Results in Optics 12 (2023) 100432

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Results in Optics
journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/results-in-optics

Design and numerical analysis of a circular SPR based PCF biosensor for
aqueous environments
Gideon Opoku *, Iddrisu Danlard, Albert Dede, Emmanuel Kofi Akowuah
Department of Computer Engineering, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This paper presents the design and numerical analysis of a circular photonic crystal fiber (PCF) biosensor based
Biosensor on surface plasmon resonance (SPR) for aqueous environments. The proposed biosensor has a geometrical design
Photonic crystal fiber that uses the cladding at the fiber’s exterior to simplify the gold and analyte deposition process. The sensing
Surface plasmon resonance
characteristics and performances of the proposed biosensor are fully investigated with the finite element method.
Wide-ranged
Refractive index
The investigation indicates that the plasmonic material’s thickness affects the biosensor’s performance. The
Aqueous environments results of the proposed biosensor demonstrate a wide refractive index range of 1.30 to 1.44, with the highest
wavelength or spectral sensitivity as 21,000 nm/RIU and the highest resolution as 9.09 × 10− 6 RIU. The pro­
posed biosensor has a straightforward geometric profile. The proposed biosensor is stable and suited for aqueous
surroundings and wide-range detection applications.

1. Introduction
Biosensors are among the widely researched and developed sensors
in academia and industrial domains. The application domains of bio­
sensors include but are not limited to biomedical, pharmaceutical,
environmental and food technology (Ravindran, 2021). A biosensor is a
device capable of producing a measurable signal proportional to the
concentration of a targeted analyte by a physiochemical element as a
result of the occurrence of biological interactions (Chircov et al., 2020).
Biosensors are crucial for detecting toxic chemicals, medical diagnosis,
food safety, monitoring surrounding and, among others (Shakya and
Singh, 2021; Thenmozhi et al., 2019; Yasli, 2021; Garzón et al., 2019).
Optical biosensors have numerous merits over conventional analytical
methods and have recently become a top class of biosensors widely used.
This class of biosensor are known to have characteristics such as elec­
tromagnetic immunity, label-free detection, high sensitivity and reli­
ability (Khansili et al., 2018; Akgönüllü and Denizli, 2022; Farkas et al.,
2018; Kaushik et al., 2019). Optical, thermometric, electrochemical,
piezoelectric, and magnetic bio-sensing techniques are only a few of the
many that exist today. The surface plasmon resonance (SPR) based op­
tical fiber biosensors are the most widely used and offer the most
promising. When light travelling through a fiber’s core enters the
cladding and collides with a metal surface, free electrons are released,
and surface plasmon resonance occurs (SPR) (Kumar Paul et al., 2018;
Otupiri et al., 2015; Mo et al., 2021). Surface plasmon waves (SPWs) are
generated when the core mode and the plasmonic wave produced are in
phase, widely known as phase matching (Bodesheim and Otto, 1974;
Liedberg et al., 1983; Slavı́k et al., 1998). Thus, the underlying principle
upon which surface plasmon resonance (SPR) biosensors base their
targeted analyte detection. Tables 1-2b.
Many more options are now available because of the discovery of
photonic crystal fibers (PCFs) (Arhinful et al., 2022; Shah and Kumar,
2019; Biswas et al., 2021a). Because of their unique properties, photonic
crystal fibers (PCFs) are gaining popularity for applications in signal
processing, optical communication systems, and sensing (Kabir et al.,
2020; Biswas et al., 2018; Kaur et al., 2022; Miah et al., 2022). Biswas
et al. reported an ultra-high negative dispersion that cancels accumu­
lated positive material and group velocity dispersion for communication
applications (Biswas et al., 2021b). A dispersion compensating
extremely non-linear photonic crystal fiber was proposed by Mia et al.
for optical transmission systems (Mia et al., 2020). For monitoring air
pollution, Misty et al. proposed a biosensor that utilises photonic crystal
fibers (PCFs) (Misty et al., 2022). A lot of interest has been shown
recently in photonic crystal fiber biosensors that are based on surface
plasmon resonance (SPR) (Azab et al., 2022; Kiroriwal and Singal, 2021;
Akter et al., 2019; Li et al., 2020; Danlard and Akowuah, 2020; Sakib
et al., 2022) because of their benefits such as compact size, design
versatility, managed dispersion, unrestricted single-mode

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: opokugideon562@gmail.com (G. Opoku), idanlard@st.knust.edu.gh (I. Danlard), ekakowuah.coe@knust.edu.gh (E. Kofi Akowuah).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rio.2023.100432
Received 26 January 2023; Received in revised form 8 April 2023; Accepted 15 April 2023
Available online 20 April 2023
2666-9501/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
G. Opoku et al. Results in Optics 12 (2023) 100432

Table 1 fabrication challenges (Chao et al., 2022; Yan et al., 2021).

