UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS School of Civil Engineering CIVE5170M ICME/EPM DISSERTATION Submitted in accordance with the requirement for the degree of: Master of Science (Engineering) in Engineering Project Management The Skills, Knowledge and Behaviours Required for Managing Complex Engineering Projects in Ghana By Word Count:21,886 (Chapters 1-7)DECLARATION ‘The candidate confirms that the work submitted is her own and that appropriate credit has been given where reference has been made to the work of others.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Jam very grateful to my supervisor, EEE for his constant support, guidance and feedback during the course of this dissertation. | would also like to thank David Dawson for offering the requisite information during the CIVE5170 M ICME / EPM dissertation module, which formed the basis for writing this dissertation. ‘Additionally, | am grateful to my family for their immense support throughout the academic year. Finally, | am thankful to all the respondents who engaged in the survey and made a significant contribution to the study amid their hectic schedules.ABSTRACT This research was an exploratory study of the competencies required by Ghanaian project managers for managing complex engineering projects. The research was centred on the issues impacting Ghana's complex projects and their changing existence, this included a Ghana-specific skills, behaviours and knowledge framework to assist engineering organisations in improving their in-house competency base and enhancing the recruitment process for project managers into complex project organisations. The competency framework wasestablished from the perspectives of project managers a qualitative analysis which may help project managers strengthen their individual competency profiles for complex projects. Keywords: competency, framework, complex projectsTable of Contents DECLARATION i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. ....c.sosesesseee ii ABSTRACT. CHAPTER ONE Il INTRODUCTION... L Introduction .......cnsnnnnnnnnnnsnnnnnnnnnnnnnsnn I 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Problem Statement.........000snsnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnsnn I 1.3 Aims and Objectives 2 13.1 Aim 1.3.2 Objectives. 1.4 Overview of Research Methodology. 1.5 Project Scope... 16 Limitations 1.7 Outline of Research... CHAPTER TWO COMPLEX ENGINEERING PROJECTS 2 Introduction.. 2.1 Classi ln yw we wR cation of Engineering Projects 2.2 Complex Engineering Projects 2.3 Complexity in Project Management 5 5 6 7 8 2.4 Classifications of Complexity in Engineering Projects. 2.4.1 Organisational complexity 2.4.2 Environmental complexity ....e..em ee eeeeeeeae 10) 2.4.3 Technological complexity. 10 2.4.4 Goal complexity... 2.4.5 Cultural complexity. 10 2.4.6 Information complexity 41 2.5 Managing Complex Projects in Developing Countries. Ml 2.5.1 Inadequate project management knowledge. 2.5.2 Financial and economic environment ...-..cennnnnnnnnnnnne eoeeeeeeererid 2.5.3 Human resources 2.5.4 Appropriate technology...2.5.5 Socio-cultural factors 12 2.5.6 Corruption and bribery 43 2.6 Challenges of Project Management in Ghana........ 1B 2.7 Conclusion 14 CHAPTER THREE 16 SKILLS, KNOWLEDGE AND BEHAVIOURS OF THE PROJECT MANAGER.......16 3 Introduction 16 3.1 The Project Manager. 16 3.2 Concept of Competence. 16 3.3 Traditional Project Management Competencies 7 3.3.1 Skills required for mani engineering projects ....rnmnnnnnnmnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnee DB 3.3.2 Behaviours required for managing engineering project...» 3.3.3 Knowledge required for managing engineering projects .....muennnnnnnnnnnnn 20 3.4 Project Manager Competencies in Complex Projects 2 3.5 The Cultural Impact 24 3.6 Conclusion 24 CHAPTER FOUR 26 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 26 4 Introduction 26 4.1 Research Design 27 4.1.1 Philosophies .. 4.1.2 Approaches. 4.1.3 Research purpose... 4.2 Research Methodology 29 4.2.1 Research strategy 29 4.2.2 CHOICES es 4.2.3 Time horizons... 4.3 Data Collection 32 4.3.4 Research instruments ..rcrnnnnnennmnnnnnnninnenninmnnninnnnnnnnnnnn 2 4.3.2 Sample size 33 4.4 Dat AMAIYSIS....c enemies 34 4.5 Research Ethics 35 4.5.1 Informed consent. 35 45.2 Voluntary participation 36 4.5.3 Confidentiality...4.5.4 Risk and harm to participants. 36 36 (4G. Ay Tangiers es teres teen ee eee eee eee te ee 36 4.6.2 Member validation. 37 4.7 Conclusion 37 CHAPTER FIVE 38 DATA ANALYSIS 38 5 Introduction 38 5.1 Data Collection Overview. 38 Data Analysis Phase 1: Template Analysis........... 39 5.2.1 Data preparation 39 5.2.1.1 Interview transcriptions and response S0rting.....u.0-emmnnnnnnnnnennnsnnie39 5.2.1.2 Data Familiarisation....... 5.21.3 Defining a Priori themes...» 5.2.2 Coding procedure. 5.2.3 Template design... eee eee eee ere earns eee eel} 5.3 Data Analysis Phase 2: Statistical Analysis AL 5.3.1 Engineering Complexity Factors in Ghana. a2 5.3.2 Project Manager Competencies ... 5.4 Conclusion CHAPTER SIX ....cssennnintnnnnnnnnnninnnnnsn 49 DISCUSSION 49 6 Introduction 49 6.1 Challenges of Complex Engineering Projects in Ghana 49 6.1.1 Step 1: Data triangulation results... 6.1.2 Step 2: Key challenges hindering complex engineering projects in Ghana. sa 6.2. Project Manager Competencies. 