1

Learning to Show Compassion and Empathy: A program Evaluation for Avaxat

Elementary School’s Empathy Unit 

[Names]

Department of Counseling Psychology, University of Denver 

COUN 4630: Research Methods and Program Evaluation 

Dr. Sage W. Rian 

[Date]
 2

Learning to Show Compassion and Empathy: A program Evaluation for Avaxat

Elementary School’s Empathy Unit 

Over the years, schools have started to place a greater importance on social emotional

learning (SEL). Students' overall school experience encompasses so much more than just their

academic experience. Social emotional learning allows students to grow not only within the

school environment but outside of it as well (Jones et al., 2017). Social emotional learning can be

broadly defined as developing competencies such as self-awareness, self-management, social

awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision making (Belfield et al., 2015). Including

social emotional curriculum in schools helps place focus on the student as a whole person.  

At Avaxat Elementary School, a lesson plan entitled Empathy Unit: Showing

Compassion has been implemented. The goal of this program is for the second-grade students to

gain a greater understanding of compassion. This program will be implemented in one class

session. During this time, the counselor will work closely with the teacher and facilitate activities

designed to help students determine what others are feeling using physical, verbal, and

situational cues. Additionally, students will identify ways to show compassion by modeling

appropriate responses when presented with potential scenarios. The counselor will begin by

introducing the lesson to the students and going over the listening rules which prompt students to

keep their eyes watching, ears listening, voices quiet and off, bodies still, and hands raised

calmly if they have a question or comment. The first activity is a review of empathy and the

concepts of care and concern. Next, students will engage in a brain building activity which

focuses their attention and helps encourage them to be confident in practicing the new skills they

will learn. The activities that follow will include a story and discussion of a fictitious scenario,

the sharing of thoughts in response to an image depicting someone who needs help, defining
 3

compassion, a skills practice set, and a song to close the session. All activities are instructed by a

counselor who will give instruction with the assistance of a Power Point slide presentation.  

Outcome and Evaluation Approach 

The Empathy Unit: Showing Compassion program aims to increase students' awareness

and skillful application of compassion. The theory of this program is that if students develop an

understanding of compassion and practice modeling empathetic behavior in response to posed

scenarios, they will be better able to demonstrate compassion with peers when presented with

physical, verbal, and situational cues. The outcomes for the program are as follows: 

1. Short-Term: By the end of the lesson, students will understand what compassion is and how

to respond in the most compassionate manner to given scenarios, as measured by an increase

in scores on the compassion survey given in a pre- and post-test format, directly before and

after the lesson. 

2. Intermediate-Term: Student conflict will decrease by 25% as measured by a decrease in the

number of students sent to the principal to discuss a conflict with another student within the

time frame of the current semester. 

3. Long-Term: Students will describe their school environment as a place where others treat

them with compassion, understanding, and respect as measured by an end of the year survey. 

The information that follows will be an evaluation of Avaxat Elementary’s compassion

lesson within their empathy program. This evaluation is a summative outcome evaluation. The

questions that will be answered are as follows: 1) Does this guidance lesson increase student’s

comprehension of compassion and their ability to show compassion towards others? 2) Is this a

guidance lesson that we would like to continue using with future second-grade students? An

outcome evaluation will be helpful in determining what change occurs in the students as a result
 4

of this program. This evaluation will allow us to see if students achieve the program's goal of

increasing knowledge and application of compassion. The summative aspect of the evaluation is

important in determining whether the program was effective enough to be implemented with

future second grade students. If this evaluation shows that the program is not accomplishing its

predetermined goals, it will be suggested that a new program is developed and delivered to future

second grade students. 

Literature Review

Social emotional learning is a relatively new aspect of the curriculum in schools.