Proposed Sensor Structural Parameters. This paper presents the design and numerical analysis of a circular
d1 d2 d3 d4 ʌ tg photonic crystal fiber (PCF) biosensor based on surface plasmon reso­
nance (SPR) utilising gold as the plasmonic material for aqueous envi­
0.3 µm 0.55 µm 0.7 µm 0.84 µm 2.4 µm 30 nm
ronments. The finite element method (FEM) is used to examine the
sensing characteristics and performances of the proposed biosensor. The
biosensor demonstrates a wide refractive index range of 1.30 to 1.44,
Table 2a with a maximum wavelength or spectral sensitivity and resolution of
Circumstantial Results of the Proposed Biosensor.
21,000 nm/RIU (Refractive Index Unit) and 9.09×10− 6 RIU (Refractive
Refractive Resonant Wavelength Resolution Index Unit), respectively. Our proposed biosensor is stable and suited for
Index (RI) wavelength shift (dλ) sensitivity (nm/RIU) (RIU)
aqueous surroundings and applications.
4
1.31 10 1000 1.00×10−
4
1.32 10 1000 1.00×10−
4 2. Structural description of the proposed biosensor
1.33 10 1000 1.00×10−
5
1.34 20 2000 5.00×10−
1.35 20 2000 5.00×10− 5
The 2D transversal view and the mesh representation of the proposed
5
1.36 30 3000 3.33×10− structure are depicted in the schematic diagram in Fig. 1(a and b),
5
1.37 40 4000 2.50×10−
5
respectively.
1.38 50 5000 2.00×10−
1.39 70 7000 1.43×10− 5 The proposed biosensor is designed and numerically analysed with
1.40 110 11,000 9.09×10− 6 the full-vectorial finite element method. The geometric parameters have
1.41 150 15,000 6.67×10− 6
been chosen to enhance the strong interaction of the SPP mode and the
6
1.42 180 18,000 5.56×10− core mode according to the fundamental operation principle of PCF-SPR
6
1.43 200 20,000 4.76×10−
6 biosensor. In total, twenty-four (24) air holes with four distinctive sizes
1.44 210 21,000 4.76×10−
are employed in the proposed biosensor’s geometric structure. The di­
ameters of d2 = 0.55 µm, d3 = 0.7 µm and d4 = 0.84 µm have been
selected to confine light at the core region. There is a need to drive the
Table 2b
evanescent field in multiple directions toward the plasmonic substrate
Performance Comparison of with Existing Designed Biosensors.
(gold); therefore, the diameter of d1 = 0.3 µm is positioned near the
Reference Plasmonic RI Wavelength Resolution plasmonic material and is made comparatively small in comparison to
Material Detection Sensitivity
the air holes of d2, d3, and d4. The pitch is fixed at 2.4 µm, and the
Range
symbol tg stands for the thickness of gold that serves as the plasmonic
6
(Kiroriwal and Gold 1.33–1.40 4,500 4.80×10−
material in the proposed structure. The perfectly matched layer (PML) is
Singal, 2021)
(Akter et al., Gold 1.33 – 1.39 5,000 2.00×10− 5 the structure’s outermost layer, absorbing all scattered light.
2019) Because of its mechanical strength and loss absorption loss, the
(Wang and Li, Gold 1.30 – 1.42 8,000 1.30×10− 5
extensively fused silica cladding material is chosen in this design. The
2019) Sellmeier equation is used to calculate the refractive index of the silica.
5
(Chakma et al., Gold 1.34–1.37 9,000 1.11×10−
(Danlard and Akowuah, 2020);
2018)
6
(Mollah et al., Gold 1.34 – 1.40 11,000 9.09×10−
B1 λ 2 B2 λ2 B3 λ 2
2019) n2 (λ) = 1 + 2
+ 2 + 2 (1)
6 λ − C1 λ − C2 λ − C3
(Dhinakaran Gold 1.34 – 1.39 11,000 5.20×10−
et al., 2021)
(Kamrunnahar Gold 1.33 – 1.44 11,200 8.92×10− 6 B(1,2,3) and C(1,2,3) are Sellmeier coefficients, where n and λ are the
et al., 2020) index of refraction and wavelength, respectively. B1 = 0.696166300, B2
(Nuzhat et al., Gold 1.30 – 1.41 12,000 8.33×10− 6
= 0.407942600, B3 = 0.897479400, C1 = 0.00467914826, C2 =
2022) 0.0135120631 and C3 = 97.9340025 are the coefficient values, which
6
(Mahabubur Gold 1.33 – 1.37 13,000 7.69×10−
account for the material dispersion of the fiber.
Rahman et al.,
2020) Characterisation of the dielectric constant of plasmonic material
(Wang et al., Gold 1.27 – 1.33 13,500 7.41×10− 6 (gold) is done by employing the Drude – Lorentz equation (Sakib et al.,
2018) 2022);
6
(Sakib, 2020) Gold 1.40 – 1.46 16,000 6.25×10−
6
(Haque et al., Gold 1.18 – 1.36 20,000 5.00×10− ω2D Δε.Ω2L
2018) εAU = ε∞ − − (2)
6
ω(ω + jγD ) (ω − Ω2L ) + jΓL ω
2
Our proposed Gold 1.30 – 1.44 21,000 9.09×10−
biosensor
εAU is defined as the permittivity of gold, ε∞ = 5.9673 is known as the
permittivity of gold at high frequency, and the angular frequency is
communication, electromagnetic distribution resistance, scaled-down defined as ω = 2π c/λ where the velocity of light is denoted as c. The
size, and lightweight (De et al., 2019). Researchers are investigating plasma frequency is defined as ωD = 2113.6 THz × 2π , the damping
surface plasmon resonance (SPR) sensing via PCF to simplify the frequency is defined as γD = 15.92 THz × 2π and the weighting factor
complexity of conventional biosensors. Photonic crystal fibers (PCFs) is denoted as Δε = 1.09. The Lorentz oscillator strength and spectral
have been demonstrated to be a reliable prism replacement (Hossain width are defined as .ΩL = 650.07 × 2π THz and ΓL = 104.86 ×
et al., 2019). 2π THz , respectively.
Among the reported biosensor structures is the D-shaped, which cuts
down and reduces the amount of metal coating. However, D-shaped 3. Results of simulation and discussion
structures can only be realised through precise polishing process to
eliminate a predetermined proportion of the PCF (Biplob Hossain, 2020; The simulation outcomes of the proposed biosensor’s performance
Zhang et al., 2020; Zhao et al., 2022). Other biosensor profiles also parameters are presented in this section. Key performance parameters,
incorporate air holes of elliptical nature, and numerous smaller air holes such as wavelength sensitivity and sensor resolution, may be computed
deliberately positioned in precise regions of these biosensors pose by calculating confinement loss. Evaluating the confinement loss is a