54 6.2.1 Category A: Competencies identified in both Ghana and internationally ........nnne54 6.2.2 Category B: Competencies identified in Ghana only 55 6.2.3 Category C: Competencies from the published literature only 55 6.2.4 Proposed skills for managing complex engineering projects in Ghana. 55 6.2.5 Proposed Behaviours for managing complex engineering projects in Ghana 57 6.2.6 Proposed knowledge for managing complex engineering projects in Ghana 58 6.3 Recommended Solutions for Challenges of Complex Projects in Ghana 59 6.4 Developing Competencies........c0onennnnnnenn 61 vi6.5 Conclusion ssnstntnnennatnintnnnntnanenesnese 62 CHAPTER SEVEN 63 CONCLUSION ....ocsnsnnsnnsninnninnsnninnnnsnnnnsnsnin 63 7 Introduction 63 7.1 Conclusior 63 7.1.1 Objective achievements... 68 7.1.2 Achievement of overall aim...... 64 7.2 Limitations of the study 64 7.3 Theoretical Knowledge Contributions. 65 7.4 Practical Knowledge Contributions 65 7.5 Recommendation for Future Research. 66 [REFERENCES |e n ee eet et cent cere eee 67 APPENDICES, 73 Appendix A-Ethics Approval Form. B Appendix B: Risk Assessment Form 7B Appendix C -Cover Letter for Online Questionnaire 88 Appendix D : Structure of Open-ended Questionnaire Including Responses from Participants...88 Appendix E: Interview Transcripts...... 109 Appendix F:Summary Of Project Locations of Participants. 116 Appendix G-Coding ProceSs ......vnunennnnin ssentnninnnnnsinnnnnnnsne AT Appendix H:lnitial Template Analysis Results. 120 Appendix |: Final Template Analysis the Competencies Required for Managing Complex Engineering Projects in Ghana. 122 Appendix J: Initial Challenge-Competency Relationship Table 125 Appendix K: Feedback From Some Participants. 125 vilList of Tables Table 3.1:Overview of the skills required for managing engineering projects. 18 Table 3.2: Overview of behaviours required for managing complex projects. 20 Table 3.3: Knowledge required for managing projects. 21 Table 3.4:Complex project competencies... 23 Table 4.1: A summary of the research methodology. 37 Table 5.1 : Summary of the professional background of sample population, 38 Table 5.2: Data triangulation results for challenges faced by PMs in Ghana, 43 Table 5.3a: Data triangulation results for the skills required for managing complex engineering projects in Ghana. AS Table 5.3b: Data triangulation results for the Knowledge required for managing complex engineering projects in Ghana.. 46 Table 5.3c: Data triangulation results for the behaviours required for managing complex engineering projects in Ghana. AT Table 6.1: Categories of challenges facing complex projects in Ghana according to their sources......49 Table 6.2: Categories of competencies according to their sources. SA Table 6.3 : The established relationship between competencies and complex project challenges in Ghana.. 160 List of Figures Figure 2.1 :Classfication of engineering projects. 5 Figure 2.2: An analytical network process structure for complexity of project: 9 Figure 4.1 : An overview of the research process. 2B Figure 4.2: The Research onion, a7 Figure 4.3: Methodological choices 31 Figure 4.4: Ethical research principles 35 Figure 5.1: Primary themes and sub-themes established from raw data.... Figure 5.3: Template analysis outcome for the competencies required for managing complex engineering projects in Ghana. Figure 6.1: A conceptual competency framework for managing engineering complex projects in Cha eres 61 viiLIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS APM cpm cscpM Ice PM pmBok Pmco PMI PMs AfDB UK Association for Project Management College of Complex Project Managers Competency Criteria for Complex Project Managers Individual Competency Baseline Project Manager Project Management Body of Knowledge Project Manager Competency Development Framework Project Management Institute Project Managers African Development Bank United KingdomCHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1 Introduction ‘The primary objective of this research is to impact the field of project management in Ghana. However, the aim of this chapter is to outline how the prime objective was accomplished. This is achieved by presenting the background of the research which addresses the process of managing complex engineering projects in Ghana, This chapter also contains the problem statement for the dissertation, the scope of the research as well as the aims and objectives. There is also an outline of the rest of the dissertation presented in this chapter. 1.1 Background Engineering projects have evolved over the years from simple and regular projects to complex projects (smith, 2008; Kerzner, 2013). Therefore, the influence of project managers (PMs) in the implementation of complex engineering projects in Ghana has been proven as relevant (Venter 2005). Over the years, project management in Ghana has advanced into a standard scientific approach to the management of programmes, projects and systems which is quite different from the traditional management of these entities (Venter, 2005; Adjei-Kumi and Ahadzie,2012; Ahadzie and Proverbs ,2009). Therefore, project management standards ensure that the objectives of every project are duly accomplished (Adjei-Kumi and Ahadzie,2012; Kalinova,2007). Eventually, project management has developed into a relevant instrument for advancing Ghana's economic development aspirations. However, using projects as an instrument for fulfilling Ghana’s developmental goals has not been as rewarding as expected as PMs in Ghana face several challenges (Venter, 2005). Additionally, a consistent correlation has been established between the project manager (PM) andthe performance of the project, demonstrating that the project manager’s expertise, knowledge and behaviour are essential for project success (Kalinova ,2007 jEhsan et al., 2010; Alias et al.,2014 ; Ernst and Young, 2011). Although the complexity of engineering projects in Ghana is rapidly growing (Venter,2005), research on the skills, knowledge and behaviours relevant for managing complex engineering projects in Ghana is lacking (Adjet-Kumi and Ahadzie,2012). 