bd SCHAUM’S OUTLINE OF THEORY AND PROBLEMS or DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS a FRANK AYRES, JR., Ph.D. Protessor and Head, Department of Mathematics Dickinson College SCHAUM PUBLISHING CO. \ 611 BROADWAY, NEW YORK 12Copynicir 1952, By THe SCHAUM PUBLISHING COMPANY AIL rights reserved. This book or any part therco} may not be reproduced in fany form without written permission from the publishers. , SEI c PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA v* Preface This book is designed primarily to supplement standard texts in elementary differential equations. All types of ordinary and partial differential equations found in current texts, together with the various procedures for solving them, are included. Since the beginning student must he concerned largely with mastering the methods of solving a variety of different type equations, it is felt that there is need for a comprehensive problem hook such as this. It should prove also of equal service to practicing engineers and scientists who feel the neeil for a review of the theory and problem work in this increasingly important field. Each chapter, exeept for the third which is entirely expository, begins with a brief statement of definitions, principles, and theorems, followed by a set of solved and supplementary problems. These solved problems have been selected to make a careful study of each as rewarding as possible. Equal attention has been given to the chapters on applications, which include a wide variety of problems from geometry and the physical sciences. Much more material is presented here than can be taken up in most first courses. This is done not only to meet any choice of topics which the instructor may make, but also to stimulate further interest in the subject and to provide a handy book of reference. However, this hook is definitely not a formal text book and, since there is always a tendeney to “get on” with the problems, those being introduced to the subject for the first time are warned against using it as a means of avoiding a thorough study of the regular text. ‘The author is pleased to acknowledge his indebtedness to i Louis Sand- ler, associate editor of the publishers, for invaluable suggestiOns and critical review of the entire manuscript. Franx Aynes, Jn, Carlisle, Pa. September, 1952o>2 10. ue 12. 13. 14. 15. Contents CHAPTER PAGE Onictn oF Dirrenentiat, Equations .. 1 SoLuTioNs oF DirrERENTIAL EQUATIONS .. 1 Equations or First Onper anp First Decree = 12 Equations or First Oxren ann Finst Deoree — VAnianies SEPA: ABLE AND REDUCTION TO VARIABLES SEPARABLE cnn 15 Equations or First Onpex avn Fins Decree — Exact Equarions anp Renverion to Exact EQUATIONS nnn 4 Equations or First OnpeR anp Finst Decree — Linear Equations Np THose Repucate To THAT Forse. seen 35 Gromernic APpLications 41 Pnystcat, APPLICATIONS... 49. Equations oF Finst ORDER AND HIGHER DEGREE ennw 6 SincuLan Souurions —Exreansous Loct . or APPLICATIONS OF Finst ORDER AND HiGHER DrGREE EQUATIONS .. 18 Linear Equations oF ORDER n - 78 Homocenrous LINrAR EQUATIONS WITH CONSTANT COBFFICIENTS wun 82 EAR Equations Witt CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS wnnweninem 87 Linear EQuarions writ CONSTANT CozrricieNTs — VARIATION oF PARAMETERS, UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS 93, 16. 18. Lincan Eouavions wrrn Constant Cozrricients — SHort Mernops .. Linear Equations wrrn Varianie Corrricinnts— Tue Cavcny np Lecenpre Linzan Equations vow 108 Lincan Equations wrrn VARIABLE CORFFICIENTS — EQUATIONS OF ul ‘He Seconp OxDERCHAPTER PAGE, 19. Linear Equations with VARIABLE ConrrICiENTS — MISCELLANEOUS ‘Tyres ee) 20, Appuications oF Linzar Equations 133 21, Systems or SimuLraNgous Linear Equations 157 22, Torar. DirrenentiaL Equations 164 23, APPLICATIONS OF TOTAL AND SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS » 178 24, NuMEnica Approximations To SorvTions 186 25, INTEGRATION IN SERIES .... . 197 26. INTEGRATION IN SERIES .. - 206 27, Tue Lecennne, Besser, aNp Gauss Equations 220 28. PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS on 231 238 29, Linear Panis Dirrerewriat Equations oF Onper ONE ~. 30, Non-Linear PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF ORDER ONE wwnown 244 31. Homocrngous Partial DIFFERENTIAL Equations oF Hicten ORDER with CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS sw ae 255 32, NoN-nomocENEous LINEAR Equations wir Constant CoErrre cents. 265 33. PantiaL DirreRentiaL Equations or Onner Two wernt VAnIABLE COEFFICIENTS icon 276: INDEX ..CHAPTER 1 Origin of Differential Equations A DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION is an equation which involves derivatives. For example, 2 1? Ot) eae = DR wets 5) oy") Gry + By dy ody ds ae LY 5% say =0 ae 2) ra 3S Ly 6) m yy enacts n Eee Fe tay, 4) y+ 20m) + y! = cos x ax? © ay’ If there is a single independent variable, as in 1)-5), the derivatives are ordinary derivatives and the equation is called an ordinary differential equa- tion. If there are two or more independent variables, as in 6)-7), the deriva- tives are partial derivatives and the equation is called a partial differen- tial equation. The order of a differential equation is the order of the highest derivative 2), 5), and 7) which occurs, Equations 1), 3), and 8) are of the first order; are of the second order; and 4) is of the third order. The degree of a differential equation which can be written as a polynomial in the derivatives is the degree of the highest ordered derivative which then occurs, All of the above examples are of the first degree except 5) which is of the second degree, A discussion of partial differential equations will begiven in Chapter 28. For the present, only ordinary differential equations with a single dependent variable will be considered. ORIGIN OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS. ) Geonetric Problems. See Problems 1 and 2 below, ») Physical Problems. See Problems 3 and 4 below. ©) Primitives. A relation between the variables which involves n essential arbitrary constants, as y = x'+Cx or y = Ax?+Bx, is called a primitive. The n constants, always indicated by capital letters here, are called essen- tial if they cannot be replaced by a smaller number of constants. See Prob- len 5. In general, a primitive involving n essential arbitrary constants will give rise to a differential equation, of order n, free of arbitrary constants. This equation is obtained by eliminating the n constants between the (n +1) equa- tions consisting of the primitive and the n equations obtained by differen- tinting the primitive n times with respect to the independent variable. See Problems §-14 below.2 ORIGIN OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS SOLVED PROBLEMS Acurve is defined by the condition that at each of its points (ey), its slope dy/dz is equal to twice ‘the sun of the coordinates of the point, Express the condition by means of a differential equation, ay ‘The differential equat ion representing the condition 1s 2 Aer ys 2. A curve 4s defined by the condition that the sum of the x- and y-intercepts of its tangents 1s falvays equal to 2, Express the condition by means of a differential equation, yy, The equation of the tangent at (x,y) on the curve is Y-y= Q2c-x) and the x and y- a 4 Intercepts are respectively X= x-y% and Y= y-x%. the differential equation repres intercept: pectively X= xay GE and Y= ya {ferential equation rept « ay ye ay ing the condition is X+¥*x-y + y-x2 or Pew ty- ae yen the condition is X+ Ye any Gt y-x a2 (BF - ryan ry=o. 3. One hundred grans of cane sugar in water are being converted into dextrose at a rate which 18 proportional to the anount utconverted, Find the differential -equation expressing the rate of conversion after ¢ minutes, Let q denote the nunber of grams converted in t minutes. Then (100g) is the number of grams ig unconverted and the rate of conversion is given by Sf is given by (100-9), k being the constant of proportionality. 4. A particle of mass m moves along a straight line (the z-axis) while subject to 1) a force pro- portional to its displacement x froa a fixed point O in its path and directed toward O and 2) f resisting force proportional to its velocity, Express the total force as @ differential equa thon, The cist fore any be renreseted by cys and te encnd ny gf ahve Ay ant he ave factors of proprio. : Toe taal fore nan wascteratin) ts cin ty aE» ye mi ae 5. tm each of the equations 0) y= 2+A+B, by y=Ae™™ of the two arbitrary constants is essential, |, e) y= A+ InBx show that only one 4) Since A+B is no more than single arbitrary constant, only one essential arbitrary con stant 48 involved. nee Ake bys Ae%e", and Ae’ is no nore than e single arbitrary constant. c) y=A+ InBe = A+ In Bs Ina, and (A+ In B) 1s no more than a single constant. 