Beginning in the 21st century, schools began to see a push for SEL as people began to show

curiosity regarding the potential positive effects that SEL may have on youth and their future

(Greenberg et al., 2017). Social emotional learning programs have been shown to improve

students' overall well-being including their social-emotional skills, attitudes about self and

others, connection to school, positive social behavior, and academic performance (Payton et al.,

2008). Schools are currently placing a larger focus on multiculturalism and inclusivity (Ghosh &

Galczynski, 2014), and as such, one can infer that SEL may be an increasingly prevalent way of

encouraging students to develop the social emotional competencies that will allow them to thrive

in our increasingly diverse environment. Research has shown that increasing social and

emotional skills are not only linked with more positive immediate outcomes, but important life

outcomes as well (Jones et al., 2017). Important life outcomes can include a range of concepts

such as physical health, mental health, and financial stability (Jones et al., 2017).   It is clear that

social emotional learning has the potential for positive outcomes and as such, evaluations of

programs that promote social emotional learning are becoming increasingly important. 

Effectiveness of Social Emotional Learning 

 5

Inclusion of SEL in schools has sparked research on its effectiveness. In general, there is

a positive outlook on the potential effectiveness of SEL in classroom environments when using a

well-designed program (Greenberg et al., 2017). A well-designed program is evidence-based and

includes activities that are engaging, encourage specific skill development, and actively promote

development of social-emotional skills (Greenberg et al., 2017). When discussing the

effectiveness of SEL it is important to look at the development and delivery of the programs.

Research has shown that the delivery of SEL programs is an important factor in determining the

program’s effectiveness and that with the presence of a systemic approach, SEL is a promising

method of supporting students' social emotional competencies (Mahoney et al., 2021). Adequate

delivery of a systemic approach to SEL can include elements such as faculty modeling of social

emotional competencies, district cooperation, and a caring and inclusive classroom environment

(Mahoney et al., 2021).  

There are also a wide range of classroom strategies that can be used by educators to help

promote the content learned within an SEL lesson (Greenberg et al., 2017). These may include

providing opportunities for students to practice their skills, communicating with students in a

manner that promotes social emotional competencies, and including social emotional

competency components within regularly scheduled curriculum (Greenberg et al., 2017). With

these elements in mind, SEL has the potential to become an increasingly significant aspect of

students’ educational experiences. 

SEL has been added into schools’ curriculum with the hopes of increasing students' social

emotional competencies such as their ability to understand and manage emotions, show concern

for others, and initiate and sustain positive relationships (Mahoney et al., 2021). Research has

shown positive behavioral impacts of SEL lessons including an increase in prosocial behavior,
 6

such as helping others and being open to others’ viewpoints, and a decrease in negative

behaviors, such as arguing with peers and defiance (Cook et at., 2015; Schonert-Reichl et al.,

2015). Additionally, SEL supports better relationships with peers as evidenced by a decrease

in revenge seeking behavior and an increase in compassion and understanding (Haymovitz et al.,

2018). These results demonstrate how the implementation of SEL can improve classroom

behavior and social-emotional competencies, including the maintenance of positive relationships

and self-management.  

While a review of SEL literature seems to promote optimism surrounding the future of

SEL curriculum and its potential effectiveness, there are some studies that do not show a

significant impact of SEL. Cook et al. (2018) found no significant indicator that Second Step, an

SEL program, improved academic outcomes (Cook et al., 2018). It is possible that SEL lessons

are more effective at improving social cognition and behavior rather than directly improving

academic performance. In order to draw more concrete solutions about the effectiveness of SEL

and its outcomes, it will be important to gather further data and continue studying the impact of

SEL in the classroom. 

Impact of Empathy within the School Environment  

Teaching students' compassion and empathy can change the school environment and

attitude amongst peer groups. Arguably, students who are taught SEL are more empathetic and

compassionate towards others. Raising student awareness of empathy at elementary age can help

lower the rates of violence in schools (Caravita et al., 2009). If a student develops empathy, then

they will be able to feel and imagine another person's emotion (Caravita et al., 2009). Students

will understand the cognitive and affective components of empathy. Learning the skill of

empathy will lead to more compassionate behavior towards others (Caravita et al., 2009; Jolliffe
 7

and Farrington 2011; van Noorden et al 2015). It has been found that children and adolescents

that engage in bullying have lower empathy, in particular affective empathy (Caravita et al.

