Engineering Technical Note
Technical Note
ETN-C-1-13
Economical Reinforced
Concrete Construction
Introduction
Experience has shown that the initial cost of
reinforced concrete structures can be reduced
through planning and detailing in such a way
as to minimize the expenses related to the ma-
terials and the construction activities associated
with formwork, reinforcement, and concrete. Fre-
quently, these cost-reducing techniques are not
obvious to the designer. For example, formwork
costs are generally 40 to 60 percent of the com-
pleted reinforced concrete structure. Material
costs for concrete and reinforcement are on the
order of 10 to 30 percent. The labor cost percent-
age for placing the concrete and the reinforce-
ment is the remainder. This technical note ad-
dresses many of the areas that have shown to
result in overall cost savings.
Formwork
Select one framing system and use it
throughout the structure. For each framing
system used, a separate forming system will be
necessary. This means additional costs associat-
ed with the formwork and its mobilization, as well
as a learning curve for the construction person-
nel will be incurred. As a result, experience has
shown that it is difficult to economically justify the
use of more than one framing system. The ex-
ception usually occurs on large structures when
usage changes over the building height, such as
a high-rise with a multiple floor parking garage
in the lower floors and residences in the upper
floors.
Arrange and organize structural members
to fully utilize structural capacity. The thick-
ness of floor slabs may be governed by the re-
quired fire rating specified by the building code,
so span the slab as far as practical (considering
deflection) with the minimum amount of reinforce-
ment. Another basic structural member frequently
underutilized is the concrete wall. Concrete walls
normally have to be of a minimum thickness and
provided with a minimum amount of reinforce-
ment. These walls, whether they are exterior
walls or interior partitions, can carry significant
axial loads, provide lateral load resistance to the
overall structure as shear walls, or act as transfer
girders when the column layout is changed.
Use concrete members that provide archi-
tectural interest and finishes. The extra cost as-
sociated with the formwork and related architec-
tural details for the desired effect will more than
offset the additional expense if a separate finish
is eliminated. Panelized concrete structures are
routinely constructed with numerous architectural
finishes. Similarly, concrete floors can be stained
and sealed rather than carpeted or tiled. Other
examples include the use of flat plate floors as
exposed ceilings and exposed interior walls that
may utilize self-consolidating concrete along with
high quality formwork.
Orient one-way structural members to
span the same direction throughout the en-
tire structure. Experience has shown that struc-
tures that are detailed with the one-way structural
members oriented in the same direction through-
out the entire structure tend to be constructed
most efficiently, because there is less confusion
and fewer mistakes than similar structures with
multiple framing directions.
Use modular formwork. Traditionally, modu-
lar forms have been used to form large areas of
walls or floors where the forms can be moved in
large sections and reused many times (often 10
to 20 times). The use of proprietary forming sys-
tems have become more common and are being
used to cast smaller members. Similarly, proprie-
tary forming systems are increasingly being used
in more customized applications such as slip
formed elevator and stairway shafts and curved
exterior walls. Generally, more intricate shapes
can be justified even though additional costs are
incurred when the forms are used multiple times.
A unique shape or finish may cost more but can
be justified if architectural interest is provided.
Arrange columns in a regular pattern. Ar-
range columns in a regular pattern throughout
each floor level of the structure as well as verti-
cally. This practice enforces consistency on the
other structural members which will dictate that
the formwork and reinforcement layout are also
consistent. Formwork will be reused and setup
will become repetitive and efficient. This repeti-
tiveness and efficiency will also carry over to all
aspects related to the reinforcing bars.
 Use a consistent column size. Experience has
shown that it is more efficient to use the same size col-