2
G. Opoku et al. Results in Optics 12 (2023) 100432

Fig. 1. (a) Structure in 2D view (b) Finer mesh FEM view.

preliminary step in determining the performance of a PCF-SPR

biosensor. The equation below describes confinement loss (Owusu
Mensah et al., 2022):

α(dB/cm) = 8.68 × KO × Im(ηeff ) × 104 (3)

Ko = 2/λ, with Im(neff ) denoting the imaginary portion.

The proposed structure’s x-polarized and y-polarized mode electric
field distributions, seen in Fig. 2(a and b), is accurately determined using
a finer mesh (b). The electric field intensity is highly concentrated in the
core region, indicating that the bulk of the light wave is confined there.
An evanescent field induces SPW when an electromagnetic wave travels
through the core, and an evanescent field creates SPW when it comes
into contact with the plasmonic interface. The SPWs travel through the
plasmonic material surface as they travel parallel to the interface, hence
the basic premise upon which PCF-SPR biosensors function. When the
fundamental mode of core and the mode of SPP are frequency matched,
a deep confinement loss peak appears, and the greatest energy is
transferred. Even minor changes in target sample RI cause significant
shifts in the loss curve. An unknown target sample or analyte can be
found through either a loss variation or a shifting peak.
The plot of the dispersion relationship between the core mode and Fig. 3. Dispersion relation of core-guided mode and SPP mode.
the first-order SPP mode when RI is 1.35 in Fig. 3. The real part of the
SPP mode intersects that of the real part of the core mode at the phase
the propagation constant and the kinetic binding energy simultaneously
matching point. It can be observed that the SPP mode establishes the
alter when RI is varied. The wavelength sensitivity can be used as a
resonance condition. From the EM field distribution in Fig. 3, the first-
metric to evaluate sensor performance. It is described as follows (Shaf­
order SPP mode can be identified to be tightly distributed across the
kat, 2020)
boundary of the plasmonic material (gold). At the phase matching point,
maximum energy is recorded for the SPP mode. The EM field distribu­ ∂λpeak
Sλ = (nm/RIU) (4)
tion of the SPP mode is displayed in Fig. 2(c). Figs. 4–7. ∂na

3.1. Performance evaluation based on analyte variation
The confinement loss is a plot of the wavelength in operation when
the RI of the analyte changes. It is seen that as the analyte’s RI is varied
incremental, the confinement loss increases, and the resonance peak
moves towards a higher value. This happens as a result of the fact that
∂λpeak is the defined peak resonance shift, whereas ∂na is the change in
analyte refractive index.
The resolution of a biosensor is the smallest change in the amount to
be measured, resulting in a discernible change in sensor output. The
resolution is expressed as (Danlard and Akowuah, 2020)

Fig. 2. (a) EM field distribution x-pol (b) EM field distribution y-pol core mode (c) EM field distribution of SPP mode.