11.2 Problem Statement Previously, project management reports concentrated primarily on Europe, North America and Asia (Maylor, 2005; Smith, 2008; Kerzner, 2013). Few of these studies centred on project management issues in Africa, and very few of the papers reviewed project management in Ghana. To date there has been no specific research to assess the output of the Ghana-based complex projects or to find solutions to the challenges of PMs in Ghana (Venter, 2005). Although there has been some previous studies on ethics and unethical practices in project management (Amponsah, 2010; Azeem,2009; Mawenya,2008), PM issues in Ghana need to be studied because projects are relevant for development of the Ghanaian economy (Venter, 2005). 1Additionally, the performance of project management in developing nations, including Ghana, has, i; Ahadzie,2012). This has resulted in the delivery failure of v: projects as well as low revenue generation from projects (Venter, 2005). Furthermore, this deficiency seems to aggravate those very under-developmental aspects of the economy that the execution of projects were meant to alleviate (Ahadzie and Proverbs,2009; AfDB,2006 ). Furthermore, engineering projects often face manageability issues due to their complexity factors (Leijten, 2009, Maylor, 2005; PMI, 2013). Similarly, many studies have found that there is a linear correlation between the complexity of an engineering project and project failure ( Bosch-Reckveldt et al., 2011; Bakker et al., 2012). been quite weak (Adjei-Ku Generally, a significant amount of research work has been published on the various skills, knowledge and behaviours required for managing regular engineering projects (Ndhlovu and Weeks, 2013; Jalocha et al,, 2014; Desmond, 2012; Sicotte and Bourgault, 2001; Hancock, 2004; Jalocha et al., 2014; Desmond, 2012). However, the amount of published work regarding the skills, knowledge and behaviours required for managing complex engineering projects may not be as significant (Trivellas and Drimoussis, 2013). Furthermore, there is currently no published research on the skills, knowledge and behaviours required for managing complex engineering projects in Ghana. Hence, the significance of this research. 1.3 Aims and Objectives 1.3.1. Aim ‘The main aim of this research is to propose the appropriate skills, knowledge and behaviours required for managing complex engineering projects in Ghana. The fundamental question to be addressed by the research would be: “What skills, knowledge and behaviours are required for managing complex engineering projects in Ghana?” 1.3.2 Objectives ‘This research also seeks to contribute to the gap in knowledge by establishing the knowledge and skills required for managing complex engineering projects in Ghana, The objectives of the research include: '* To identify the challenges of managing complex engineering projects in Ghana. + To establish the relevant skills, knowledge and behaviours for dealing with the challenges identified. ‘*To develop a conceptual framework of the skills, knowledge and behaviours for managing complex projects in Ghana, ‘To contribute to the project management body of knowledge by proposing new information on the knowledge, skills and behaviours required for managing complex engineering projects in Ghana, 1.4 Overview of Research Methodology Primary data was obtained through semi-structured online interviews and open-ended online questionnaires with PMs and other engineering practitioners in Ghana. Accordingly, a two- phase analysis was adopted for the analysis process. The data collected was analysed through template analysis in the first stage. The next stage then focused on statistical findings and data 2triangulation, using secondary data from the existing literature on complex engineering challenges and competencies required to address them. ‘The research methodology is set to be elaborated in Chapter 4, which addresses and explains the research philosophy, strategy, choice, approach, time horizon and procedure for data collection and analysis, 5 Project Scope This study begins by reviewing the current literature about the complexity component of engineering projects. This involves defining the diverse complexity variables that shape engineering projects. In addition, particular consideration will be given to the issues concerning developing countries since Ghana is a developing country. Subsequently, the research will review the established competencies (skills, behaviours, and knowledge) necessary for PMs to handle complex projects in Ghana. Hence, this study aims to examine the skills, behaviours and knowledge required for Ghanaian PMs. These will be expanded and contrasted with the existing literature to assess the relevance of these competencies and to define Ghana-specific competencies. Further, a theoretical framework will be developed to demonstrate the basic competencies for PMs in Ghana. Lastly, recommendations would be presented regarding the potential application of this framework in Ghana. 