastalds of Capua to

Norman conquest, 1017–1078

The Lombardic language is

Lombardic fragments are preserved in runic

Migration Period society

Society of the Catholic kingdom

The urbanisation of Lombard Italy was characterised by the città

Lombard state on the Carpathians (sixth century)

The Duchy and eventually Principality of Benevento in southern

Characteristic of this rite was the Beneventan chant, a Lombard-

Lombard shield Lombard S-shaped A glass drinking Lombard

Lombard fibulae Altar of Ratchis Eighth-century Crypt of

southern Italy (Langobardia minor). The Church of Santa Sofia in

Lombard architecture flourished under the impulse provided by

Some of the late Lombard structures of the ninth and tenth

Notes and sources

35. "Velleius, Hist. Rom. II, 106. Schmidt, 5" (https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/V

72. Borovszky, Samu. "A népvándorlás kora" (http://mek.oszk.hu/01200/01267/html/04kotet/ind04kot.

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