umn throughout a structure’s height. Rather than varying
the column size, it is more efficient to vary the number of
bars, and vary the concrete compressive strength. This
approach of using consistent column size will result in
less variation in column forms, fewer variations in the
slab and beam forms, and standardization of the steel
reinforcement.
Use floor framing system with the minimum
depth. The depth of the floor is normally governed by
deflection (serviceability) considerations. However, by
minimizing the floor depth, and thereby the floor-to-floor
height, the cost of a structure is minimized because the
overall height of the building is minimized. In certain ar-
eas where zoning limits the building height, additional
floor(s) may be included. Other areas of cost savings in-
clude the exterior façade; interior partition walls; vertical
runs of plumbing, electrical, mechanical, and elevators;
stairs; formwork height; and shoring.
Use beams and joists of the same depth. While
using beams and joists of the same depth throughout
a structure may seem wasteful, just the increased cost
of shoring—not counting a separate set of forms—will
exceed the minor additional material costs for the con-
crete and reinforcing bars. Using the same depth allows
all the formwork to be the same and assists in reducing
the interferences between the structure and mechanical
systems.
Another similar technique is to use relatively wide,
shallow beams that can be up to four to five times wide
as deep. The quantity of steel reinforcement would then
be varied rather than the depth of the beam. If this does
not work, consider limiting the beams to two depths
throughout the structure.
Use only one, one-way joist pan size throughout
the structure. The cost of material saved from optimizing
pan sizes is likely to be insignificant when compared to ad-
ditional shipping and handling the various pan sizes. Also,
the overall floor depth is established by the deepest pan
or deepest beam and, as such, no building height-related
savings will be possible.
Use available, standard joist form sizes. Specify
available standard sizes, for one-way and two-way joists
(waffle slabs). Nonstandard sizes have to be specially
fabricated and the entire cost may need to be charged
to the specific project rather than amortized over several
projects. Contact potential suppliers for form size avail-
ability.
Use standard shaped forms. Avoid shapes that
have to be either fabricated by the form supplier or cus-
tomized by carpenters in the field. Similarly, inordinate
field fabrication costs can be incurred when the forms
have to be modified for tapering or haunches.
2 Economical Reinforced Concrete Construction [ETN-C-1-13]
Use beams that are 2-inches wider, on each side,
than the column. A beam made intentionally wider than
the column will allow the outermost horizontal bars in the
beam to pass by the vertical longitudinal column bars with
minimal interference. Another advantage is that it is easier
to position the beam form if placed on top of the column
form than connecting the beam form to the side of the col-
umn form.
Use the same floor-to-floor heights throughout
the structure. If changes in floor-to-floor heights are
necessary, reduce the heights in the upper stories. Cut-
ting the column form down in length is easier than adding
to it.
Use a flat plate floor system for spans up to 25
feet. A flat plate is the most economical floor system
because the formwork and related construction are all
based off the same flat formwork. The flat plate is recog-
nized as being the least expensive, fastest, and shallow-
est framing method available.
Use various techniques to increase shear capac-
ity at the column slab connection. Issues concerning
shear capacity at the column slab connection are fre-
quently resolved by increasing the floor slab thickness,
use of a drop panel, increase in the column size (perim-
eter), puddling higher strength column concrete around
the column, increasing the floor slab’s concrete strength,
or by use of shear stud rails. Column capitals should only
be used as a last resort. Shear stud rails are recognized
as an effective way to increase shear capacity around
the column perimeter and are recognized in ACI 318.
Alternatively, puddling of high-strength concrete around
the column perimeter a set distance during column con-
crete placements is frequently used. The higher-strength
column concrete is then integrated with the concrete