2009; Jolliffe and Farrington 2011; van Noorden et al 2015).  

Impact on Bullying within the School Environment 

A study was done at Rocky Mountain Middle School which examined the importance

empathy had on decreasing school bullying. Teachers noticed students' unkind behavior towards

one another was happening daily. The behavior that was witnessed was students in the hall

pushing smaller students, threatening them, knocking books out of their hand, in addition to

other negative behaviors (Stanbery et al., 2009). To address school bullying, a professional

school counselor decided to lead a systems approach to address this problem and connected

teachers to students to address the bullying behavior (Stanbury et al., 2009). Based upon this

research, an empathy building bully- prevention program was designed and delivered by the

counselor and teachers who had volunteered to help change the attitude and behavior in schools.

This new program was designed around curriculum focused on empathy. The curriculum

included enhanced empathy and meaningful relationships using resources such as The Bully Free

Classroom (Beane, 2005), a bully prevention and user-friendly source, and The Bullying

Prevention Handbook (Hoover & Oliver, 2008), which integrates research, theory, coping

strategies, and prevention tools.  

The research showed that there was a significant difference after the seven-week empathy

building program (Stanbery et al., 2009). The results of this study show that participants in the

intervention group reported less bullying, more engagement (Stanbery et al. 2009). Teaching

students at the elementary level about empathy and compassion will help limit bullying behavior

when they reach middle school and high school. There is empirical support that links bullying
 8

behavior and empathic deficiencies, which explains the importance of increasing empathy in

students (Garandeau et al., 2016). By increasing empathy at the elementary age, students will be

less likely to engage in bullying behavior. 

The Empathy Unit: Showing Compassion in second grade at Avaxat Elementary will help

students be able to determine what others are feeling using physical, verbal, and situational clues.

As well as identify ways to show compassion for others in response to scenarios. These learning

objectives that students will gain will help them as they progress in their educational career. 

Compassion and empathy 

As mentioned, there has been an increase in SEL in the school curriculum. A recent

meta-analysis of 82 school based SEL programs suggests the programs are effective (Taylor et

al., 2017). However, there is confusion surrounding the definitions of key pieces of terminology,

such as compassion and empathy, that are present in many SEL programs. Research surrounding

the definitions of empathy and compassion emphasizes the importance of both the cognitive and

affective aspects of the concept (Jazaieri, 2018; Cuff et al., 2016; Cohen & Strayer 1996). This

means that it is important to address both students’ emotional reactions (affective) and students’

personal ideas and beliefs (cognitive) when addressing compassion and empathy in schools.  

While there has not been a consensus on one specific definition for either term, research

has developed definitions of both compassion and empathy based on their constructs (Jazaieri,

2018; Cuff et al., 2016). One definition of empathy, containing a synthesis of constructs from 43

separate definitions, is as follows: 

Empathy is an emotional response (affective), dependent upon the interaction between

trait capacities and state influences. Empathic processes are automatically elicited but are

also shaped by top-down control processes. The resulting emotion is similar to one’s
 9

perception (directly experienced or imagined) and understanding (cognitive empathy) of

the stimulus emotion, with recognition that the source of the emotion is not one’s own.

(Cuff et al., 2016, p. 150)  

Similarly to empathy, compassion can also be defined by its major components which include

cognitive, affective, intentional, and motivational components (Jazaieri, 2018). For clarification,

compassion may be considered a multidimensional state, given the four key components above,

rather than a singular construct (Jazaieri, 2018). While research does display synthesized

versions of the definitions of empathy and compassion by cohesively integrating various

characteristics of the term, there is not a consensus on a single definition (Blystad & Hansen,

2022; Jazaieri, 2018; Elliot et al., 2011). While conceptualizing empathy and compassion are

challenging tasks, this evaluation will acknowledge the importance of both the cognitive and

affective aspects of the terms. This will be done through the analysis of actions such as modeling

empathetic behavior in given scenarios, recognizing, and determining what individuals are

feeling using physical, verbal, and situational clues, and scenario interpretation.  