1.6 Limitations This research focuses specifically on the competencies (skills, behaviours , and knowledge) that PMs need to oversee complex engineering projects in Ghana, While these competencies would be juxtaposed with those found in the current literature , the author assumes that these competencies will be influenced by the Ghanaian culture, especially the behavioural components of a PM. However, there will be investigations into the challenges of complex engineering projects in Ghana to aid in developing an appropriate framework of competencies for PMs in Ghana. Also, the author surveyed a limited number of participants due time constraints. Chapter 4 would expand on the reason for data collection methods. 1.7 Outline of Research ‘This dissertation comprises seven chapters which has been summarised below: Chapter One: This is an introduction to the research. It also contains the research background, research problem, aims and objectives, as well as a methodology overview. Addit nally, the scope and limitations of the research are provided. Chapter Two: This reviews the existing literature on complex engineering projects. The various complexity indicators for both developed and developing nations as well as internationally published complex engineering challenges are explored. Chapter Three: This chapter discusses the current literature on the competencies required by PMs to execute various complex projects with regard to skills, behaviours and knowledge. Chapter Four: The study methodology is presented by going over the author's research design and techniques employed to accomplish the purpose of this study. This chapter also looks at the ethical aspects, reliability and validity of this study. 3Chapter Five: This chapter contains the researcher's data analysis procedure reporting the findings obtained from the primary data gathered in Ghana. The validation of the findings is also covered in this chapter. Chapter Six: Discusses the outcomes of the data analysis process in order to establish a competency framework for PMs to handle complex projects in Ghana. In addition, recommendations are given about the effectiveness of the framework. Chapter Seven: Provides the final conclusion in line with the Dissertation's aims and objectives as well as the study limitations. Finally, more recommendations for the study is provided.CHAPTER TWO COMPLEX ENGINEERING PROJECTS 2 Introduction In recent times, the rapid rates of urbanisation have led to an increase in large-scale projects with significant funds invested in infrastructure development (Hu et al., 2012; World Bank, 2010).However, Large-scale projects turn out to be extremely complex (Chan et al., 2004). Therefore, a PM's incompetence often leads to problems such as low performance, increased costs, and delays in the schedules of these projects (Kennedy et al., 2011; Thomas and Mengel, 2008). Accordingly, understanding and assessing project complexity is critical in large-scale projects asit acts as a guideline for decision-makers and PMs (He et al., 2014). Additionally, the evolution of the idea of complexity has demonstrated that organisations and projects can indeed be complex and perceived as complex structures (Remington et al., 2009). In today's increasingly changing world, the complexity of projects is increasing substantially due to developments in technology and innovative ways of operating. Conversely, the degree of complexity is generally determined by intuition; specifically, by considering the complexity of the project to certain types of projects within the same sector (Kermanshachi et al . , 2016). This lack of scale and error of judgement of the concept has led in other areas to detailed experiments and analysis to better quantify and appreciate what renders a project complex and difficult to manage(Luo et al., 2014) ‘The purpose of Chapter 2 is to examine published literature on project complexity in engineering as, well as other classifications of engineering projects. The author describes project complexity from an engineering perspective prior to discussing the effects of complexity on the project management process. In addition, classifications of complexity covering both advanced and developing countries are considered, Lastly , the author discusses the challenges faced by project managers in managing complex engineering projects in Ghana as well as internationally. 2.1 Classification of Engineering Projects A classification of engineering projects is necessary in the quest to comprehend project complexity and its related elements. A study by Snowden and Boone (2007) suggested that engineering projects can be classified into four depending on the how predictable the results may be. These contexts are summarised in the figure below Engineering Projects Lom | “ Figure 2.1 :Classification of engineering projects (Snowden and Boone, 2007). 