3
G. Opoku et al. Results in Optics 12 (2023) 100432

Fig. 4. Confinement loss spectra with the variation of the thickness of the plasmonic layer for 30 nm for analyte RI of 1.30 to 1.44 at x-pol mode.

Fig. 5. Confinement loss spectra with the variation of the thickness of the plasmonic layer for 40 nm for analyte RI of 1.30 to 1.44 at x-pol mode.

∂na × ∂λmin
R(λ, na ) = (RIU)
∂λpeak
∂λmin is denoted as the minimal change in the wavelength operation at an
analyte refractive index, the drift in peak resonant wavelength of two
consecutive loss peaks is denoted as ∂λpeak , and the refractive index of
two-loss peaks difference is denoted na .
The accompanying variations in loss peak wavelength by adjusting
the confinement loss curve are recorded and summarised in Table 2. The
maximum resolution attained was 9.09×10− 6 RIU when the RI was set
(5)
to 1.40, and the average wavelength sensitivity found was 7928.57 nm/
RIU.
3.2. Performance evaluation in relation to thickness of plasmonic layer
Selecting a plasmonic material that can generate free electrons for
strong interaction between the core and SPP mode is essential for
boosting biosensor performance and metal layer thickness, which may

4
G. Opoku et al. Results in Optics 12 (2023) 100432

Fig. 6. Confinement loss spectra with the variation of the thickness of the plasmonic layer for 50 nm for analyte RI of 1.30 to 1.43 at x-pol mode.

Fig. 7. Confinement loss spectra with the variation of the thickness of the plasmonic layer for 60 nm for analyte RI of 1.30 to 1.39 at x-pol mode.

also increase sensitivity. Due to gold’s resistance to oxidation, it is used
as a plasmonic coating for our proposed biosensor. Specifically, we have
considered gold layers of 30 nm, 40 nm, 50 nm, and 60 nm in thickness.
The maximal wavelength sensitivities that could be realised with a gold
layer thickness of 30 nm were 21,000 nm/RIU for the x polarisation
mode and 17,000 nm/RIU for the y polarisation mode when the
refractive index was 1.44. When the thickness of the gold layer was
modified to 40 nm, the highest wavelength sensitivity at RI 1.44 for the
x and y polarisation modes was found to be 20,000 nm/RIU and 17,000
nm/RIU, respectively. Adjusting the thickness of the gold layer to 50 nm
yielded the highest wavelength sensitivities for x and y polarisation
modes at RI 1.43 of 20,000 nm/RIU and 16,000 nm/RIU, respectively.
At a refractive index of 1.39 and 1.41, the maximum wavelength sen­
sitivities attainable for x and y polarisation modes with a gold layer
thickness of 60 nm were 7,000 nm/RIU and 8,000 nm/RIU, respectively.
Our findings depict that the curve shifts as plasmonic thickness increase
for 30 nm, 40 nm, 50 nm, and 60 nm; therefore, the wavelength sensi­
tivities of the biosensor decrease. The inference is that as the gold layer’s

5
G. Opoku et al.
thickness increases, the evanescent field cannot pass through the thick
gold layer, which limits the effective coupling between the core and the
SPP modes. Consequently, applying a 30 nm thin coating of gold de­
creases damping loss and improves performance.
3.3. Comparison of performance with existing designs
Comparisons are made regarding sensing range, wavelength sensi­
tivity, and resolution. The table below contrasts the capabilities of our
proposed biosensor with those of other existing biosensor designs in the
field of research. Our proposed biosensor has the highest wavelength or
spectral sensitivity of 21,000 nm/RIU, 9.09×10− 6 RIU resolution, and a
wide refractive index range of 1.30 to 1.44. Therefore, makes it an
outstanding candidate for detecting various samples in diverse sensing
applications.
4. Conclusion
In conclusion, this paper proposed designing and analysing a sensi­
tive circular photonic crystal fiber (PCF) biosensor based on surface
plasmon resonance (SPR) with significant performance in refractive
index range, wavelength sensitivity and resolution for biosensor appli­
cations. PCFs are a particularly excellent fiber for surface plasmon
resonance (SPR) based sensing schemes thanks to their several note­
worthy features, including their ability for miniaturisation and remote
sensing resilience. The proposed biosensor has a straightforward geo­
metric profile. The results of the proposed biosensor demonstrate a wide
refractive index range of 1.30 to 1.44, with the highest spectral sensi­
tivity as 21,000 nm/RIU and a maximum resolution of 9.09 × 10− 6 RIU.
Our biosensor is befitting for wide-range industrial biosensing applica­
tions and convenient for aqueous environments.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
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