placement for the floor slab to avoid cold joints and po-
tential load transfer issues. Similarly, stud shear rails and
puddling can be used together. See Figures 1 and 2 for
examples of these construction techniques.
Use drop panels for increased shear capacity.
Rather than using a tapered column capital, a drop panel
can be formed around columns to increase the shear ca-
pacity. See Figure 3.
Use standard lumber dimensions for drop pan-
el thickness. Actual lumber dimensions are 1½, 3½,
5½, and 7¼ inches for nominal sizes 2x2, 2x4, 2x6, 2x8,
respectively. Assuming a form thickness of ¾ inches, the
resulting drop panel height would be 2¼, 4¼, 6¼ and 8
inches, respectively. See Figure 4.
Specify the time when forms may be stripped for
self-supporting members and strength for others.
Members such as columns and walls can be stripped
based on time, such as 12 hours after concrete place-
ment. For floors, beams, and slabs, stripping time can
be specified by referring to a specific percentage of com-
 Column concrete
placed in the
nearby slab
section.
Figure 1 – Concrete “puddling” around the columns
to enhance punching shear capacity
(Photo courtesy of Skidmore, Owings and Merrill LLP)
Figure 2 – S
 hear studs at an exterior column used
to increase punching shear capacity
(Photo courtesy of Skidmore, Owings and Merrill LLP)
pressive strength gain (e.g., 75 percent of 28-day com-
pressive strength). However, these members have to be
reshored until compressive strength has been achieved
to minimize deflection. Appropriate stripping specifica-
tions will minimize the quantity of formwork required and
result in a decrease in formwork cost.
Use high-early strength concrete. By using high-
early strength concrete, the time necessary to wait for
stripping the forms can be minimized. If the structure is
large enough, the faster cycle time may allow for a sig-
nificantly faster overall construction time, possibly avoid-
ing seasons with unfavorable weather.
Use predetermined construction joints. Ideally,
the contractor and designer should coordinate the loca-
tions and details for construction joints. Properly located
construction joints will allow the contractor to efficiently
Figure 3 – M
 eans of increasing shear capacity in
flat slabs
Standard Lumber Dimensions and Drop Panel Height
Lumber Size Drop Panel
Nominal Actual Height*
2x 1½″ 2¼″
4x 3½″ 4¼″
6x 5½″ 6¼″
8x 7¼″ 8″
* ¾-inch form sheathing
Figure 4 – Drop panel height for economy
sequence the concrete placement. Similarly, the joint it-
self can be located where it is hidden in the completed
structure or detailed in such a way that it becomes part
of the finish.
Consider allowing the use of dowel bar mechani-
cal splices at construction joints. At most construc-
tion joints, the most common detail is to simply extend
the bars through the joint and lap splice with the bars in
the subsequent pour, without damaging the formwork.
As required, an alternate detail the contractor could use
is a dowel bar mechanical splice shown in Figure 5. This
splice type contains a flange that can be nailed to the
form. After the forms are stripped, the adjoining rein-
forcing bar can be screwed onto the coupler. The me-
chanical splice eliminates the bar or dowel penetration
through the forms, and can extend the life of the forms if
cutting holes is the only other option. See Figure 5.
Consider the formwork. Provide designs that retain
the general integrity of formwork. Where possible, mini-
mize modifications to the formwork for recesses, protru-
sions, haunches, stubs, and the like to extend the ser-
vice life of the forms. Alternately, architectural formwork
may have a single-use or multiple re-use depending on
the member(s) being formed; higher costs can be antici-
pated for the greater level of detail necessitated with this
type of formwork.
Reinforcement
Use Grade 60 bars. ASTM A615 Grade 60 bars are
the most widely used and inventoried reinforcing bar.
Grade 40 may require 50 percent more steel than Grade
60. ASTM A615 Grade 75 or 80 bars are readily avail-
able, but not normally inventoried by fabricators. Grade
75 or 80 bars are available at competitive prices only
on mill orders in lots ranging from 25 to 75 tons per bar
size. However, smaller quantities may be obtained from
warehouses. If a minimum mill order of one bar size can
be used for column vertical bars in a tall structure, Grade
CRSI Technical Note 3
 Use straight bars wherever possible. Fabricating
and placing straight bars is faster and easier than bent
bars.