6. Obtain the differential equation associated with the primitive y = Ax*+Br+G, Since there are three arbitrary constants, we consider the four equations = Ass Bet oy yedteBerc, 2 2, 5 vteeB, 42-2, eo, : at ao ‘Tho last of the: g. being free of arbitrary constants and of the proper order, is the => ea 10, ORIGIN OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS: required equation. Note that the constants could not have bean eliminated between the f4ret threeof the above equations. Note also that the primitive can be obtained readily fron the differential equa tion by integration, Obtain the differential equation associated with the prinitive x?y> + ay? = Differentiating once with respect tox, we obtain (ay? 2x8? (ae?yhs suPgt & or, when + ar) + ay" ¢ay + 52%) = 0 as the required equation, moon xy #0, (ay + 3x SL) + ay"(ay + Se) = 0 as the required equation. Ven written in differential notation, these equations are 1) ride + wtyfay) + (Gxtae + yay) = 0 and 2) (2yde + Sedy) + xy* (By de + Sxdy) = 0. Noto thet the primitive can be obtained readily from 1) by integration but not so readily ‘fom 2}, Thus, to obtain the prinitive when 2) is given, it is necessary to determine the fac~ tor xy? which was removed from 1). Obtein the differential equation associated with the primitive y= A cos or +A sin ax, A and B being arbitrary constants, and a being @ fixed constant. lore ® Aa sin ox + Ba cos ax ti Qe ua Ba and Le ~ -Aa? cos ar ~ Bo? sin ax = -a%(A cos ax +B sin ax) = ~ me The required differential equation is 42 + aty a Optain the differential equation associated with the prisitive y «Ae +BesC. ® oes ae tore DZ = ate? o Bet, Bem 4 gt ton 22 LY. gaete, -. oe bs ‘The required equation is Obtain the differential equation associated with the primitive y = Ce™ + Cye™™ + Coe™s wre Be 2G eae se, Ye GP acy tere a aes ames et, B= We ae 6 Ge, ay 3x 2a = and <2 = anCe™* + aye + Ge™ 2 ‘The elimination of the constants by elementary methods 1s somewhat tedious, If three of the equations are solved for C,, Cy, C,, using determinants, end these substituted in the fourth equation, the result may be put in the forn (called the eliminant)mae a bidy wade ey! ey eae . a = Peay" + ray" = ays tay = 0. oe ” gang" ne ae oy nei’ andy RE dy, 1 since 2 = ace, é rhe veutredciteention oqation tb O* + 2 ay «0. Note, ‘The primitive involves one arbitrary constant of degree two and the resulting dif- ferential equation is of order one and degree two. 12, Pind the differential equation of the family of circles of fixed radius r withcenters on the ‘The equation of the fanily is (x~Cy + 9? = being an arbitrary constant. men (x-C)4 y Bao, 2-6 2a differential equation is 92)? 4 9? = 1? a rere y 43, Pind the differential equation of the family of parabolas with foci at the origin and axes along the x-axis. Ay = dent yh = A(Ate) ye sew ‘the equation of the family of parabolas is y? = 4A(A + x). Then yy! = 24, A= ayy’, and y? = 2yy'(byy! +a). 0 roquired equation is (2s + ax SY - The required equation is yh? + ar B- yte | ORIGIN OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 4, Form the differential equation representing a11 tangonts to the parabola y? = 2x. 15. 16. ‘At any point (A,B) on the parabola, the equation of the tangent is y-B = (x-A)/B or, since A = 4B?, By = x + $5. Eliminating B botwoen this and By’ = 1, obtained by differenti ation with respect to x, we have as the required differential equation 2x(y/)? ~ 2yy'+1= 0. SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS Sify each of the following equations es to order and degree, ©) dy + Gy ~ eon xyde = 0 dns. ocder owe; degree out 188. 2og Ans. Order two; degree one pe taeiee e) yb ayan? tay =o Onder three; degree one Ans, Order tno; degree one Ans. Ans, Order three: degree does not apply 8) VoTsp = sind ‘Ans. Order one: degree one hy yf te yeayy? ‘Ans. Order one; degree tour » 28 Ans. Order two; degree four as? Write the differential equation for each of the curves determined by the given conditions. 42) At each point (x,y) the slope of the tangent is equal to the square of the abeciasa of the point. dns. yl = xt 5) at each point (x,y) the Length of the subtengont 15 equal to the sun of the coordinates of the point. Anse y/y!eaty or (yy! ey ©) The segment Joining Pcx,y) and the point of intersection of the normal at P with the x-axis 45 bisected by the y-axis, dns. yt ¢ iy or yy! + 2e-0 4) At each point (1,0) the tangent of the angle between the radius vector and the tangent is a1 equal to 1/3 the tangent of the vectorial angle, Ans. 9 22. + tan 1 to 1/3 the tangent of the angle, Ana, 9 = 3 tan €) The area bounded by the are of a curve, tho x-axis, and two ordinates, one fixed end ono variable, is equel to twice the length of the are between the ordinates. ints ['yae = 2f Vivant ae. ans. y = alkvgtMw 18. 19. a 22. ORIGIN OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS. Express each of the following physiesl statenents in differential equation form. 4) Radium decomposes et a rate proportional to the amount Q present. Ans. dQ/dt = ~AQ ) ‘The population P of a eity snereases at a rate proportional to the population and to the ‘difference between 200,000 and the population, Ans, dP/dt = KP¢200,000 ~ P) €) For & certain substance the rete of change of vapor pressure (P) with respect to temper~ ature (T) is proportional to the vapor prossure and inversely proportional to the square of the temperature. Ans, dP/dT = kP/T® 4) te ocenie ftreceB erss an elnet ot inte Lo eu toe profiel of ante tine rte of ehge ot the erent Hn the Inuctace, dns BS A a tion = at Sar Obtain the differential equetion associated with the given primitive, A and B being arbitrary ‘constants, a) y= Ae Ans. y! = yx eb ye sin@tay Ans. Qn =1-¥* by yar +B Ans. Dy Ans. y= y! Cr ee Bx =A sin(y+B) Ans. y" = x0" & yAsing Ans, y cot x By ny 2 Arto B Ans. ayy" — yy! x7" = 0 Pind the differential equation of the fanily of circles of variable radii r with centers on ‘the x-axis. (Compare with Problem 12.) Hint: @-A+y?=r2, A andr being arbitrary constants, Ane. yy" + Qty +1 =0 Pind the differential equation of the family of cardiods p ~ a(1~ cos 9). Ans, (1 = 008 6)do = p-sin 6 a6 Pind the aifferential equation of all straight Lines at a unit, distance from tho origin, Ans. Gayla yh = 1 ot Pind the differential equntion of all circles in the plane. Hint: Use 22+ y?-24x-2By+C Ans, (14 Fly" arly = 0 aCHAPTER 2 Solutions of Differential Equations ‘THE PROBLEM in elementary differential equations is essentially that of recovering the primitive which gave rise to the equation. Inother words, the problem of solving a differential equation of order n is essentially that of finding a relation between the variables involving n independent arbitrary constants which together with the derivatives obtained from it satisfy the differential equation. For example: Differential Equation Primitive 5, nro Ax? + Bx +c (Prob.6, Chap. 1) ay _ gy 4 Wey - a eG © 2 PE GLE 4X oy = 0 yaoi 4 cues Go" (rob. 10, chap. 1) a Bye yee (x-0)"+ ¥ (Prob, 12, Chap, 1) ‘THE CONDITIONS under which we can be assured thata differential equation is solv- able are given by Existence Theorems. For example, a differential equation of the form y'= g(x,y) for which a) 4(xy) is continuous and single valued over a region R of points (x,y), ¥) Mf exists and is continuous at all points in R, admits an infinity of solutions f(x,y,C) =0 (C, an arbitrary constant) such that through each point of R there passes one and only one curve of the fan- ily f(x,y,C)=0. See Problem 5. A PARTICULAR SOLUTION of a differential equation is one obtained from the primitive by assigning definite values to the arbitrary constants. For example, in 1) above y=0 (A ), ys dx $5 (A=0, B=2, C=5), and y=xt 2x43 (A =1, B=2, C=3) are particular solutions. Geometrically, the primitive is the equation of a family of curves and a particular solution is the equation of some one of the curves, These curves are called integral curves of the differential equation. As will be seen from Problem 6, a given form of the primitive may not in- clude all of the particular solutions. Moreover, as will be seen from Prob- len 7, a differential equation may have solutions which cannot be obtained from the primitive by any manipulation of the arbitrary constant as in Problem 6. Such solutions, called singular solutions, will be considered in Chapter 10. ‘The primitive of a differential equation is usually called the general so- Jut ion of the equation. Certain authors, because of the remarks in the para- graph above, call it a general solution of the equation.SOLUTIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS ‘A DIFFERENTIAL BQUATION % = g(x,y) associates