5The classifications outlined in figure 2.1 were further interpreted by Appelo (2008) and Paterson (2008) as follows: Simple Easily comprehensible Complicated : Not basic but comprehensible Complex Not entirely comprehensible, yet predictable Chaotic: incomprehensible and unpredictable ‘The concept of simple project engineering is defined as “knowable” (Appelo, 2008 ; Snowden and Boone, 2007; Paterson, 2006). Essentially, these projects take a linear course and are predictable (Paterson, 2006). Other characteristics may include repeated patterns and recurring events; simple cause-effect correlations that are apparent to all with accurate responses as well as fact-based management. However, complicated projects may contain multiple correct responses as opposed to simple ones, and although the causes and effects are clearly interrelated, everyone cannot see them, ‘The complicated context requires consideration of several options (Snowden and Boone, 2007). In the chaotic concept, it will be futile to search for the correct answers. The relationship involving cause and effect is difficult to establish as they continuously transform, and no strategic structure exists only chaos. This is the domain of the unknowns (Snowden and Boone, 2007). Finally, there is at least one right answer in a complicated context, however, itis not possible to give correct answers in complex contexts, only emerging instructive patterns. Variability and uncertainty are also characteristic of this context (Appelo,2008; Snowden and Boone, 2007). However, this dissertation is focused on complex engineering projects. Although there is no standard definition for complex projects (Sinha et al., 2001; Kermanshachi et al., 2016), a complex project may be described as one that exhibits a variety of characteristics to an alarming extent, making it difficult toestimate and regulate project outcomes. The features of complex projects may include high degrees of interconnectivity, irregularities, adaptability and evolution (Luo et al,, 2017). Recommendations made by Bosch-Reckveldt et al. (2011) and Remington and Pollack (2007) originate the justification for focusing on complex engineering projects in this research rather than the other classifications. These researchers proposed further evaluation on the competencies of PMs in ‘managing complex projects which is still subject to a lot of theoretical study. Moreover, Ghana has no records of the competencies required for managing such projects (Venter, 2005; Amponsah, 2010). 2.2 Complex Engineering Projects Complexity is a wide-ranging term that can apply to any field. Hence, a plethora of knowledge on it However, there is very limited published literature in the construction industry regarding complexity (Whitty and Maylor, 2009) as there has been a lack of clarity on the meaning of the term, or how to assess it (Sinha et al., 2001). Furthermore, previously published literature account for no standardised definition of complexity. It is well established, however, that complexity is subjective to the individual's perspective. Additionally, complexity is often contextual, and varies with each researcher, making quantification challenging (Luo et al,, 2017). In the engineering sector , project performance is traditionally low in terms of quality, time, and cost (Bertelsen, 2003). It is also widely believed that 6basis for the poor outcome of projects is the design and construction process which are usually ini, 1996; Mills, 2001). Thus, recognisit efficiently it can be managed is essential for the project's performance in terms of quality budget and time (Jarkas, 2017;Wood and Ashton,2009 ). complex (Baccar 1g the complexity of the project and how ‘There are a variety of interpretations and definitions regarding the term “complexity”. The Cambridge English dictionary defines complex as “involving a lot of different but related parts” or "difficult to understand or find an answer to because of having many different parts". Several researchers have established their own interpretation of what project complexity is based on the concept of these definitions. The dictionary description further stresses that it should be recognised that the term complex is used at certain times where the intended term could be "complicated", Complex is mostly used to imply that something comprises of several parts, rather than being difficult to comprehend, analyse or address which is the inherent meaning of complicated (Wood and Ashton, 2009). Moreover, Baccarini (1996) proposed to describe complexity of the projects as "composed by multiple interrelated parts and capable of being operationalised in terms of distinction and interdependence." Baccarri (1996) also stated that the above description may apply to all project dimensions, including organisation , environment, knowledge, technology, decisions and systems, which are relevant to the project administration process. ‘Additionally, other studies have attempted to build on previously published literature, offering a general perspective on the non-linearity and unpredictable nature of complex engineering projects. Vidal et al. (2011) interpreted the complexity of the project as the quality of a project that makes it difficult to comprehend, predict and manage its overall activities , even after being offered a detailed information on the project structure. Given the various definitions, most studies have related the word complexity to the degree of uncertainty and unpredictability of projects (Mills,2001; Wood and Ashton, 2009), ‘The complexity of a project may also be defined as the inherent features of a project resulting from its respective interrelated components (Xia and Chan, 2012). The nature of the challenge includes dynamism and ambiguity (Baccarini, 1996; Geraldi and Adlbrecht, 2007), manifested predominantly in activities and organisational complexities (Baccarini, 1996; Li et al., 2009). Additionally, several authors have sought to evaluate the complexity of projects through surveys and case studies (Remington et al. 2009; He et al.,2015). However, previous research regarding the management of project complexity is minimal since most research focused on project complexity concepts only (Maylor et al., 2008; Sinha et al., 2006). 