Use ACI standard bar bend types. See standard bar

shapes and bends provided in ACI 315, Details and De-
tailing of Concrete Reinforcement. Nonstandard bends
disrupt shop routine and cost more to fabricate.

Use bars in one plane. It is highly recommended

that reinforcing bars be designed so their bends are lo-
cated in one geometric plane. Bars with bends in two
or three planes, i.e. having x, y, and z components, are
Figure 5 – Dowel bar mechanical splice difficult and expensive to fabricate. Moreover, these bars
are difficult to hold to proper field tolerances because
75 or 80 may lower the cost of the column vertical rein- adjustment in one direction can impact the tolerance in
forcement by decreasing the congestion and reducing the remaining one or two directions.
the number of crossties.
Use beams of sufficient width for ease of bar and
Use the largest bar size possible. Placing costs concrete placement. Concrete cover, stirrup thickness,
and fabrication costs are minimized by using the largest radius of stirrup, actual bar diameter, bar lap, number of
practical bar sizes while still meeting the design require- bars, and aggregate size all contribute to the minimum
ments. In most cases, it takes as much time to fabricate beam width. Actual bar size is larger than the nominal
and place one small bar as it does one large bar. Howev- size. For example, even though bar sizes are designated
er, a greater quantity of smaller bars may be required for as #4, #5, #6, the actual dimensions are 9/16, 11/16, and
crack control reinforcement or other serviceability issues. 7/8 inches, respectively. Table 1 shows overall bar diam-
eters for all bar sizes. When bars are spaced too close
Consider using #14 and #18 longitudinal column together, not only is placement of the bars difficult but
bars. Rather than using many smaller longitudinal bars placement of the concrete is hindered as well.
in a heavily loaded column, using a fewer number of #14
or #18 bars may be warranted. The large bars reduce Use repetitive bar sizes and lengths. Standard
steel congestion, placing cost, fabrication cost, and cost reinforcing bar length is 60 feet. However, some fabri-
of splices. However, because a crane may be required to cators stock shorter bar lengths. As a general rule, the
place the heavier bars, consideration should be given to longest available (and possible) bar lengths should be
whether a crane will be on the job site for other reasons. used to reduce fabrication and placing costs. Minimize
Also, large bars almost always have to be mechanically the bar sizes specified in the design. This minimizes the
spliced, which is another design consideration.
Table 1 – Overall Reinforcing Bar Diameter
Use columns with tied transverse reinforcement
rather than spiral. Individual ties are generally pre-
ferred for field fabricated columns in non-seismic areas.
Reasons include the weight per foot of spirals is two to
three times as much as comparable column ties, diffi-
culty of consistently fabricating spirals with the identical
diameter and pitch, and handling and placing spirals in
the field. For shop fabricated columns, there is a trend
towards automated fusion welding machines in which Approximate Diameter Outside
the spirals are wound onto pre-placed longitudinal bars Bar Size
Deformations, in. [mm]
and welded together to make a cage. #3 [#10] 7/16 [11]
In some applications there are significant reasons #4 [#13] 9/16 [14]
to use spirals. These advantages may be sufficient to #5 [#16] 11/16 [18]
offset the increased costs. Structural advantages of spi- #6 [#19] 7/8 [22]
rals over tied transverse reinforcement include an ap- #7 [#22] 1 [25]
proximate 20 percent increase in axial capacity, and #8 [#25] 1-1/8 [28]
a one quarter decrease in development length of bars #9 [#29] 1-1/4 [32]
enclosed with spirals. Spiral reinforcement provides en- #10 [#32] 1-7/16 [36]
hanced confinement, thus it is a preferred lateral rein- #11 [#36] 1-5/8 [40]
forcing type for round members in seismic applications. #14 [#43] 1-7/8 [48]
#18 [#57] 2-1/2 [63]