with each point (xo.yo) in the re~ a: 2. gion R of the above existence theorem a direction m= = (0%, 90) + cd eI tor ¥0) ‘The direction at each such point is that of the tangent to the curve of the family f(x,y,C)=0, that is, the primitive, passing through the point. The region R with the direction at each of its points indicated is called a direc- tion field. In the adjoining figure, a nun- ber of points with the direction at cach is shown for the equation dy/dx = 2x. The in- tegral curves of the differential equation are those curves having at each of their points the direction given by the equation. In this example, the integral curves are parabolas. Such disgrans are helpful in that they aid in clarifying the relation between a 8 differential equation and its primitive, but, since the integral curves are generally APR sats CR ar toctte as os’) materially in obtaining their equt ions, cau SOLVED PROBLEMS Show by direct substitution in the differential equation and a check of the arbitrary constants that each primitive gives rise to the corresponding differential equation. a) y = Cystine + Ge by = Cie + Core + Gye + ah e* 4) Substitute y = Cy sinz+ Cor, Y= C,cosx + Gy, 42 = -Cysing inthe differential equa- a a ton to obtain (1 = x c0t x) Cy Sinz) = H(C, CoB + Cy) + (Cy sin + Cx) = Gy sinx + Cx cosx - Gx cots - Gr +G sing+ Ge = 0. ‘The order of the differential equation (2) and the number of arbitrary constants (2) agree. » y Cye® + Gyte® + Get + eX, y= Gye Ce™ + Cote® + oakeX 4 are, yh = Cyr BCare* 4 Coxe™ + Gye™ + aee% 4 GreX + te, (Cyt 9Cpde* + Cyne = Gye + aete™ 4 ince + 100%, y and y"— y"— y! + y= 86% The order of the differential equation and the number of arbitrary constants agree, 21-2) and find ‘the equation of the integral curve through Show that y = 2x+Ce" is the prinitive of the ditferent ial equation ‘the particular solution satisfied by (0,3). ed6 SOLUTIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 9 cxtnatey = BC at SE» 24 62" nh ttre saiion btn 264-6) = 2-2, Men x=0,y=3, 3=2-0+Ce° and C=3, The particular solution is y = 2+ 3c", Show that y = Cye"sCye?™sx is the primitive of the differential equation 4 dy + by = & 2-3 and find the equation of tho integral curve through the points (0,0) and (1,0). usatitute y= Get Gers, Le cet acactes, LY ecetvace® in uw atte ye GeeTs Gye, nS ae 2 ferential equation to obtain Cye™+ sCze™— 9(Cye%+ 20ge* +1) + 21.0% + Cae 4x) = 2e=3, Woon =O, y=0: Cyt Cp = 0, Mbone=1, y=0: Cyet Coe Then Cy + Cy» ‘and tho required equation is y for hat (y-OFo Gy Astoria ot tn toatl wamtsn its Ey = 6 ‘and find the equations of the, integral curves through the point (1,2). ¥ 4.6 Here 2-9 2 eo an : : e-O GC md EGO fees ae ee CrrGy-O-9y-08 _ yey a 40y-0F Ay-0) (yO? yO? Won x=, y22: (2-O%=C and C= 14 ‘The equations of the integral curves through (1,2) are (y— 1)? =x and (y~ 4)" = 4x tegral curve through «) (1,2) and b) (0,0). 4) Whon <1, y=2: C=2 and the required equation is y = 2x. by Men x=0, y=0: C is not detersined, that is, all of the integral curves pass through the origin, Note that g(a.y) = y/x 4s not continuous at the origin andhence theexistence theoren fassures one and only one curve of the family y = Cx through each point of the plane except the origin, Disterentiating xy = C(x1)(y=1) and substituting for C, ve obtain the differential equa- tion ey ay xy ay aBey = ce-nbey-9 - en 49-0 at? Me 8” Gagan Mae PP or seep + yo-0 = » (e-nd + 9-0 = 0. Now both y= and y=1 are solutions of 1), since, foreach, dy/de=0 and 1) is satisfied. ‘he first 1s obtained from the primitive by setting C=0, but the second y-=1 cannot be obtained hoy assigning a finite value to C, similarly, 1) may be obtained from the primitive in the form Bay = (2~1)(y-1). Now the solution y=1 18 obtained by setting B=0 while the solution y «0 ‘cannot be obtained by assigning a finite value to B. Thus, the given form of a primitive may fot include #11 of the particular solutions of the differential equation. (Note that x=1 is also & particular solution.)10 SOLUTIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS. 1. pitterentiating y = Cx+26%, solving for C= %, and substituting inthe printtive yields the digferential equation Ot. 1h » Bite Bh -y = 0 » a? + B=» = 0. «1s, Y-_ 1, satisties P+ ay = 0 is a solut Since y =~ fx, Y= jx satistion 1), x°+ ay = 0 is @ solution of 1), Now the primitive is represented by s family of straight Lines and it is clear that the equation of @ parabola cannot be obtained by manipulating the arbitrary constant. Such @ solu- tion is called a singular solution of the differential equation, 8. Verity and reconcile the fact that y = Cyeosx + Cysinx and y= A cos(sB) are prinitives Cyeosx+ Cysinz, y!= -Cysinz+ Cpcosx and ye Cycosx-Cysing =-y or SXeyea, Prony = Acos(<+B), 9’ HAcoa(s+ B) = -Assin(e+B) and y/ Now y= Acos(x+B) » A(cosx cosB ~ sinx sinB) = (A cosB) cos x + GAsinB)sinx = Cycosx + Cpsinx. 9. Show that In x? + inX= = Aes nay be written as 3? = Be*, samy? © Ate, Thon y= ef = eee = Bom 10, show that Are sinx = Are siny =A may be written as xvi-y™ - yi-x? = B, sin(are sin x ~ Arc sin y) = sin A= B. ‘Then sin(Are sin x) cos(Are sin y) ~ cos(Are sin x) sin(Are sin y) = xvi-y®-yvi-w = By TL. show that In(1+y) + In(1+x) =A may be written ayexty 2G In(Ley) + In(Les) = InCLeyC4H) = AL ten (1tyy(tex) sayeesy else! eB and aytxty = B-1=C. ne Ay Show that sinh y+ coshy = Cr may be written as y Here sinh y + cosny = He? e%) + s(e7 427%) = ©” = Ore Ten y = nC+lnz = A+ Ine.| | SOLUTIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS u SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS Show that each of the following expressions 1s solution of the corresponding differential equation, Classify éach as particular solution or general solution (primitive). yaa, wy = Particular solution we Pee, wihtr= 0, Primitive 15. y = Cr+ yeas gt. Primitive 16 (l=ny* ay! = yytearty. Particular solution I yearn, yaa tyson Particular solution 1 y= Ort Ge*, @-by yey General solution 19. y= Cie" + Gye, General solution 2. y= Oe" + Ge * sea, General solution ey = Ge* + Gye, y= By" bay = General solution DB ya Cyet a Gye sate, yh a ay! 4 aye 2-2. General solutionCHAPTER 3 Equations of First Order and First Degree A DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION of the first order and first degree may be written in the form Db M(xyy)de + NG ~dy = 0. teams 1. 0) + LEX 0 may be written as (y+a)de + =n = 0. in which W(x,y) =y +x and M(x,y)= yx. by x =1+xty may be written as (1+ x*y)de—dy=0 in which N(xyy)= 1+ xy and N(xy) =~ If W(x,y)dx + M(x,y)dy is the complete differential of @ function u(x,y), eee Moxy yee + Mex yay = dua, 9). 1) is called exact and u(x,y) =C is its primitive or general solution, EXAMPLE 2. 3x"ydx + 2x°y dy=0 is an exact differential equation since ax y’dx + any dy= a(x"), Its primitive is x’y? = Cc. If 1) is not exact but EG yas rdebe + Mxyrdy) = duly), £(c,y) 1s called an integrating factor of 1) and u(x,y)=C is its primitive, EXAMPLE 3. 3y dx + 2x dy=0 is not an exact differential equation but when nultiplied by g(x.y)=x%y, we have Sx*y*dk + 20 dy = 0 which is exact, Hones, the primitive of 3y dx +2xdy=0 is x*y*=C. See Example 2. If 1) is not exact and no integrating factor can be found readily, it may be possible by a change of one or both of the variables to obtain an equation for which an integrating factor can be found. EXAMPLE 4, The transformation x y, dx = dt-dy, (ie. xty = t), reduces the equation (x+y +1)dx + (2x+ ay +3)¢y = 0 to (E41) (dt dy) + (26 +3)dy or (etayde + (t+ 2)¢y = by nouns of the inosrating factor <2. tho omittion takes the fora ft 1 dy + lat = dy +ae- Laat =0. ei eeea eee cea eee Then yte-In(t+2) = and, since t= x+y, ay +x In(xty +2) =. Note. The transformation x+y+1=¢ or 2x +24 the form of the equation, sis also suggested by 2EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER AND FIRST DEGREE B A DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION for which an integrating factor is found readily has the forn 8 2) AG) bade + fal) Edy = 1 By means of the integrating factor + 2) is reduced to Fa(x) @aly) 2") 4 4 HO y <9 F,() f(y) } whose primitive is Ae . | a, [Ay oc, { Ae aa I Equation 2) is typed as Variables Separable and in2!) the variables are sep- | arated. i BxaNPLE 5. When the differential equation t xty ~ay) de + (axty"t ty" )dy = 0 ® is put in the form — y(3x*—x)dx + x (2y* + y*)dy = 0 it is seen to be of the type Variables Separable, The integrating factor + ye 8 reduces it to (2 - sya + (2y+y>)dy = 0 in which the variables are sepa- rated. Integrating, we obtain the primitive i 7 a sins +24 ytd ic nx + Et ytt dy = 6 i IF EQUATION 1) admits a solution f(x,y,C) = 0, where C is an arbitrary constant, { there exist infinitely many integrating factors ¢(x.y) such that | ECM + NOayayd = 0 is exact. Also, there exist transformations of the variables which carry 1) into the type Variables Separable. However, no general rule can be stated here for finding either an integrating factor or a transformation. Thus we are Limited to solving certain types of differential equations of the first order and first degree, i.e., those for which rules may be laid down for deternin- ng either an integrating factor or an effective transformation. Equations of the type Variables Separable, together with equations which can be reduced to this type by a transformation of the variables are con- I sidered in Chapter 4. Exact differential equations and other types reducible to exact equations by means of integrating factors are treated in Chapter 5. ‘The Linear equation of order one 3 Bs Peery = Ox) ) = (xy Ox) 6 land equations reducible to the form 8) by neans of transformations are con- sidered in Chapter 6.uu EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER AND FIRST DEGREE ‘These groupings are a matter of convenience. A given equation may fall into more than one group. EXAMPLE 6, The equation xdy-ydx=0 may be placed in any one of the groups since a) by means of the integrating factor I/xy the variables are separated; thus, dy/y ~ dx/x = 0 80 that Iny -Inx =1nC or y/x=C. 6) by means of the integrating factor 1/x* or 1/y* the equation is made ex- act; thus, =%#=Y4 = 9 and ¥=c or *¥=YH =o and - * xt x y’ Cy dre -i G y = 0, it is @ Line.r equation of order one. ) when written as ad sete Attention has been called to the fact that the form of the primitive is not unique, Thus, the primitive in Example 6 might be given as a) Iny=Inx=1nG, 6) y/x=C, ce) y= Cx, A) x/y=K, ete. It is usual to accept any one of these forms with the understanding, already noted, that thereby certain particular solutions may be lost. ‘There is an additional difficulty! BXAVPLE 7. Tt is clear that y=0 is a particular solution of dy/dx=y or dy-y dx =0, When y 40, we may write dy/y~dx=0 and obtain Iny~x=In¢ with C40; in turn, this may be written as y=Ce“, C40. Thus, to include all solutions, we should write y=0; y=Ce% C#0. But note that y = Ce*, free of the restrictions imposed on y and C, includes a/! solutions. ‘This situation will arise repeatedly as we proceed but, as is customary, we shall refrain from pointing out the restrictions; that is, we shall write the primitive as y = Ce*, with C completely arbitrary. In defense, we offer the following observation, Let us multiply the given equation by e~* to ob- tain efdy- ye*dx = 0 from which, by integration, we get e"*y = C or y = Ce*, In this procedure, it has not been necessary to impose any restric~ tion on y or C.CHAPTER 4 Equations of First Order and First Degree VARIABLES SEPARABLE AND REDUCTION TO. VARIABLES SEPARABLE VARIABLES SEPARABLE, The variables of the equation M(x,y)dx + M(x,y)dy = 0 are ‘separable if the equation can be written in the form a F(x) Bade + Fa) Bey ‘The integrating factor +, found by inspection, reduces 1) to the Fda) form AD yy 5 HW yy a(x) aly) fron which the primitive may be obtained by integration, For example, (x—1)*yde + x*(y +1)dy = 0 is of the form 1), The integrat~ sng tastor reduces tne eaation to A=!" ge ¢ LtD gy= 0 sn which ty x the variables are separated. See Problems 1-5. HOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS. A function f(x,y) is called homogeneous of degree n if Fox AY) = XN FOay). For example: a) fly) = xy is homogeneous of degree 4 since FOa dy) = Qad* = x)? CY) = BOP = x?y) = 8 four) by) fouy) = e% + tan¥ is honogeneous of degree 0 since Ox, dy) = Yo 6 tan eo 4 tan =X £007. c) f(x,y) = x" + sinx cosy is not homogeneous since F(dx, dy) = 2a? + sin(y) cos(hy) # A Foay). ‘The differential equation M(x,y)dx + M(x,y)dy = 0 is called homogeneous if M(x,y) and W(x,y) are homogeneous and of the sane degree. For example, xin de + Zaresin dy = 0 ts homogeneous of desree 1, but neither (x?+y")de = (xy? =y?)dy = 0 nor (xty*)de + (x-y)dy = 0 is a homogeneous equation.16 EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER AND FIRST DEGREE The transformtion yoy yw vce tad will reduce any homogeneous equation to the form Plxvde + O(x,v)dv = 0 in which the variables are separable, After integrating, v is replaced by y/x to recover the original variables. See Problems 6-11. EQUATIONS IN WHICH M(x,y) AND M(x,y) ARE LINEAR BUT NOT HOMOGENEOUS. a) The equation (ax + by + eddy + (agx + bay +¢,)dy = 0, (a:bp—agbs = 0), is reduced by the transformation axthy =, dy = Hoste to the form P(x, Ode + Olx, Hat = 0 in which the variables are separable, See Problem 12, b) The equation (ax + biy teydv + (aax+ bey + ce) dy = 0, (aby ~agby #0), is reduced to the homogeneous form (ayx! + bay!)de! + (aax! + baydy! = 0 by the transformation iy, ya y!tk in which x=h, y=k are the solutions of the equations axtbyter= 0 and ajxtbyy +e, = 0, See Problems 13-14. EQUATIONS OF THE FORM y. Flxy)dx + x-¢(xy)dy = 0, The transformation xdz—2 de xyz, yaks ay reduces an equation of this form to the form P(x,z)de + O(x,z)de = 0 in which the variables are separable. See Problems 15-17. OTHER SUBSTITUTIONS. Equations, not of the types discussed above, may be reduced toa form in which the variables are separable by means of a properly chosen transformation. No general rule of procedure’ can be given; in each case the form of the equation suggests the transformation. See Problems 18-22. SOLVED PROBLEMS VARIABLES SEPARABLE, 1, soive Pdr + (y+D*dy = 0 The Variables are separated, Hence, integrating term by term, . + = Cy or ae + Atyty = C,VARIABLES SEPARABLE 7 10 2 sove x*¢y+ Node + (r= Mdy = 0. | 2 1 y ‘The integrating factor ——! reduces the equation to de + dy = 0, . saat oe-D rat ya? 1 } men, sotesrating (rete Lyd + yaa + SLydy aah txt Imenty tay? = yt Amy +n) = G, ats ys oe = nyt 2ime-Q+h = Cy ‘and (er? + Qn + 2ine-DO+h = 3. Solve ar dy ~ yee = s%dy or yde + (2? andy = 0, in which the The Integrating factor —z! reduces the equation to | ye) ie-H) variables are separated, mre eter samtion my wemitinas EH 4S Og ge i Integrating, Inte—4) -Inz +4 Iny = In or (x=4)y" = Ge, * | a. _9 4. soe Y= Yor atyemdy = ayde de xy-3) inet ae ® ‘he satoerating factor reduon tho caution to X22dy« Integrating, y-3iny = 4Inz+inCy or y = InGa*y), : Ori anita ar, his may be written as Gys"y or ay) = Ce, 5. Pind the particular solution of (1+.°)dy - 2*yde - 0 satisfying the initial conditions x =1, | Firat find the prinitive, using the integrating factor : | yates) | prin B= deo, ny —Etatdewy «C4, Stay eaactewyoIn, y=caes. Te | When et, ya2: P= C+D, |, and the required particular solution is y'=4(1+2°). | HOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS, i 6. hen Max + Ndy = 0 is honogeneous, show that the transformation y= vx will separate the | variables, | en Mas + Nay = 0 1s honogeneous of degree n, we may write Wade +Wdy = 2" {My(Lde+ MyZdy) = 0 whence My Zyde + Ne(Zrdy = 0. The transformation y= ux, dy = vee + xdv reduces this to Mya) de + Ny(vytude+x dv} = 0 or {My(v) + wNy(v)}de + xN,(v) dv = 0 a, Moe > or, tiny, & + — Me) ds 9 in wnten tne vartabtes are separated, = he +O °18 EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER AND FIRST DEGREE Te Solve (x5+y)de ~ Sxy*dy = 0, ‘The equation 1s homogeneous of degree 3. We use the transformtion y = ux, dy = vdr + xdv to obtain 4) Scr eedyde - av%(vd + xdvy} = 0 or (1-28}de ~ a0Pxdv = 0 in which the variables are separable. Upon separating the variables, using the integrating factor ——t— Ham) | and Ine + $ 1n(1= 205) = Cy, BInx + In(1-20°) = In Gy i Since v » y/z, the primitive 1s x"(1-2y'/2*) =C or 2? Note that the equation is of degree 3 and that after the transformtion x? is a factor of the left menber of 1), This factor aay be renoved when making the transformation. & solve xdy - yde- He? ¥ de = 0. ‘The equatitn 18 howogencous of degree 1, Using the transformation y=vr, dy « ude + xdv and dividing by x, we a vde+ zdv-vde~Vinv de = 0 or xdv~Vin-v de = 0, 1 dye When the variables are separated, using the integrating tector —1— ae wit fk * Ten ere sinv-Inx=InC or are sin y= In(Cx), and returning to the original va- are sin yi riabies, uning » = y/s, are ain Ex In(Ge) or Ge =e solve (2x sinh 2 + ay cosh Zyde ~ Be coat Z dy = ‘The equation is homogeneous of’ degree 1, Using the standard transformation and dividing by ee 2esinhy de - de cosy dv = 0, sete ay = ‘Then, separating the variables, sparating the variabl oe °. Integrating, 2 Inv = in sine = InG, x= Cin, and xt = ein? Z- 10, solve (2+ ayydx + (y=z)0y ‘The equation is homogeneous of degree 1, The standard transformation reduces it to (2 vaeyds + (v =D ede + edo) = 0 or (vs B4D)dE + (Udy = 0 Separating the variables, % ¢ 2-1 gy « Hyp —Bt2 gy -_ a _ og, =” Feaee 2 Fewee werd Integrating, In + $ In(o?