It is also important to make note of how younger students may conceptualize and

understand the idea of compassion. Research has shown that children were able to grasp and

engage in the concepts of compassion and empathy through stories, plays, and games, rather than

adult-styled lectures (Jazaieri, 2018; Ozawa-de Silva & Dodson-Lavelle, 2011). While this study

provides promising results, there is currently very little research on compassion within

elementary school settings. 

Methods 

The goal of this evaluation is to identify whether the Showing Compassion lesson is

proficient in producing its desired results. Desired results include both providing students with a
 10

knowledge of compassion and seeing students demonstrate the ability to efficiently engage in

compassionate behavior. The assessment will be a summative, outcome evaluation, which allows

us to gain clarity on the efficacy of the program and if it will be implemented with future

students. The design of this evaluation will be a one-group, pre-test-post-test design. This design

measures the effectiveness of the program by determining whether there is a significant

improvement in pre-test vs post-test treatment scores (Trevisan & Carey 2020). Additionally,

because this evaluation is using a one-group design, it will be pre-experimental with no control

group and no random assignment (Balkin & Kleist 2016). Our primary interest is comparing

students' scores on their pre-test and post-test surveys, and as such, a control group was not

necessary for this study. The current evaluation will assess the short-term goal, focusing

on student’s knowledge of compassion and ability to respond to given scenarios in a

compassionate manner, while the aforementioned long-term and intermediate-term goals would

require further examination and research. 

Sample 

The Showing Compassion lesson plan will be taught to the entirety of the second-grade

class at Avaxat Elementary School. Given that this evaluation uses a pre-experimental design

and does not have a control group, the entire population of 100 students will be used. A census

sample is the best sampling method for this study because it allows all second-grade students to

receive the lesson’s content and provides equal opportunity for the students to gain knowledge

surrounding the definition and application of compassion. This lesson plan will be mandatory for

all second-grade classes as it is important that the program content reaches the entire second-

grade population at Avaxat Elementary. The demographics of students involved in our study are

not directly related to the focus of our study, and its results will not be included in this research.  
 11

Instrumentation 

This study will be using a survey that will be administered to students both before and

after the lesson plan is delivered. The multiple-choice questions used in this survey will

demonstrate the level of knowledge students have surrounding the definition of compassion and

empathy as well as their level of competence in practical applications of compassion. Multiple

choice questions were chosen as a means of producing a quantitative study in which we can

objectively score the surveys. Each question is assigned an equal number of points allowing the

surveys to be scored numerically. Each question awards one point for a correct answer and zero

points for an incorrect answer. Matching the terms “empathy” and “compassion” with their

correct definition awards students one point per correct definition, meaning two points total for

the definition section of the survey if the definitions are matched correctly. Students are also

awarded one point for correctly answering each application question. The content of the

application questions demonstrates whether students can identify how others may be feeling and

how to show concern in response to others. There are five application questions total. Overall,

there are seven questions including two matching definitions and five application questions. This

allows for a total score of seven points if all questions are answered correctly. It is expected that

this survey will take anywhere from 10 to 20 minutes depending on the student and their level of

competency regarding the subject matter.  

Due to the extra time it would take, and the fact that the entirety of the second-grade

population is being used as our sample, there will not be a pilot test conducted on the survey. The

survey is developmentally appropriate for second-grade students and its content will accurately

address the short-term research question. The survey, designed as a Google Form, will be

administered by the researchers right before and right after the lesson plan is delivered. As an
 12

incentive, students who complete surveys both before and after the lesson will be rewarded with

a pencil and heart sticker. These prizes will encourage students to actively engage with the

survey while removing the risks associated with a food prize such as restrictions from parents

and/or allergies.  