4 Economical Reinforced Concrete Construction [ETN-C-1-13]

sizes handled in the shop and placed in the field. Also,
lap lengths can exceed the minimum length required by
code so that a minimum of bar lengths can be fabricated
and placed in the field.
Use stock length bars. In some situations reinforc-
ing bars can be sheared to a fixed length, while in other
situations, stock length bars can be cut and spliced in the
field for trapezoidal or irregular-shaped walls and slabs.
See Figure 6. Use a minimum number of different bar
lengths to provide savings in fabrication, handling, and
placing since sorting is reduced. The minor added cost
associated with the extra material used due to variable
length laps is more than offset with the savings due to re-
duced labor while cutting and sorting the reinforcing bar.
Use lap splices. Where possible, bars should be lap
spliced. Also, specify a consistent lap splice length for a
given bar size. Lap splices should be considered a mini-
mum length and providing a longer lap is generally not
detrimental, unless congestion is an issue.
Use mechanical splices. For columns with #14 and
#18 bars, and for #11 and smaller bars where congestion
is an issue, use mechanical splices.
Use compression mechanical splices where pos-
sible. When a mechanical splice is needed and the bar is
always in compression, use a compression mechanical
splice. A compression mechanical splice is considered
to be the fastest mechanical splice to install in the field.
Provide a 4 to 6-inch gap to place concrete when
bars are closely spaced. On heavily-reinforced beams
such as transfer girders, where the spacing between
bars is relatively close, provide a gap. Sometimes bars
may be bundled to provide this gap. Experience has
shown that 4-inch slump concrete with ¾ inch aggre-
gate will not flow easily through a 2-inch space between
bars. Similarly, vibrator heads are 2 to 3 inches in width
and sometimes become entangled in the reinforcement.
Use intermediate single leg ties. Closed, interme-
diate column ties (hoops) are difficult to place and align
around the interior, longitudinal column bars. Single
leg ties with a 135° hook at one end, and a 90° hook at
Lap Varies,
≥ Minimum
Top Bars Length “A” Top Bars Length “B”
Bottom Bars Length “C” Bottom Bars Length “C”
Elevation of Concrete Wall
Figure 6 – U
 sing stock length of bars cut and
spliced in the field
the other end are easier to place in the column interior.
These ties are known as “dog” or “stick” ties, and con-
form to CRSI typical bar bend Type T9. Eliminating un-
necessary intermediate ties also serves to simplify con-
crete placement in the column, as illustrated in Figure 7.
To ensure reinforcing bars will fit, draw details to
scale. Certain locations in a reinforced concrete struc-
ture commonly present challenges in making all of the
reinforcement fit. It is in those areas where a scaled, de-
tail drawing will help identify possible problems. These
areas include the following as examples:
• Narrow beams
• Slabs with multiple openings, especially near sup-
ports and edges
• Slab-column joints, beam-column joints
• Columns with more than 2 percent vertical rein-
forcement
Designers need to consider the overall dimensions
of the reinforcing bars, as well as hook dimensions and
bend radii, when making a scaled detail drawing. See
Table 1 for a list of overall bar diameters. Hook dimen-
sions and bending radii for both standard hooks and stir-
rup/tie hooks are listed in Chapter 6 of CRSI’s Manual of
Standard Practice.
An example of how a scaled detail drawing can help
identify problems is shown in Figure 8. The top sketch
shows a conceptual beam detail with the reinforcement
depicted as lines and dots, compared to the same beam
detail drawn to scale in the sketch below. It can be seen
in the scaled detail that the stirrup hooks will likely in-
terfere with the top bars and the minimum clearance
between the bars (as per Section 7.6.1 of the ACI 318
Building Code) may not be met.
Two-way slabs with two layers of reinforcement.
Typical examples of reinforcing bar congestion normally
concern heavily-reinforced beams or columns. However,
reinforcement congestion can also occur in such non-
typical cases as slab systems. An opportunity for steel
congestion exists in a two-way slab with two layers of
top and bottom steel, each layer having bars in two per-
pendicular directions. Sometimes, there might even be a
(a) (b) T9 tie
Figure 7 – ( a) An interior hoop tie is difficult to
place, whereas a (b) column with
intermediate T9 ties is preferred
CRSI Technical Note 5
 Detailing Hook Detailing
Dimension A or G Dimension

J D D

A or G
d d
4d, 12d
2½" min.