* 2042) - 2aretan(v+t) = C,, an x¥(o%+ 2042) ~ 4arctan(v+1) =C, and any? + ary +28) ~ 4 are tan 222 @ UM, sove 142" ?yde + ner EdyVARIABLES SEPARABLE 1 ‘The equation 1s homogeneous of degree 0, The appearance of z/y throughout the equation ‘suggests tho use of tho transformation x= vy, de = vdy + ydv. Then (1+ 2e")(udy + ydv) + 2W¥(Lmwpdy = 0, (uv + 2e")dy + yC14 2e%)dv and & , 2 wy 20, Y ye deh sly Integrating and replacing » by x/y, Any + In(v+2e) = In and x + He"? = c, LINEAR BUT NOT HOMOGENEOUS, ee Be i Solve (xt yode + (Bx +3y-4)dy = 04 The expressions (x+y) and (3x + Sy) suggest the transformation x+y = t. x) dy=dt—dx to obtain tde + (at-ay(dt=de) = or (4-2t)de + (Be Aat We use y= ° ° {in which the variables are separable, Baha 2 ade ade + a=t 2 at =o. Pa Then 2dr + Integrating and replacing t by +, we have Be -Bt-2IN(2—t) = Cy, Be- B(x +y) -2IN(2-x-y) ny and 2 43y42IN(2-2-y) = Solve (2x-5y + 3)de ~ (2x +4y~6)dy = 0. First solve 2-5y +3» 0, 2x+4y-6= 0 simultancously to obtain = ‘The transformation wegtthestst, den ds yeye keys dys dy’ reduces the given equation to (2x/~ Sy!)dk! = (2x! + 4y"dy" = 0 which ie homogeneous of degree 1, (Note that this latter equation can bewritten dom without carrying out the details of the transformation.) Using tho transformation —y'=0x', dy’= vdk’+ 2! duy we obtain (2-Su)de’—(2+4u)(ude'+ x'dvy= 0, (2=Tu=dut)de!— x! (24+ 4udv = 0, and finally cost Iateeratine, in!s Fincien + Zincesm = nc or Maveneesai = G Replacing v by y'fx", (4y'~x!)(y'+ 2e)® = G, and replacing +/ by x—1 and y/ by yA, we obtain the primitive (4y-x~3)(y+ 2x~3)" Solve (e-y-Dae + ly te—Ddy = 0 Solving x-y-1+0, 4y+x-1=0 simultaneously, we obtain x=h=1, yok=0. The transformation x aa/thestel, de = ds! yeyekay | dye dy! reduces the given equation to (x’—y")dx" + (4y'+x')dy! = 0 which 4s honogeneous of de- gree 1. (Note that this transformetion x-1= 2", y=y' could have been obtained by inspection, that 1s, by examining the terns (x-y-1) and (4y+x-1).)20 EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER AND FIRST DEGREE, Using the transformation y!= ur‘, dy!=vds!+ x!dv ve obtain (1-nyde! + (dye (ode! + x'dvy = 0. ‘Then wy wy 2 ey Bis 0 we wt | wet ina! gindu®s + baretan v= Cz, Ina!"t4o? +) + are tandy = Cy anya + are tan B= 6, at tales ce-n') + are tm 2 = FORM y fo dk + xacardy = 0. 1B. solve yxy ede + xt ay tay ody ‘The transformation xy = 0, y= /x, dy Teduces the equstion to (w+ ijdr + x(t+ 0+ v4) seme og which, after clearing of fractions and rearranging, becomes 9° dx — x(1+ v+u")dv = 0, & dw de Separating tho variables, we teve & - 4-2-2 - 9, Then wet toetline = cy av? inc) = v= 1 = Oo, at @ and aety? ny ~ dey - 1 = Oxy 16. solve (y-2y?)de ~ (xt xtyndy = 0 or y(1nay)de - x(t ay)dy = 0, ‘The transformation xy=v, y dy = 242-248 reduces the equation to Lawwyde = x(t SBI = 9 or Bde act nna = 0 det Zé * men 2 Ea eo, 2inewtnvev sinc, Fi2Ge, ant xs Oe The sove Caayextytyds + GP y-a%dy <0 or y(maysa?yPode + x¢a"y*- andy = 0. ‘The transforation aysv, y=v/x, dy = £4#=%45 reduces the equation to dane sehr + eotan) Sate or ude + (08 eye ings gv 2G, and one = ay- days tm f+ onde| VARIABLES SEPARABLE 21 MISCELLANEOUS SUBSTITUTIONS, 18, soive B= y-a0* or dy = ante, | ‘To suggosted transtorention y-4x=v, dy=de+dv reduces the equation to | au Then 19. solve tan’ (z+ y)dx - dy Tho suggested transformation x+y = dy = dude reduces the equation to 2 a 1 tary de (dv—dey = 0, de ~ | Te tame or de ~ cosy dv = 0, | Integrating, = ya sin 2v= Cand 2x=y) = C+ sin (ety). 20, sorve (2+ atyhhy de + cxtyt+ aye dy = 04 ce reduces the equation ‘The suggested transforwation xy" = v, to ae sin an Mayo oe otsende=sternd = 0 0, Bine~2Inv—In(v+ 8) = ING, x = Gu*(v4B), \ and recast a) or ayeetyttay 21. solve (2x74 ay*— Thx dx - (3x" +2y"~ spy dy = 0. The suggested transformation x*=u, 7° reduces the equation to (21+ 90-Tda ~ (24+ 2 -B)dv = 0 { which 4s Linear but not homogeneous. ‘The transformation u = s+2, v= +1 yields the homogeneous equation (2s+3t)ds ~ (864 2t)dt 0, and the transforsation s* rt, ds=rdt+tdr yields 2¢r®—iydt + (2r+a)t dr= 0. Separating the variables, we have +it i ‘Then red at 22 Solve x*txde +ydy) + yledy—yde) = 0. Here xde+ ydy = $d(x®+y*) end xdy-yde = diye) suggest x*+ y* = p*, yx = tand, or x=pc0s6, y=psin6, dz=—p sin6 dd + cos do, dy = pcos dé + sin® dp. ‘The given equation takes the form p%cos"® (o-de) + p sin®(e* d8) = 0 or dp + tanO sec d8 = 0, men pracd=c, AEE = c, ad ateyharnt = at.22 EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER AND FIRST DEGREE SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS Determine whether or not each of the following functions is homogeneous and, when homogene- ous, state the degree, a) #27, homo, of degree two. ¢) aro sin ay, not ono, 6) =. not oso, fy xe 4 ye, homo, of degree one, ay : © Ine-Iny or In, howo, of degree zero, 2) LZ} hone. of degree zero, * Po iy We tge at, homo, of doses eae, y a) z+ ycost+ homo, of degree one. iy xainy +ysinz, not hoa, Classify each of the equations belov in one or nore of the folloring categories: m. 2. 26. (2) Vertables separable (2) Homogeneous equations (3) Equations in vhich (x,y) and N(z,y) are Linear but not honogeneous G4) Bquations of the form y fexy)de + x gcxy)dy = 0 (8) None of the above apply. aydesedy so Ans, (1); (2), of degree one (tapas + aeatay = 0 a o dens dy=0 (5 (2), of degree two (ands = ded = 0 Oo @ Gay" + de + @hy—ardy +0 ” (a sin = y'oos Bade + x coo dy + 0 (2). of degree one Pate nde + wey 0 de = ay) 6 IVES ce ~ tz VE Ply = 0 (2), of degree two Ger yetde + ee aye dy ©0 ® Solve each of the above equations (Problems 24-32) which fall in categories (1)-(4). dns, 24, x4y = 2a, y = Cre 2. atay = x4 Gey ai, Gr vst ey? = x in(vs*+y? ~ x) an (ity) = cde) a et dy + Inet we. xaind =¢ 26. Solve ouch of the following equations. mw. (Ls ayyde ~ hardy = ay aray) =eVARIABLES SEPARABLE BB. ay de + (1+ x" bay = 0 36. cot 8 dp +048 + 0 Bh. (e+ 2ybde + (ae + ayrdy = 0 BB. ae dy = ayde «AF ray de 88. (y= t+ Tae + (Ty=3e4 Bydy 0. ay dy = Ye Dd-ndr AL. =a yd + ay dy ° 4, yrs 2eypde + xC1~ayrdy © 0 43. de + (1-a")ooty dy = 0 44 Gh + y?yde + Bay*dy = 0 45. (x4 2y +1)dx = (Bx + 2y = 1)dy Ans. Ans Ans. Ans. Ans. Yass) oc p= Com ae qrysay® = C 1+ acy-C% og (y-sent tana? = yee e many aye tec ye sist «03! Beay =o nse +10y=1) + feeny) #6 1m each of the following, find the particular solution indicated, 48. x dy + 2yde = 0; whonx © yea 41, (x? +9 )de + xydy © 0; whens = 1, y= -1, 48. cosy de + (1+e™*)siny dy = 0; vhens=0, y= /4, Anes (L+e%acoy = 2¥2 49. Oy" +ayrde ~ a*dy men xe 1, y= Ans. sty = 4 Ans, a" + asty = dns, ne 50. Solve the equition of Problem 30 using the substitution y = vr, Ans. syins-y stay = ay SL. Solve y! = ~2(2r+ ay)? using the substitution 2 = 2e+ ay. Ans Le Vaarvay ge 1 = VEQe+ ay) 23 52, Solve (x - 2einy + adr + (2x - 4 8iny ~ 3)cosy dy = 0 using the substitution siny = 2, Ans. Sainy + dx + 9 Inde - Bsiny +3) =CCHAPTER 5 Equations of First Order and First Degree EXACT EQUATIONS AND REDUCTION TO EXACT EQUATIONS, ‘THE NECESSARY AND SUFFICIENT CONDITION that v Hix y)dx + Wonydy = 0 be exact is % mL Om, ay At times an equation my be seen to be exact after a regrouping of its terms, The equatio# in the regrouped form may then be integrated term by tern, For example, (x?~y)dr + (y?—x)dy = 0. is exact since peat Be ay * By worn) = an | ‘This may also be seen after regrouping thus: x"dx + y*dy — (y dk + xdy) = 0, This equation may be integrated term by term to obtain the primitive 7/3 + y'/3—xy = C, The equation (y*—x)dx + (x*—y)dy = 0, however, is not exact : since M = ay ¢ a = MM. ‘See also Problem 1 ay Bx i IF 1) IS THE EXACT DIFFERENTIAL of the equation yu(x,y) = C, e de = Bae + Bay = Monde + Money. a * oy Then Sax = Mxyyde and K(ey) = S Wo nde + 0), where J* indicates that in the integration y is to be treated as a constant and @(y) is the constant (with respect to x) of integration, Now = 2 CS we, Be Mx, 7 Bll Mena) + = Hoary tron which $# = "(y) and, hence, $y) ean be found, See Problens 2-3. TNTHORATING FACTORS, If 1) is not exact, an integrating factor is sought. ™ mw ye a) te 2 « rx, 0 tution of x atone, then off is an integrat- ing factor of 1). 24EXACT EQUATIONS 25 ow ae e if vo = -109), a function of y alone, then 8 is an inten grating factor of 1). See Problens 4-6. 2) 16 1 Ss homogeneous and Ax y #0, then x is an integrating factor. 7 See Problems 7-! c) If 1) can be written in the form y F(xy)dx + x a(xy)dy 0, where f(xy) 1 1 # a(xy), then ———1__ is an integrating factor. xylfoy) Gx) k= Ny See Problems 10-12, > At times an integrating factor may be found by inspection, after regroup- ing the terms of the equation, by recognizing a certain group of terms as being @ part of an exact differentiel. For example: Geoup oF TeRMs INTEGRATING FACTOR EXACT DIPPERENTIAL ady - ydx 4 store. ay dene ady- yee See ady = ydr fe eae x yo ae sdeat ay y dys yd fan i en? ady sy or sdytyde 7 survey: ‘ae ee ary aan satya, an ear nate ey ea eeetrde Sa meatsyy), ifnet ay? See Problems 13-19. e) The equation x"y° (my dk + nx dy) + x°y° (uy de + vx dy)= 0, where 1. 