Link to Google form survey: [link]

Statistical Analysis and Variables 

The dependent variable for this study is student knowledge of compassion and empathy,

and the independent variable is the change over time between the pre-test and the post-test. The

dependent variable is measured on an interval scale, the survey with scores ranging from zero to

7, and the independent variable is nominal. On analyzing the data, the researchers will use a

dependent t-test to analyze the student’s growth between the pre-test and post-test scores.

Researchers will use descriptive statistics to summarize the data and present the mean and

standard deviation of the survey scores. Researchers will then use inferential statistics to run

statistical analysis, conducting the dependent t-test, to identify whether students have shown

significant improvement pre- and post-treatment.  

The researchers hypothesized that the mean of the pre-test will be lower than the post-

test, due to students’ notion of compassion in response to given scenarios. If there is a significant

improvement, meaning an increase in scores on the compassion survey, the evaluation of the

program will reflect that the short-term research goal has been met. An increase in the mean of

survey scores would support the conclusion that once students are taught about empathy and

compassion, they will better be able to understand what empathy and compassion mean and have

the knowledge to put those skills into action.  

 13

This survey will show change over time through the pre-test and post-test. By conducting

a dependent t-test, we statistically analyze the differences between pre- and post-test scores from

the same group over time with two bars in a bar graph. We hypothesize that students will have an

increased understanding of the definitions of empathy and compassion and will be able to

demonstrate their skills by responding in the most compassionate manner to prompted scenarios.

This will be depicted through a bar graph of the mean from the pre-test compared to that of the

post-test. We predict that the mean of the post-test will be higher than that of the pre-test because

students will have learned the objectives from participating in the empathy unit and will have

knowledge that they did not have before the guided lesson. If our predictions are correct, our

program will meet the short-term goal, which is a significant improvement of pre- and post-test

scores from the second-grade students.  

 Impact 

Limitations 

A primary potential limitation concerning the evaluation of this study is the use of a pre-

experimental design. The use of a pre-experimental design may cause threats to internal validity

because the change in pre-test and post-test scores may be due to other confounding variables

aside from the lesson, and we do not have a control group to show evidence otherwise. A quasi-

experimental design, with a comparison of two groups, may decrease threats to internal validity

as the use of a control group can be a means of increasing validity by creating a higher likelihood

that the change in the dependent variable is attributed to the independent variable. In this study,

we chose to use the entirety of the second grade as our sample, thus eliminating the possibility of

a control group, but future studies may benefit from the increased validity of a quasi-

experimental study design. 

 14

Another potential limitation is the Hawthorne effect (Hanson & Wigblad, 2006). This

refers to the idea that when people know they are being observed or evaluated they may act

differently or make different choices. This would be a threat to internal validity as the scores of

the pre-test and post-test may have something to do with the fact that students know that are

being evaluated. Testing is also a threat to internal validity (Flannelly et al., 2018). Students are

going to see the survey during the pre-test, prior to taking the post-test, which has the potential to

affect their post-test responses (Flannelly et al., 2018). 

This evaluation also possesses a limitation in relation to external validity. Interaction of

selection and treatment is a potential threat to external validity and generalization (Ferguson,

2004). This evaluation’s sample is based on convenience and is not completely random.

Therefore, the results of the evaluation may not be generalizable to students in other grades or at

other schools. The selection of second graders at Avaxat elementary school poses a threat to

external validity because the characteristics of the participants who are not randomly selected

may not represent the larger population.  