Beam Detail (Conceptual) Beam Detail (Scaled)
Figure 8 – Beam detail, conceptual and scaled
third layer of top and/or bottom bars. A third layer of top
bars can be especially challenging, particularly at the
slab edge where the bars terminate in hooks. It is like-
wise important to label or otherwise designate the di-
rection of slab reinforcement, such as N-S and E-W for
north-south and east-west, respectively. To summarize,
one needs to be wary of the possibility of reinforcement
congestion everywhere throughout the structure, not just
the usual areas like heavily-reinforced beams.
Figure 9 – 9
 0° and 180° standard hooks, all specific
dimensions recommended by CRSI meet
minimum requirements of ACI 318-11.
For both the 90° and 180° hooked, top flexural rein-
forcement, one other option is used depending on the
reinforcement details at the slab edge. Oftentimes, the
hooks can be tilted from vertical so they fit in the slab
depth with appropriate clear cover. However, another
transverse bar may be required at the edge within the
slab depth to hold the given tilt angle, during concrete
placement operations.
Table 2 – Minimum Slab Thicknesses

Standard 90° hooks versus 90° stirrup/tie hooks. Minimum Slab Thickness
Top bars in a slab with 90° hooks are easiest to install Bar Size 90° Hook 180° Hook
when there is proper clearance (i.e., cover at the top and #3 7 1/2” 4 1/2”
bottom) for the hooks to hang straight down, as shown in #4 9 1/2” 5 1/2”
the sketch in Figure 9. #5 11 1/2” 6 1/2”
#6 1-1 1/2” 7 1/2”
However, the slab must have a minimum thickness
Notes:
for this condition to apply. Assuming and interior slab
(1) Bar sizes shown are for the common bars used in supported slabs.
with ¾ in. clear cover top and bottom, the minimum slab
(2) Assumes hook is oriented vertically.
thickness required to use a 90° hook vertically is shown
in Table 2. Although a 90° hooked flexural bar may be Tighter limits on column longitudinal reinforce-
easier to place, it does require a slab thickness of nearly ment. Section 10.9.1 of ACI 318 limits the area of lon-
1 ft. for the hook tail to hang vertically. gitudinal reinforcement in compression members to no
For thinner slabs, one alternate is to use 180° hooks more than 0.08 times the gross area of the member (8
at the end of the top flexural reinforcement. The “J” de- percent reinforcement). Figure 11 helps illustrate this
tailing dimension of a 180° hook is ½ the “A or G” dimen- situation of higher steel percentages in a column, as ad-
sion of a 90° hook, as illustrated in Figure 9. Table 2 dressed by Schwinger [2011].
shows the minimum slab thickness when a 180° hook The sketch on the left shows the lap region of a col-
is used. umn with 2 percent steel (8-#11 bars). The sketch on the
Usually a transverse edge or framing bar is placed right shows the lap region of a column with 4 percent
inside the hook. In order to drop the 180° hooked bar steel (16-#11 bars). Note the close bar spacing for the
into position, the transverse edge bar may be temporar- column with 4 percent steel. More longitudinal steel can
ily tied to the adjacent first interior bar. After the hooked require more column ties and heavier reinforcement in
bar is placed, the transverse bar is slid over and tied into a column, thus making placement of floor reinforcement
position, as illustrated in Figure 10. Another option would around the column more difficult. It is clear that limiting
have the bar set on the lower mat of reinforcing steel NOTE
and inserted into the hook interior after the hooked bar
is placed. The installation is dependent on the placing
situation and placing contractor; it is mentioned here to
make the inspector aware of the issue.

In some cases, the engineer may detail or call for the

transverse edge bar to be located on the outside diam- FORMWORK
eter of the hook. This places the bar closer to the slab Slide transverse bar over NOTE: Bottom reinforcement
edge, depending on the 180° hook bar size and hence after 180° hook bar is installed omitted for clarity
the hook diameter. Figure 10 – Top flexural reinforcement at a slab edge

6 Economical Reinforced Concrete Construction [ETN-C-1-13]

column reinforcement to no more than 4 percent would
enhance the constructability of reinforced concrete col-
umns.