8.m,n, P.0.u¥ are constants and m—nu #0, has an integrating factor of the’ form xy. The method of solution usually given consists of determining a and 6 by means of certain derived formulas. In Problems 20-22, a procedure, essen- tially that used in deriving the formulas, is followed.26 2 EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER AND FIRST DEGREE SOLVED PROBLEMS Show first by the use 2) and then by regrouping of torns that each equation is exact, and solve, a) (4x?y? - 2eyyde + (Bx"y*~ x°ydy = 0 by (sey ~2xyde+ Ody = 0 ©) (cosy + y ene x)dx + (sin x ~ x sin y)dy = 0 2 2 d) Bx(ye* = Dede + € dy = 0 ©) Gy + 4xy yd + (34°? + 52"y" dy aw sy aw a) By 2: MY 2 2ey8 ar = SY and the equation is exact. yaya: ¥ EA rt by snpection: — UPyPde + as'yhdy) = Cary de stay) = dey = ately) = 0. ‘the primitive is *yP-aty = C. an we WwW bay 29: Me se = 2 and the equation is exact. yaya: Es ew By inepection: (ae y dx + eM ay) - de de = dey) dcx") = 0. ‘the primitive ts My = 22 = aw w ety 2: . ~siny + cone = 2 and the equation is exact, : os 7 & By inspection: (cos y dx = x siny dy) + (y cosa de + sin cy) = dex cosy) + diy sins) = 0, Theprinitive is x cosy + ysinz = cy ow py 7: Me aee* = SY nd the equation is ama F au acts By inspection: (2rye” de + e* dy) - Be de = diye”) - dx’) = 0 ‘The primitive is ye” ~ 2° = C, ey By 3: Me reey* + aox'y* © BY and the equation ts exact. y a By inspection: (Gx y'de + Sa yPdy) + (dx?yde + Sx'y'dy) = ace’) + dah) = 0. The primitive is x°y + ay? = C. Solve (20° + 3y)dx + (e+ y=Ndy = 0 MH. a = 2 and tne equation 1s exact, ey Solution 1, set uie,y) = SJ” (a? + ayyde = tx’ + ary + GY. roy ‘Then & = tO) = Man saree SOE yH by) y and the primitive is gx"+aey+dy?-y = C, or a¥ + Gey + y= ty EC Solution 2 Grouping the terms thus 2c'de + ydy = dy + S(ydr+xdy) = 0 ° and recalling that yds + xdy = d(sy), wo obtain, by integration, $24 by" y + ary = Cy as before, YhEXACT EQUATIONS 27 xt ye Be sorve cyte + axPydx + (aeye™” ~ ay bay fand the equation 18 exact, ay set weasy) = Stes adds = oa Ps don, % x f ay Then s Bye 4 oy) = aye - a7? gt = -3y, gi) and the primitive is e7 4 x*- y= G ‘The equation may be solved by regrouping thus, 4<°de ~ ay%dy + (ye? de + aaye? dy) and noting that ye"? de + aaye™%dy = ate”? Solve 7+ y"+xydr + xy dy = 0, the equation is not exact fey an SGD fife ins Horever, is en integrating factor. Introducing the integrating factor, we have Create yderatydy 20 or des ate + Gaytde + sty dy) = 0. Then, noting that xy"de + x*y dy = dtdx*y*), we have for the primitive fof yyy Saks ety? Betty sc or ate aks oe! ag yf yf Be Solve (ary*e” + ary + yide + Catyte” - ay? - anrdy = 0, Be a2 nates ey? st, Ms agt?- ng” 25, the camtlon to not enact. 3 = a _ a8 Honea, mt BES yyy, men e/EMdy _ -tSdy/y | -4iny Vy" is an integrating factor and, upon introduc- ing it, the equation takes the form aes Bs ae ote 3A)dy = 0 and is exact, F ™ gy set man = Seca sks Ande = te Ee Zs bn. a3 7S y yon A 1 Thon 2 on y and the primitive 1s x%e7 +28 EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER AND FIRST DEGREE 6, solve (229? + aaty + ay + + ands + 207 + xy + Ady We ays aa? + dey + dey + 2, BY = aary ean; the equation is not exact. ay a a & z Be. oe and the integrating factor ise! = e*, When it is introduced, the given equation becomes Codsts teby stay cag" s aye de + 2gPe ety sade dy = 0 and ts exact, set wtery) = J” (ae?y + ax2y 6 ary? + ay" + ayre™ de Seats wyreae + Says ated + Sate + aye + byte + done Then area eae bln = 2 e Bye me, — HO) =O. and the prinitive 1s (27y" + ary + y*ye™ = G T+ Show that | where Me +Ny is not identically zero, 1s an integrating factor of the ho- ey ogencous equation M¢zx,y)de+NGxy)dy <0 of degree n, Investigate the case t+ Ny=0 iden tically. y u are to show that Made + fi M+ Ny e Me + Ny dy = 0 ts an exact equation, that is, that an Mowe (ie yy B= Wee Be Wes y oe les iy (le + Nyy Bo Hy = 2 ayy ~ ® Ny ' Norlt) — Hod. ey tes Nyy? (oy Euler's Theoren on honogeneous funetions). IEMe+Ny=0 identically, thon “= —2 and thedifferential equation reduces to ydx - xdy Na <0 for which Usy 1s an integrating factor. 8 Solve G2" y")de = xy7dy ae om 3 ‘The equation is hozogeneous and is an integrating factor. Upon its intro-| { 29 duction, the equation baconos 0 and ts exact, er) Fi semen « S gs De = ms - 20+ sor 5 ‘Then = = -L4 gt y and the primitive is, Fas or nx G52 y 2 ast ines oe, Note, The same integrating factor is obtained by using the procedure of a) above, The equa~ ‘tion my be solved by the method of Chapter 4. 9. sorve yfde + (2 ~ xy ~ y* bay ‘The equation is homogeneous and ——'— - —1 4s an integrating factor, Mee Ny yatay'y Upon introducing it the given equation becomes —2—de + = PoP ye? x) 2 . Boyey om or ery snd the primitive is $n my sny = InGy or any? = Certy. 10. show that + non Me-Ny is not identically zore, is an intograting factor for the ig-ty equation Mak + Ndy = yfu(ayide + xfelayidy = 0, Investigate the case Me~Ny= 0 identically, ‘The equat ion — Ae) _ae ¢ thay) ye is exact wthoy fin) al fiGy- fan) thr bed BE = fat eae a= fe)? 2hs~ fa) Be _ puyQhe _ Me Be _ pth arta toGe Bh Be Fh fa HSs- fa and cy He gy spy Me 2 i eG fay SY + hod a ay ehh) ~ % Hh.-Fed hha” Tie 9 saonticaly sero ninco y ZL. 240,20 nL * Be Te Me=Ny=0, thon M+ Land the equation reduces to sdy + yde= 0 with solution 29°C. Solve y(x?y? + ayde + x(2~2x7y")dy EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER AND FIRST DEGREE { ® 1 1 ‘the equation is of the form yfr(ay)de + xfetaydy = 0 and = qua form yfilayidx+ x folrrdy moe grating factor. 4s an inte- we Upon introfucing it, the equation becomes L222 de + 2-2EL dy = 0 and is exact. set way = SED Fae ay? a 2 mon BH = 2+ oy) = = ee 1 a and the primitive is Sine - 45 SUR Sap ‘The equation say be solved by the method of Chapter 4, 2iny = ozs = Finy = In Ge oy owe y(2ny +tyde + x(16y=2yody i i : Te equation is of the form yfatas)ds #felayidy = 0. and a yfalaylds + x falar) a rating factor, @ Upon introducing, the equation becomes is exact. * | se pean = £ | 8 | ma # = 2 . ay aod tho prinitive ts = ny sh = by . BF oy tain an sntesratine factor by Inspection foreach of the follow equations. | w) (ante? + ay? + pide + ahshe = xy? = gody = 0 (eronien 8) d . by ay? + ands + (ae = BsFhdy = 0 (Problem 31) ©) Qa? + nde ext ty =P dy = 0 (Problem 12) / a y'(2xelde + wePdy) + dyin ~ atyhdy + y de - Bedy = 0 the torn y*(2ee%de + s%e'dy) = yan exact differential) suggests that i/y* ts « possible . ietegrating factor, o show that it san Snteerating fotor, vo vority th its introwetion produces an exact equation, . by Men tho cquation is written in the form 2¢y drt xdy) + aty"de ~ 2e°y"dy = 0, the term (des xdy) suggests 1/(xy)" as a possible integrating factor. An examination of the remaining ° terms shows that each Will be an exact differential if k=3, i.e., W(sy)’ is an integrating factor.EXACT EQUATIONS a ©) When the equation is written in the form (x dys yde) + Bsy(x dy +ydz) = 2"ybdy = 0 the first two terms suggest W/oy)*, The third term will be an exact differential if k = 4; thus, /(ry)* is an integrating factor. * Wa Solve ydr+x(1-ar"yydy = 0 or xdy + yds ~ a2 yfdy = 0, ‘The terms xdy+ydr suggest 1/(zy)* and the last term requires k = 3, Upon introducing the integrating factor + the equationbecones 24d 3 yy g ow ar le whose primitive is 1 siny=6,, lay = nC gry « car), | my 3 | We Solve x de + yay + Ay x? + y* bay The last term suggests 1/(s?+ 7% as an integrating factor, Introducing it, the equation becones 2A*YM 5 aytay 2 9 and is exact. sey’ | The primitive is gin(s"+y*) + y* = Inc, or | 16. Solve x dy ~ yde ~ (1-x")de = 0, Here 1/s* is the integrating factor, since ali other possibilities suggested by x dy -ydr render the last tern inexact. oon introducing it, the emuation becones Z=24° (1 _ inde sg hose prinitive is Eebesec or ytated = Ge | | Uy. Solve (xex' + a*y + y"ydv + yy = 0 or xde + ydy + Os yar = 0, fo doterating tctor surest by te form of the cmation ts 1 atag ty we + Py nae ELE 4 ayo 0 shone printive ts = be oc, of Comnisteys (ey)? 