Broader impact 

The broader impact of this evaluation is that its results can be used to improve future

programs and future delivery of programs. After the implementation of the program and a

thorough analysis of the survey data, the evaluation and its results will be passed on to other

stakeholders. These stakeholders may include district officials, school administrators, counseling

staff, school psychologists, and students’ guardians. After reviewing the evaluation, stakeholders

may help decide if this program will continue to be implemented with future second grade

students. Whether or not the program is determined to be effective will result in either a

continuation or discontinuation of the program. After obtaining information regarding program

 15

effectiveness, counselors at Avaxat Elementary will have a better idea of whether empathy and

compassion based SEL programs provide value to students. This will allow for better counseling

and program implementation in the future at Avaxat elementary and throughout the district. This

evaluation will directly inform future counseling practice by helping to determine whether this is

a program that should be widely implemented at other schools within Murrieta Valley Unified

School District, and potentially within other districts as well.  

Additionally, given the presence of bullying and behavioral concerns in classrooms, and

the fact that SEL lessons have been shown to reduce these behaviors, developing an effective

empathy and compassion program is vitally important to students, parents, teachers, and other

staff members who are all, either directly or indirectly, impacted by and associated with schools

and their environments (Smith & Low, 2013; Cook et al., 2015). A decrease in bullying and

behavioral concerns has the potential to improve student experience which would be of interest

to the students and teachers who are directly impacted by their environment, as well as parents

and guardians who are indirectly impacted by the school environment and student behavior.

The role of school counselors has previously been fluid and only within the past two

decades, with the adoption of comprehensive programs, has the identity of school counselors

been increasingly solidified (Cinotti, 2014; DeKruyf et al., 2018). If the empathy lesson is found

to be effective it could be added to the comprehensive curriculum in multiple districts and

therefore, impact the lessons that future school counselors implement. Creating effective SEL

programs will help counselors align themselves with this integrated identity of being both an

educator and a counselor, moving forward from traditional guidance roles and models that were

seen in previous decades (Cinotti, 2014). Currently, school counseling places a larger focus on

comprehensive program implementation, including tools, services, and interventions than on the

 16

counselor position itself (Cinotti, 2014). This makes evaluation of school wide or grade

wide interventions, such as the Empathy Unit: Showing Compassion program, increasingly

important. 

Future Research 

While the current study will help determine whether the Empathy Unit: Showing

Compassion program increases student understanding of empathy and compassion and how to

respond compassionately to given scenarios, future research would need to be conducted to

determine whether the program increases empathetic behavior in classrooms. To achieve its

long-term outcome, the program would need to create an improved school environment in which

students feel that others treat them with compassion and respect. Future research may benefit

from producing a longitudinal study in which students who receive empathy based SEL lessons

are observed throughout multiple years in school. This would produce results that speak to the

long-term effects of SEL lessons. A qualitative, longitudinal study would be beneficial in

observing students in real time throughout their elementary experience. The qualitative design

would allow students to provide anecdotal evidence of their school experience in a

comprehensive manner. Determining common themes in students' school experience over

multiple years would help provide evidence in support or in opposition of SEL lessons by

speaking to student’s opinions on their environment years after SEL lessons have been

implemented. Currently SEL lessons show a potential for long-term benefits (Greenberg et al.,

2017), but additional research would be helpful in drawing more concrete conclusions. 

Conclusion 

Research has shown that with a well-designed program, containing evidenced-based

methodology and activities, and systemic approach, SEL programs are a promising method of
 17

supporting students' social emotional competencies (Belfield et al., 2015; Mahoney et al., 2021).

The Empathy Unit: Showing Compassion program aims to increase students’ awareness and

skillful application of compassion. This program aims to help students better understand

compassion and have the skills to model empathetic behavior towards peers. Teaching empathy

and compassion to elementary aged students is beneficial because research has found that

children and adolescents that engage in bullying have lower empathy, in particular affective

empathy (Caravita et al., 2009; Jolliffe and Farrington 2011; Van Noorden et al., 2015).  By

teaching empathy, there is potential for students to have a more positive school environment with

less bullying. Social emotional learning programs improved students' overall well-being

including their social-emotional skills, attitudes about self and others, connection to school,

positive social behavior and academic performance (Payton et al., 2008). As a result of the

Empathy Unit: Showing Compassion at Avaxat Elementary School, second grade students will

receive knowledge about how to treat others with compassion and what compassion and empathy

look like in different scenarios. If this SEL program achieves its intended outcomes, it will

improve students' understanding of empathy and lead to students experiencing a positive school

environment where peers treat one another with compassion, understanding, and respect. 