2.3 Complexity in Project Management The Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) describes project management as "the application of knowledge, skills, tools and techniques to project activities to meet project requirements (PMBOK, 2008 }. The project manager is therefore entrusted with the entire delivery of the project (Burke, 2003). This description specifically defines the project 's aim as being to fulfil the needs and expectations of the stakeholders. However, the complexity approach to the project management process seems constrained to a certain degree, since there is no generally accepted research analysis on complex project management as well as no established model assessing complexity in the field of construction (Yao and Li, 2009).Correspondingly, He et al . (2012) stated that the management of project complexity, which also has a significant role to play in the success of complex engineering projects is an essential part of project management. Furthermore, Wood and Ashton (2009) established that project management is seen as a clear and concise process in which the project is categorised into interdependent contracts, roles, work packages, and tasks. Certain project management guidelines such as those in the PMBOK and ‘the Association for Project Management (APM) stipulate that a project is a systematic mechanism in which stages of the project lifecycle (i.e. Concept, Design, Execution, and Commission) are organised in a linear and progressive manner whereby the characteristics of the surrounding environment are not analysed. Conversely, Bertelsen (2003) indicated that one of the main myths about construction projects is the perception that construction as a structured, sequential, and coordinated process that may be easily scheduled and managed, He concluded that the high number of project failures signifies that construction is in fact a complex, unpredictable, and non-linear operation that often occurs at the possibility of uncertainty (Bertelsen, 2003). It is important to first define which factors make the project complex before any measure of complexity can be obtained (Wood and Ashton, 2009 ) Moreover, Gidado (1996 ) stated that the industry seems to have two perspectives on the scope of the projects: the managerial perspective involving the organising of bringing together several parts of the project to form the work flow and the operational and technological context concerning technical intricacies or challenges in the production of individual work objects. This could originate from the tools used and the setting in which the research is done. In the following points, Baccarini (1996) stressed the significance of complexity in the project management process: ‘+The complexity of the project helps to determine requirements for planning , coordination and control. . Complexity is an essential factor for selecting a suitable organizational structure of a project. + Project complexity affects project input collection, e.g. management staff's skills and experience requirements. fe Complexity is also used as criterion in the selection of appropriate project procurement systems. . Complexity affects scheduling, cost and quality of the project objectives. The greater the complexity of the project the higher the cost and time requirements, 2.4 Classifications of Complexity in Engineering Projects Previous studies were primarily involved in determining the different elements of the complexity of in the construction industry however, these studies failed to reach a consensus. Gidado (1996), Lillieskold and Eklstedt (2003), among others, analysed the complexity of the project from a solely technical perspective. Conversely, Antoniadis (2012) proposed that complexity must also be considered from a non-technical point of view and should include organisational and behavioural aspects. Further, Xian and Chan (2012) linked complexity of engineering to the structure of the project, project function, construction techniques, project schedule importance, project scope, geological factors as well as external environment. Additionally, the skills and the knowledge of members of the organisation, the organisational structure of the project , the relationship between the stakeholders, 8the project implementation process as well as project culture may also be related to complexity (Remington and Pollack, 2007). Furthermore, Maylor et al . (2008) correlated complexity with the objective of the project, the organisation, the implementation process, the various stakeholders and the team members. Baccarini (1996) was among the pioneers of research into project complexity. His research identified ‘two dimensions: Organizational and technological which involves where project complexity may occur and how it may vary (Baccarini, 