2a? + y?y 18 soive xP Ziv ays ArzGF 20 or xtecytyde) + JTBE de = 0, | ‘The integrating factor ——! reduces the equation tothe torn 2 +y4z , &eo | Wiest Vine | whose primitive 1s are sin(ay) + Inx = C, 19. sowwe Y = or Weraytayde + OPeatysady = 0. extyey { | hon the equation is written thus (2+ y")(x de ydy)+sdy-yde= 0, the terms xdy-yde suggest soveral possible integrating factors, By tridl, we deternine 1/ext+ 3) which reduces | i32 20. a EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER AND FIRST DEGREE xdy-yde te etven enmtion tothe torn rae + ydy + SOY» gat ydy + —H = 0. se re the printtive in dstedyteare tend = cy or ats yPe2aretan = 6. Solve x(4y de + 2edy) + 9 (By de + Seay) suppose that the effect of multiplying the given equation by 2"y* is toproduce an equation at Maes 28 fan + atyMae eset an = 0 each of whose tro terns is an exact differenti _ Then the first tern of A) is proportional to Bp attyPy = eae y Ma + Gene tray, that is, a+2_ gst ° = and a - 28 = 0. a 2 2 ‘Aso, the second term of A) is proportions] to Dae) = aanstyae + roe Pay, that is, » att, B+ am sa-36=1 3 ce Solving 26 = 0, 52-38 ‘men these substitutions are mde in A), the equation beccnes simultaneously, we find a= 2 B= 1. adytae + ay dyy + (axtyPas + sya) Te primitive 1s sya adlf eG Solve (By de + Gedy) + x*y°(4y de + Sedy) Pv Suppose thet the effect of mltiplying the given equation by sy” 1s to produce an equation et lde so yan + catttyae + 2 PPan = 0 cach of whose two teras is an exact differontinl, Then the first term is proportional to malty) «arpa + Gnd yey, that Is, o att. Bet wt Also, the second tera is proportions! to ess aun ast os) 08, Dat) = erat yar + Bene Pay, that is, » aut snd 80-481, solving 2-8-0, $2481 simultaneously, ve find a= 1, B= tssince, after a little practice, the relations C) and B) may be obtained directly from A), 22. 50 Ay EXACT EQUATIONS When these substitutions are made in A), the equation becones taeyhde + Oty dyn + Ce? Pde + sya) The prinitive is ate ty =o, ° 33 Note, In this and the previous problem it was not necessary to write statenents B) and D) rive xy" (ay de txdy) — (Sy de + Tedy) Moltiplying the given equation by x*y°, we have Pde ET Pay» (2? Pac Phy — ose If the first term of A) 1s to be exact, then If the second term of A) is to be exact, then Solving a-28« 4, Ta-58 = -2 simultaneously, we find a Then, from), (28M de «YM dy) — MS de 6 re Bay = 0, 2 8 3 ech of the tvo terms is oxact, and the prinitive 1s ® » ° 4 ° p ® hy » a » PB 5 ac 6. 98,95 rm r me SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS (= yile ~ x dy Yee ay)de = dy = 0 chs Aide + ay dy (Poy de + ay dy 0 (e+ yeos x)de't sine dy = a+ hdo + ape ae = de - VOo# dy = 0 (Bev ays Ade + Ges ay + 5ydy = 0 GP sae at bay <0 2(u" + woydu + (u®s v®ydv = 0 Pr? - nde + 9 (Po? ~ ody = 0 Select: from the following equations, those which are exact and solve, and a - 28 and Ta - 58 = — -8/, B= -10/8, Ans. ay 2/9 +0 ans. Ans. Ans. Ans. Ans. Ans, atv =c a4 ay sing =C pa + a7 sary + Oy" + ae 4 by <6 20 fy -¢ a + ama/y) = 8 aay’ aye tmve vac = tay = *ety » » an) ° ” EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER AND FIRST DEGREE, (syst td ~ @-y-3pdy 0 (ery tide = (nx tady 20 ese 8 tan @ dr = (r ese @ + tan"O)d8 = 0 OE 2 2 2 tarye 2 ste a tyde + PEI BeyeT = ayndy = 0 Anse 2 4 ade + Lets + aye D]dy = 0 Ans, a? + ary =~ 9? + Be 8y=C Ans. rv ese = Insee8 + An mE sarnoten = 6 D4. Solve the remining problems above [b), ¢), 6)» 1)] using the appropriate procedure of Chap. 4. Ans. by afy <2 ines o ty info pFadee dyes - ore tant? = e) ate ty? ye are sin x/a + C eel } 25: Por each of the following, obtain an integrating factor by inspection and solve, | a) » 1 ° 4) ° | p ® | ® » i 2 by 26. Por ® i o ° 4 ° p ® Ay a ade + yey = (05 ye (ay-S0 de + ray = 0 Gan y*yde + Bey dy = 0 dy = yde = ah (ate Pde yde ~xdy + Inx de 0 (ax? +yPyde ~ aay dy = 0 (xy=2y?\de - = Sayddy = 0 (read = e-ndy = 0 ay de Syfde = 2 dy = 0 yde + x(x"y=H)dy = 0 (yesyeatyde + (at day" + 6)? dy = 0 each of the following, obtain an integrati dy ~ yde = Pedr (ie yPyde « ere rdy Qy-2 yan 4 dy = 0 ody + ye ~ xdy Gy aaynde ~ (27 + bey" Vey = 0 atyfde + 4@y—s)dy vert yide = a4dy = 0 cay Bey" )de + (es 2e*yndy = 0 yigt=2ethde © x(2y?=ahdy = 0 ans. Ans. Ans. Ans. ans. Ans. ans. Ans, yee 2 ap tye ast; xbox ing sr +e ot witey?ys are tan ye = + C wet; ye ane ed wt; ax? y? way? a/y + Ing? /2") vateys Bey sag aly tly = © 2 arevan 9 yds ay Pa oP aeay +2); Ingy +2)? + a8 + ay eC ing factor and solve, Ans. Ans. Ans. Ans. Ans. Anse Ans. Ans. Ans. sour tint fey) tn itagating toto of dy de ye Get ack are tan y = In x/(x+1) +6 wy -a/5 + Poery ay +x Ingy) « Gr oy ay? x/y + nx yaeay) = 6 ato? a? eyfotss c c cCHAPTER 6 Equations of First Order and First Degree LINEAR EQUATIONS AND THOSE REDUCIBLE TO THAT Font THE EQUATION 1) # + yr = am, whose left member is linear inboth the dependent variable and its derivative, is called a linear equation of the first order. For example, ® 4 ayy = sinx di je Y + oxy? = sin is Se + Buy = sinx is called Linear white & + gay* = sin ot. [Pcayae Sexy Pex) ce JPeyee a gyi ay SPind yn SPevee Send pty since 2 * yP ® + yr), FPoid 45 an integrating factor of 1) end ite primitive is yelPend Sor cP ae sc, See Problems 1-7. BERNOULLI'S EQUATION. An equation of the form % yr = vow 2 1 pey 2 91x) Ze yr = eo) ory Bs y™ Pee = G60 is reduced to the form 1), namely, & + v((1-mPQ)} = (1- MQ), by the transformation See Problens 8-12. OTHER BQUATIONS may be reduced to the form 1) by means of appropriate transforma- tions. As in previous chapters, no general rule can be stated; in each in- stance, the proper transformation is suggested by the form of the equation, See Problems 13-18, SOLVED PROBLEMS LINEAR Equarrons, 1 sone Bs ary = te, 4s an integrating factor. tun ye™ = Saxe“ ae = oe y= 2+, 2 soe x % eye Peta or ay ae Qey Serie = 8 = mmx esa = 1 isan tntograting fasta.36 Then soe (-29% = y+ar-29 oor Y - - Sol : 3, Gand = y+ atz-2) ‘an integrating factor 1s Ten 5. Solve 6. Solve EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER AND FIRST DEGREE 1 spe a . yh s flatemend = fers Bae + dteaeainesc, or Qty = x? + Ox - deine + Cry # y= x2. Be = tne nt an intense totar ta EMEP so F-2 af (eBde = (HD 4C or y= (x2) + CeW2), sy cova = sefM*, Pind the particular solution, given the snttial conditions york Sects de (NSinx ine ana yoing = 5fe°*sinx de = -5e°°* + 6, xemy (4a) = 501) + © and C= 4, The particular solution 1s. yasing + 528% 2 5 dy 2 5 ay, Bots? PX -myy- 2 or Be = Be ewy oe -4-3inx and an integrating factor ts ¥ per x a 1 5, cde? - ate tm eee, per Bot ~ ae a oy % _ ay cot 2x = 1 ~ 2 cot 2x ~ Desc de. go - Qt ‘An integrating factor ss eS 2008 EAH SIREN E «ose 24, Then ie Solve The Then Thus, y csc 2x = S(ese 2r- 2eeot 2r esc 2 ~ 2 esc axjdx = x ese + cot 2+ C y = x4 cos 2x + C sin 2x, yiny dk + (x = Inyrdy = 0. oquation, with x taken asdependent variable, say be put in the form fava my) 2 MOY) © any is an integrating factor, » oxiny = Suny . pmysk and the solution is 2 Iny = In’y + C,LINEAR EQUATIONS 3T ‘@ BeRNOULLI'S EQUATION. | a 8 sow Bays? or 6 & The transformation y a 2 reduces the equation to F reduces the equation t a Aide oe or ogy integrating factor ise = eM, Boa An integrating Re | Then ve = -t frelde = re + te™ + , Pt cats eG or Leese ce, 9. soe Be my sn! = 0 or The transformation yF =v, ~3y Using the integrating factor 2 os! + Jae ae 3 J ey eye 2 hae 7 Jo. soe Xe dy = da-2ny* a yaa. m+ dy dv & ‘The transtormats », -4y7* 2-4 seavces tne eauation to Ly = 2-1 ony yi oe a ¢ for vhich e* 1s an integrating factor. Then, integrating by parte, ve™ = S(te-1e%de = ~2ee a Se an tae, y wy ry? Dy yt s cosx - sinx 1 swe Xo y = yooe-simsy oor Boy ine. ye transformation 97> 774. H reayces the equation to #2 —y = sinx ~ cose The transformation % 2 seances tho oa 2 {for watch e 4s an integrating factor. Then - *, 1 x wet = S¢sine - con nye ae = ode ssine + ce Jost ae 7 12, sowve xy = (ytayatnsrdde 0 or PH -Byt = asm, “ 3 dy. de * e transtormtion yeu, -27°° & = # reduces the equation to The transformation Bee rm 2 tor wuicn o/?4/* - 44 45 an integrating faccor. Then fo ars SOF 2g Ct ioe fee An any 4 2 ws nafaty fined = -$0- EP ane oc BoP gene38 EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER AND FIRST DEGREE MISCELLANEOUS SUBSTITUTIONS. 13, An equation of the rorm f'«y) 2 + fey) Poa) = Qle) 48 & Linear equation of the first order ypc) = Qla) in the new variable v= FQ). (ote that the Bernoulli equation & AY Peay = Qley or Cathy” B+ 7" CnetyPen) = Cnt an example, Bey Peay = Qe oF cnony™ Lee" EnenPen = Car DQ) 59 an exemele,) oy 2, yyy solve 2 + sine or Xe ee a sine. 14 4 ta te nee varible v= fo) =e the cation cones Ew tains for amen 6 aa integrating ctor. en ve" = Je sins dh = 2e%(ainx ~ e088) 4C ce €7 = Asin cosa) + Ce” vo siny B = cosa(zeosy~sintxy or -siny 2 + cos y(2 cosx) = sins cos x UA. soive siny & = cos (2easy - sin?sy ny © + cos y(2 cos 2) cos x. tn the nor variate = cory the eatin cones + cons = ois cae for wnich 2x* cos @ + cos Bjdx = 0 or ~ + eos de = x de. ay dy + xd oor + Dy = ly + Day dy Y ‘An integrating factor is ¢* and the solution 1s, cos @ 1 = ? 