From the standpoint of economics, it can be shown

that increasing a column capacity can be achieved at
less additional cost by increasing the concrete strength,
rather than by increasing the amount of steel reinforce-
ment. Table 3 illustrates an example where a column
with 2 percent steel can have its capacity increased by
about 20 percent by either doubling the amount of rein-
forcement or by increasing the concrete strength by just
30 percent. Factored column capacity was calculated Figure 11 – Column with lap spliced
from Equation 10-2 in ACI 318. longitudinal bars

Table 3 – 24” x 24” Reinforced Concrete
Column Design Options
fc΄ Αs ρ ΦΡn Remarks
5,000 psi 8-#11 2.2% 1,635 k Initial design
Steel reinforcement
5,000 psi 16-#11 4.3% 1,977 k
doubled
Concrete strength
6,500 psi 8-#11 2.2% 2,008 k
increased 30%
Although the costs of reinforcing steel, concrete, and
labor will vary geographically, the most economical re-
inforced concrete column design will generally have no
more than 2 percent longitudinal reinforcement.
Avoid using bundled bars in columns. The points
raised in the previous discussion concerning increasing
longitudinal reinforcement are also applicable for avoid-
ing the bundling column bars. Additional points about
bundled bars:
• T
 he 318 Code requires that bundled bars be stag-
gered, which increases the complexity of placing
the reinforcement
• If mechanical splices are used to join the bars, the
couplers cannot easily be installed on bundled bars
Concrete
Use moderate-strength concrete. 4,000 to 5,000
psi compressive strength concrete is usually sufficient.
Exceptions are for columns in high-rises and floor sys-
tems in which there are shear capacity issues. Columns,
shear walls, and joints may require higher strength con-
crete to enhance their axial and flexural capacity.
Use high-performance concrete where placement
and consolidation is expected to be difficult. High-
performance concrete is defined within ACI 116 as con-
crete meeting special combinations of performance and
uniformity requirements that cannot always be achieved
routinely using conventional constituents and normal
mixing, placing, and curing practices. These require-
ments could potentially include the following enhance-
ments:
• Ease of placement and consolidation without
affecting strength;
• Long-term mechanical properties;
• Durability in severe environments;
• High early strength;
• Toughness;
• Volume stability.
These properties are usually achieved with special
admixtures, which alter the plastic properties and work-
ability of the concrete during placement, making it less
viscous (more fluid) than conventional concrete. Long-
term strength properties are usually unaffected.
Self-consolidating concrete (SCC) is a special type of
high-performance concrete. It is defined by the National
Ready-Mix Concrete Association (NRMCA) as a highly
flowable, non-segregating concrete that can flow into
place, fill the formwork, and encapsulate the reinforce-
ment without any mechanical consolidation. In general,
SCC is concrete made with conventional concrete ma-
terials and, in most cases, with a viscosity-modifying
admixture (VMA). SCC is also useful in applications
where high quality surface finishes are desired without
bugholes or honeycombing. Increased form pressures
may be generated when SCC is used, necessitating
possible changes in formwork design.
ACI Committee Report 237R indicates that SCC pro-
vides the following features, which are equally applicable
to general high-performance concrete:
• It is good at replicating architectural form features;
• Free fall into the formwork can be greater than
the conventional limit of 5 ft.;
• Less screeding operations are required to ensure
flat surfaces (self-leveling characteristic);
• It facilitates accelerated construction, through
higher rate of casting or placing and shorter
construction duration;