1996; Dunovic et al. , 2014; Lessard, 2013) . Conversely, a research by Remington and Pollack (2007 ) established four dimensions of project complexity. These included structural complexity, technical complexity temporal Complexity and directional complexity. The dimensions of complexity in engineering projects are essential and relevant as they affect the project life cycle and the overall approach towards project management (Remington and Pollack 2007; Remington et al . , 2009; Sense, 2014). Furthermore, the correlation between project management and project complexity dimensions is an important step towards determining the PM's necessary competences for managing such projects. Proceeding from these studies, a six-category project complexity structure composed of organisational, environmental, technological, information, cultural and goal complexities for Ghana. ‘The figure 2.2 below ,provides a summary of the dimensions considered and how they are interlinked (He et al,, 2015; Nguyen et al., 2015) complexities is suggested in this research for assessing the complexity of complex project: Project complex Control layer Network layer al Organizational ‘complexity Goal \\ ‘Technological complexity Cultrat Environmental complexity complesity Figure 2.2: An Analytical Network Process Structure for Complexity of Projects (He et al,2015) ‘The diagram above indicates that, the various components of each complexity category are interlinked with the components in other categories. Furthermore, the components of each category influence those in other categories of project complexity, hence, the arrows connecting them. Additionally, thecomponents within all but information complexity interact with all other components within their category to cause project complexity (He et al,,2015), 2.4.1 Organisational complexity Organisational complexity concerns the hierarchy of the project team, its structure , composition and expertise of the members (Sense, 2014; Bosch-Rekveldt et al., 2011). Other considerations related to organisational complexity include stakeholders, the management system and strategy as well as the strategic path. Correspondently, the number of stakeholders engaging in an engineering project may augment its complexity substantially due to varied expectations. Thus, When the project becomes more challenging with a wider scope and time constraint, the organisational complexity increases (Breuin et al., 1996; Antoniadis et al.,2012) 2.4.2 Environmental complexity Environmental factors derived from the project surroundings contribute to the complexity of projects. Some researchers have addressed environmental complexity relating to construction projects, describing to it as the complexity resulting from the project environment. This aspect of complexity relates to issues with indirect impacts on the project, such as climate, ecology, politics, religion, socio- cultural issues, market conditions and regulatory aspects. (Aubry et al., 2007; Nguyen et al., 2015, PMI,2013; Abednego and Ogunlana, 2006; Sense, 2014; Wood, 2006; Remington and Pollack, 2007; Antoniadis, 2013; Jiang and Pretori,2016). Nevertheless, the extent of predictability in comparison with the adhered ambiguity of these external influences determines the degree of complexity of engineering project (Sense, 2014; Remington et al. , 2009; Blaak; van de, 2006), 2.4.3 Technological complexity This is the complexity resulting from design, buildability and materials (Remington and Pollack 2007). In addition, this involves the uncertainty and the risks involved with implementing the above, which are unknown or new such as modern building techniques, new software, new materials , etc. These elements also increase the complexity of engineering projects (Blaak; van de, 2006). Additionally, complex projects are distinguished by high technical intricacies, such as type of infrastructure, overlapping project phases and high degrees of project uncertainty (He et al., 2015). Since each complex project is distinctive, the technical challenges vary according to the conditions of the project. Hence, technological complexity is attributed to the originality of the techniques and technologies employed in the project (Sense and Kiridena, 2014). 2.4.4 Goal complexity Remington and Pollack (2007) reported that goal complexity may emerge from the vagueness that occurs in a range of alternative meanings of objectives, such as ambiguous goals and targets. Therefore, Liet al. ( 2009) suggested a three-level project objective categorisation system, comprising management, functional and other objectives. Furthermore, He et al. (2015) indicated that the complexity of the project goal is exacerbated by different stakeholder expectations, insufficient resources and the nature of project activities. 2.4.5 Cultural complexity Once cultural gaps occur on a project, the cultural dimension is a matter of concern. Various characteristics, such as team trust, cognitive flexibility and thinking process highlight culture in engineering projects, thereby creating cultural complexity (Brockmann and Girmscheld, 102008) Similarly, Brockmann and Girmscheid (2008) classified this complexity into three components: national , industrial and organisational cultures (Brockmann and Girmscheid, 2008).Complex projects usually involve multinational corporations from diverse backgrounds. Therefore, these projects include varied operational procedures and cultural diversity resulting in project complexity (He et al., 2015). 