 
 18

References

Balkin, R. S., & Kleist, D. M. (2016). Counseling research: A practitioner-scholar approach.

John Wiley & Sons. 

Beane, A. L. (2005). The Bully Free Classroom: Over 100 tips and strategies for teachers K-8.  

Free Spirit Pub.  

Belfield, C., Bowden, A. B., Klapp, A., Levin, H., Shand, R., & Zander, S. (2015). The

economic value of social and emotional learning. Journal of Benefit-Cost Analysis, 6(3),

508-544. https://doi.org/10.1017/bca.2015.55  

Blystad, M. H., & Hansen, S. (2022). Empathy or not empathy, that’s the question—A pragmatic

behavior analytical approach. Behavior Analysis: Research and Practice, 22(2), 224-237.

https://doi.org/10.1037/bar0000242  

Caravita, S. C., Di Blasio, P., & Salmivalli, C. (2009). Unique and interactive effects of empathy

and social status on involvement in bullying. Social Development, 18(1), 140–163.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2008.00465.x 

Cinotti, D. (2014). Competing Professional Identity Models in School Counseling: A Historical  

Perspective and Commentary. Professional Counselor, 4(5), 417-425.

https://doi.org/10.15241/dc.4.5.417

Cohen, D., & Strayer, J. (1996). Empathy in conduct-disordered and comparison youth.

Developmental Psychology, 32(6), 988–998. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.32.6.988 

Cook, C. R., Frye, M., Slemrod, T., Lyon, A. R., Renshaw, T. L., & Zhang, Y. (2015). An  

integrated approach to universal prevention: Independent and combined effects of PBIS

and SEL on youths’ mental health. School Psychology Quarterly, 30(2), 166–183.

https://doi-org.du.idm.oclc.org/10.1037/spq0000102 
 19

Cook, C. R., Low, S., Buntain-Ricklefs, J., Whitaker, K., Pullmann, M. D., & Lally, J. (2018).

Evaluation of second step on early elementary students’ academic outcomes: A  

randomized controlled trial. School Psychology Quarterly, 33(4), 561–572. https://doi-

org.du.idm.oclc.org/10.1037/spq0000233 

Cuff, B. M. P., Brown, S. J., Taylor, L., & Howat, D. J. (2016). Empathy: A Review of the          

Concept. Emotion Review, 8(2), 144–153. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073914558466 

DeKruyf, L., Auger, R. W., & Trice-Black, S. (2018). The role of school counselors in meeting  

students’ mental health needs: Examining issues of professional identity. Professional

School Counseling, 16(5), 271-282. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156759X0001600502

Elliott, R., Bohart, A. C., Watson, J. C., & Greenberg, L. S. (2011). Empathy. Psychotherapy,

48(1), 43-49. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022187 

Ferguson, L. (2004). External validity, generalizability, and knowledge utilization. Journal of

Nursing Scholarship, 36(1), 16-22. https://doi-org.du.idm.oclc.org/10.1111/j.1547-

5069.2004.04006.x 

Flannelly, K. J., Flannelly, L. T., & Jankowski, K. R. (2018). Threats to the internal validity of

experimental and quasi-experimental research in healthcare. Journal of health care

chaplaincy, 24(3), 107-130. https://doi.org/10.1080/08854726.2017.1421019

Garandeau, C. F., Vartio, A., Poskiparta, E., & Salmivalli, C. (2016). School bullies’ intention to

change behavior following teacher interventions: Effects of empathy arousal,

condemning of bullying, and blaming of the perpetrator. Prevention science, 17(8), 1034-

1043. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-016-0712-x 

Ghosh, R., & Galczynski, M. (2014). Redefining multicultural education: Inclusion and the right

to be different. Canadian Scholars’ Press. 