CRSI Technical Note 7

 • It facilitates and expedites the filling of highly re-
inforced sections and complex formwork while
ensuring good construction quality which may
lead to increased productivity, reduces the labor re-
quirement and cost, or both;
• Improved flexibility in spreading placing points
during casting. This can reduce the need for fre-
quent movement of transit trucks and the need to
move the pump lines to place concrete (possible
reduction in the number of pumps, pump opera-
tors, and so on). This greater flexibility in scheduling
construction activities and procuring the required
resources results in both time and resource savings.
Some high-strength column concretes may have com-
pressive strengths ranging from 12,000 psi to 15,000 psi.
To make placement easier and avoid potential place-
ment mistakes on the project, it is usually more economi-
cal to use the column concrete in the puddling zone, and
design for a maximum concrete strength of 10,000 psi; a
separate puddling mix is thus not recommended.
Limit coarse aggregate size to ¾ inch. As a matter
of practice limit the coarse aggregate to ¾ inch since the
minimum clear bar spacing is normally 1 inch and ACI
318 Code requires a clear distance of four-thirds the ag-
gregate size.

SCC may be evaluated in the field using a standard References

slump test; however, the slump cone is often inverted.
Instead of measuring the distance between the top of the
cone and the top of the sample, the puddle of concrete
is measured in 2 orthogonal directions to determine
the spread diameter. Standard slump measurements
of highly flowable concrete is practically irrelevant, as it
has no measureable slump (>> 12 in.). Other mixture
evaluation tests include the J-ring test, used to evaluate
the flow and segregation characteristics of high-perfor-
mance concrete.
Use high-strength concrete in columns. High-
strength concrete can be justified in columns if the use
of higher strength concrete reduces the amount of lon-
gitudinal reinforcement. Similarly, column sizes can be
reduced or just use one column size on a project. Spec-
ify the same strength concrete in all columns of a story,
to minimize mistakes.
American Concrete Institute – ACI, Committee 116
[2005], Cement and Concrete Terminology (ACI 116R-
00, Reapproved 2005), American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, MI, 73 pp.
American Concrete Institute – ACI, Committee 237
[2007], Self-Consolidating Concrete (ACI 237R-07),
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 30 pp.
American Concrete Institute – ACI, Committee 315
[1999], Details and Detailing of Concrete Reinforcement
(ACI 315-99), American Concrete Institute, Farmington
Hills, MI, 44 pp.
American Concrete Institute – ACI, Committee 318
[2011], Building Code Requirements for Structural Con-
crete (ACI 318-11) and Commentary (ACI 318R-11),
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 473 pp.

Specify few mix designs. On most projects only ASTM International – ASTM [2012], Standard Speci-
two strengths of concrete are necessary, a normal mix fication for Deformed and Plain Carbon-Steel Bars for
(4,000 to 5,000 psi) and a high-strength mix (8,000 psi or Concrete Reinforcement, ASTM A615 / A615M – 12,
greater). Some projects may necessitate three. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA.

Consistent with the construction shown in Figure 1,
it is most economical to use the high-strength column
concrete in the slab puddling zone. In an effort to opti-
mize concrete mixes on a project, some engineers have
specified a separate puddling mix, because ACI 318 only
allows a design concrete strength of 10,000 psi in shear.
Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute – CRSI [2009],
Manual of Standard Practice, 28th Edition, Concrete Re-
inforcing Steel Institute, Schaumburg, IL, 144 pp.
Schwinger, C. S. [2011], “Tips for Designing Construct-
ible Concrete Structures - Part 1,” STRUCTURE Maga-
zine, February, pp. 42-43.

Contributors: Adapted from articles by Russell S. Fling and Clifford W. Schwinger with updates
and revisions by CRSI Staff.

Keywords: Concrete, Economy, Formwork, Reinforcement

Reference: Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute-CRSI [2013], “Economical Reinforced Concrete

Construction,” CRSI Technical Note ETN-C-1-13, Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute, Schaum- 933 North Plum Grove Rd.
burg, Illinois, 8 pp.
Schaumburg, IL 60173-4758
Historical: Formerly Engineering Data Report No. 30 p. 847-517-1200 • f. 847-517-1206
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