2 ye 4K or Dens @ = x + Cre” SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS: 19. From the following equations, select those which are Linear, state the dependent variable, and solve, a) dyfde ty = 24 Be ky ye yids © 2 Bay by by dh fd6 + 30 = 2 » e) dy/de = y = xy" » vidya ty de = (eae de my y(t) defdt 4 ad(ty = 1 ©) di/dt ~ 61 = 10 6in 2¢ 2) 2de/dy ~ a/y +x? cosy = 0 Dy tide + y = ye* p) ay! = y=xtanx) + 2 cos x 8) yde + (nyse ayrdy = 0 @ Bey bdr = Gy say ty? ray = 0 hy ewe yds = aceet*— cos ander) (1s y")de = (are tan y ~ xidy iy dye yds = yhde 8) xy’ =ypde + 2edy = 0 J) dr + (2r cot 8 + sin 26)d8 = 0 t) (1+ ein y)de = [ay cos y ~ x(sec y + tan y)]dy Ans. ® ¥ year ce™ 6) EP, eM: is = yasin 2t + cos.2t) + Ce 6 1 S224 ce LePsy yo) ay = By—1) + Ce? doy LR wat yee eat LP, sin?@; arsin®@+sin'@ = C40 EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER AND FIRST DEGREE ayo Ley sy; egies aimyey? +c sy ae tr, oH, y SHE, FA SOUBIHLE ¢ nO 2 cose + Gr cos x ) Poy LP seit oy a on Le iheyt; we 2eyt eevee aro tany, rare tany | Noe Lee sare tany ~ 14 Ce ox LP, secystany; x(secy + tamy) = 97 +6 | 20. From the remaining equations in Problem 19, solve those of the Bernoulli type, Ans. Ly = Ln x4 Ce™* bd y= sce™ (Conye® +120 ° vy ty = cosy ty siny +C ayy? = ox + ox s) ae = FeO 21, Solve the renaining equations, h) and a), of Problem 10. i dns, hy sf = se® 4 sin at = 6 m) y= sin(y+C) \ 22. Solve: | * B®. a) ay’ = 2y + ae" subject to y= Owens =i, Any y= x0(e%—e) by Ef sn = sn at re Lf 8 constant, atc ote eatin 1-0 when #2 Anes = Een sin at ~ 2b com 20 + abe) eae B. solv i a) sPcosy Ys ar siny ~ 1, using siny = 2, Ane, siny = G41 | 2 2 2 Sayt | by aetyy’ = au(ay?e 2) + acy? 427, using ay7+ 22. Ans. c—a0 ay" 4277 | ey Gylayaoset de + aayfdy = 0, using 9? = om Ans. et 4 Ce a) dy/ds + xaty) = Perey? ~ Ans, Aft sy = x7 6 16 Ce™ 2) (ene de + (LF dy © 0. Ane, y 40? = (e4c)eCHAPTER 7 Geometric Applications IN CHAPTER 1 it was shown how the differential equation RECTANGULAR COORDINATES. Let (x,y) be a general point of a curve F(x,y) y) fay) = 0 of a family of curves 2 ay.c) = 0 could be obtained, The differential equation expresses analytically acertain property common to every curve of the family. Conversely, if a property whose analytic representation involves the de~ rivative is given, the solution of the resulting differential equation rep- resents a one paraneter family of curves, all possessing the given property. Each curve of the family is called an integral curve of 1) and particular in- tegral curves may be singled out by giving additional properties, for example, a point through which the curve passes. For convenience, the following properties of curves which involve the de~ rivative, are listed. 4 a) & ts tne wiope of the tangent to the curve at (x.y). dy ot wy pelt en 1, a) ¥-y = -or-zy is the equation of thenornal at (2,9), where (X,Y) are the coordinates ot ny pilot a ay ¢) x-y% and yx are the x- and y-intercepts of the tangent, ) aay and ya y i—— 2 GEOMETRIC APPLICATIONS xey® and y+x% are the x and y-intercepts of the normal fy xeyQ and yee are the z+ and y-intercests of th Le fee ome afte Qn tm oan te ant even (9) a te pean ty fio GF wt afte Gave he ttn of te srl Nt 9) et ae oye 2 aro the Lengths subtangent and subnormal ) and aro tho Logtas of the subtangnt ant subnorea, pane Latvia + te fio BF = as fiv hy yee or xdy is an element of area, 4s an elenent of length of are, POLAR COORDINATES. Let (p,6) be a general point on a curve p = (8). 1b tany = p22, were y is the angle between the radius vector and the part of the tan ent dram toward the initisl line, 242 & n) ptany = e?& 45 the tongth of the polar subtangent, de n) p cot W = 2 is the lenath of the polar subnormal. ¥-% pol oF 2 ao pany = 2 ae ds ne (ati < Tee pd (aoe UeF = defi ES of are, is the length of the perpendicular from the pole to the tangent, 8 (B+ 0? ss an clement of tengtn ©) $0%dO ts an clenent of area,GEOMETRIC APPLICATIONS 43 TRAJECTORIES, Any curve which cuts every monber of a given family of curves at the constant angle w is called an o-trajectory of the family. A 90° trajectory of the family is commonly called an orthogonal trajectory of the family. For ex- ample, in Figure (a) below, the circles through the origin with centers on the y-axis are orthogonal trajectories of the family of circles through the origin with centers on the x-axis. y @ w In finding such trajectories, we shall use: A) The integral curves of the differential equation yi> tan ivy'tane 3) Foays are the w-trajectories of the family of integral curves of y) Fouyy) = 0. ‘To prove this, consider the integral curve C of 1) and ano-trajectory which intersect at P(x,y), as shown in Figure (6) above. At each point of € for which 1) defines’a value of y', we associate a triad of nunbers (x,y:y"), the first two being the coordinates of the point and the third being the corres- ponding value of y' given by 1). Similarly, with each point of T for which there is a tangent line, we associate a triad (x,y:y'), the first two being the coordinates of the point and the third the slope of the tangent. To avoid confusion, since we are to consider the triads associated with P as a point. on C and as a point on 7, let us write the latter (associated with Pon 7) as 7:7"). Now, from the figure, x=¥, y=7 at P while y'= tan and j= tan are related by = tan @ = tan) = yawns e Pee 1t+tang tanw = 1+)’tanw ‘Thus, at P (a general point in the plane) on an w-trajectory, the relation Fouyy) = FGF, holds, or, dropping the dashes, f(x,y, B) The integral curves of the differential equation 4) fouyeVy) = 0 are the orthogonal trajectories of the family of integral curves of 1).“ GEOMETRIC APPLICATIONS C) In polar coordinates, the integral curves of the differential equation 2 o 5) Fle, 8 = are the orthogonal trajectories of the integral curves of 0.9, & 6) oe SOLVED PROBLEMS 1. At each point (x,y) of @ curve the intercept of the tangent on the y-axis 1s equal to 2ey*, Find the curve, Using ¢), the differential equation of the curve is yd ~ dy _ y Y ay? = 2% = ay? or Dede yn = ty sf 2 Bee or r-fy= Oy 7 y= Gy. Integrating, ‘The differential equation my also be obtained di- rectly fron the adjoining figure as {Y - 2= 29", 2. at each point (x,y) of a curve the subtangent 1s proportional to the square of the abscissa, Pind the curve 41 it also passes through the point (1,e). Using i), the differential equation is y= kx? or SE = kL, where & is the % y proportionality factor. Inteerating, ny = —2+6, mene yore: ke-1+0 and Co ket. the reqtred curve has equation hiny = -2e ks 1 3. Pind the family of curves for which the length of the part of the tangent between the point of contact (x,y) and the y-axis is equal to the y-intercept of the tangent, From g) and e), we have or A) The transformation y= ux reduces A) to (sv de + aedv=0 or + BH 2g, = et Integrating, In + An(l+y’) = Inc. Ten xt Gx is the equation of the fantly.GEOMETRIC APPLICATIONS 45 44 Through any point (2,y) of a curve which passes through the origin, Lines are drawn parallel to the coordinate axes, Pind the curve given that it divides the rectangle formed by the two Lines and the axes into two areas, one of which is three times the other. y y Pear 8 Peay) cy ro) ‘There are two eases L1lustrated in the figures. a) Wore 3(aren O4P) = area PB, Then af’ yde © xy~['yde or af yde = ay. To obtain the differential equation, we differentiate with respect to x, ay ay Thus, ae , ay ey eee 2.3 ‘an integration yields the family of curves y = Cx’. 1b) More aren OAP = scarce OPS) end af" ydk = sey. yy 5 ‘The difterential equation is 2 = X, and the tamsly of curves hes equation y= Cx, aittorontial equat: B - 2, and the tonsiy uation Since the differential equation in each case was obtained by a differentiation, extraneous solutions may have been introduced. It is necessary therefore to compute the areas as check, In each of the above cases, the curves found satisfy the conditions, However, see Problem 5. 5. The creas bounded by the x-axis, a fixed ordinate x~a, a variable ordinate, and the part of a curve intercepted by the ordinates is revolved about the x-axis, Pind the curve if the volume generated is proportional to a) the sim of the two ordinates, 6) the difference of the two ordinates, «) Unt Ake te Tesh of the Ha ete, Te Crete eto taint ty ttre tinting 9) ghia He) ae nye AR nkeatng wre a) 902 Men the value of y elven by 2) 1s used In computing the left member of 1), we find * ae fe Came ° Tnm 7 Tome ‘Thus, the solution is extraneous and no curve exists having the property e). 3) = k= AD by Ropating the above procure wth 1) nf yFade = key A, ne obtdn tae iter tia eqmtion ny" = 4 ane slaton te 24. (0 me) = Te is seen from 3) that this equation satisfies 1), Thus, thefanily of curves 2!) pas the required property,