 20

Greenberg, M. T., Domitrovich, C. E., Weissberg, R. P., & Durlak, J. A. (2017). Social and

emotional learning as a public health approach to education. The future of children,

27(1), 13-32. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44219019 

Haymovitz, E., Houseal-Allport, P., Lee, R. S., & Svistova, J. (2018). Exploring the perceived

benefits and limitations of a school-based social–emotional learning program: A concept

map evaluation. Children & Schools, 40(1), 45-54. https://doi.org/10.1093/cs/cdx029 

Hoover, J. H., & Oliver, R. (2008). The Bullying Prevention Handbook: A Guide for  

Principals, teachers, and counselors. National Education Service. 

Jazaieri, H. (2018) Compassionate education from preschool to graduate school: Bringing a

culture of compassion into the classroom. Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching &

Learning, 11(1), pp. 22-66. https://doi.org/10.1108/JRIT-08-2017-0017 

Jolliffe, D., & Farrington, D. P. (2011). Is low empathy related to bullying after controlling for

individual and social background variables? Journal of Adolescence, 34(1), 59–71.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2010.02.001 

Jones, S. M., Barnes, S. P., Bailey, R., & Doolittle, E. J. (2017). Promoting Social and Emotional

Competencies in Elementary School. The Future of Children, 27(1), 49–72.

http://www.jstor.org/stable/44219021 

Mahoney, J. L., Weissberg, R. P., Greenberg, M. T., Dusenbury, L., Jagers, R. J., Niemi, K.,

Schlinger, M., Schlund, J., Shriver, T. P., VanAusdal, K., & Yoder, N. (2021). Systemic

social and emotional learning: Promoting educational success for all preschool to high

school students. American Psychologist, 76(7), 1128–1142.  

https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000701 
 21

Ozawa-de Silva, B., & Dodson-Lavelle, B. (2011). An education of heart and mind: Practical and

theoretical issues in teaching cognitive-based compassion training to children. Practical

Matters, 4(0), 1-28. 

Payton, J., Weissberg, R. P., Durlak, J. A., Dymnicki, A. B., Taylor, R. D., Schellinger, K. B., &

Pachan, M. (2008). The Positive Impact of Social and Emotional Learning for  

Kindergarten to Eighth-Grade Students: Findings from Three Scientific Reviews.  

Technical Report. Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (NJ1). 

Schonert-Reichl, K. A., Oberle, E., Lawlor, M. S., Abbott, D., Thomson, K., Oberlander, T. F.,

& Diamond, A. (2015). Enhancing cognitive and social–emotional development through

a simple-to-administer mindfulness-based school program for elementary school

children: A randomized controlled trial. Developmental Psychology, 51(1), 52–66.

https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038454 

Smith, B. H., & Low, S. (2013). The role of social-emotional learning in bullying prevention  

efforts. Theory into practice, 52(4), 280-287.

https://doi.org/10.1080/00405841.2013.829731

Stanbury, S., Bruce, M. A., Jain, S., & Stellern, J. (2009). The Effects of an Empathy Building  

Program on Bullying Behavior. Journal of School Counseling, 7(2), 1-27. 

Taylor, R. D., Oberle, E., Durlak, J. A., & Weissberg, R. P. (2017). Promoting positive youth

development through school‐based social and emotional learning interventions: A meta‐

analysis of follow‐up effects. Child development, 88(4), 1156-1171.  

https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12864 

Trevisan, M. S., & Carey, J. C. (2020). Program evaluation in school counseling: Improving

comprehensive and developmental programs. New York, NY: Routledge. 

 22

Van Noorden, T. H., Haselager, G. J., Cillessen, A. H., & Bukowski, W. M. (2015). Empathy

and involvement in bullying in children and adolescents: a systematic review. Journal of

youth and adolescence, 44(3), 637–657. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-014-0135-6