2.4.6 Information complexity ‘This originates from intricate communication across a wide variety of project stakeholders during the entire project execution process through complicated contractual agreements (He et al., 2015). ‘As a consequence of the relatively large sizes of complex projects, the communication requirement of the various project team members increases the information complexity significantly(Muller and Jugdev, 2012). The quality of information is typically affected by multiple factors, including information systems, the standard of information acquisition, the degree of information processing and transmission (Li et al, 2009; He et al., 2015). 2.5 Managing Complex Projects in Developing Countries To date, most of the literature discussing the complexities related to the construction industry have only been in the context of the advanced countries. Critics suggest that most of these problems have no consequences for developing countries (Ofori, 2007), and that different complexities should be considered. However, the nature of engineering in developing countries varies significantly from that of developed countries. Therefore, major variations exist in the scope, nature and quality of the project, the environment where the project is executed, resources and sources of funding (Vickridge, 2008). Consequently, PMs face various kinds of problems when managing complex project in developing countries (Vickridge, 2008; Venter, 2007). 2.5.1 Inadequate project management knowledge Yanwen (2012) addressed the lack of understanding of the application of the project management system in most organisations in developing nations. He further established that most infrastructure projects in developing countries are executed in a repetitive manner, consistent with previous projects. Moreover, developing countries lack adequate organisational capacity for satisfactory project performance as efficient project management training has been given little consideration by senior management (Amponsah, 2010). The construction sector in developing countries thus lacks enough experienced PMs to successfully use resources and methods to manage projects (Amponsah,2010; Venter,2007). 2.5.2 Financial and economic environment Limited funding is a prevalent significant element affecting projects in developing countries (Amponsah,2010). Similarly, Vickridge (2008) described developing countries as relatively poor, making it difficult to fund a project .Additionally, acquiring a loan may also be challenging due to the limited wealth of a nation (Amponsah,2010). Therefore, global development banks, governmental aid agencies, and non-governmental organisations often fund most construction projects in developing countries (Smith, 2008; Amponsah,2010). Similarly, most projects in Ghana are funded by donor agencies and loans from foreign countries (Damoah and Akwei ,2017) i2.5.3 Human resources In developing countries, the construction sector has a substantial availability of economical and unskilled labour, gravitating towards labour-intensive methods of construction. This method involves an approach to the planning, design and construction process as well as considering these challenges from the project initiation stage (Smith, 2008). Similarly, there is a gap in training and expertise sponsored by engineering firms to its workforce, who are essential to the growth of a country's skills base (Vickridge, 2008). Such lack of competence and training influences a project's complexity 2.5.4 Appropriate technology The country's technological and appropriate capabilities directly affect the complexity of its projects and their execution. Therefore, appropriate construction methods are required for developing countries (Vickridge, 2008). Othman (2013) also reported that complex engineering projects are subjected to obsolete technologies and conventional approach when implemented in developing countries. Construction is thus distinguished in such situations by extensive labour and minimal equipment usage (Smith, 2008). A further technological challenge third world countries face is the delay in the delivery construction materials when these materials are purchased from developed countries (Vickridge, 2008). 2.5.5 Socio-cultural factors Recent literature has extensively assessed the effect of socio-cultural elements on construction. To effectively execute a project, the way a country is built, the diverse cultures and the various religions in the country should be thoroughly considered by the PM. For developing countries, the need to evaluate these problems is crucial because most of the complex projects often include multinational corporations (Ofori, 2007). Additionally, Vickridge (2008) confirmed that religion is a key element for executing projects in developing countries. Considering Islamic nations , Fridays are religious days and work schedules should be structured with such considerations (Smith, 2008;Hofstede, 1991). Moreover, Ofori (2007) observed that identifying such challenges enables PMs to interact more effectively and to motivate their subordinates. However, underestimating these issues may complicate the project delivery process and create conflicts (Burchell and Gilden,2008).. It can be assumed that the cultural beliefs, political and economic factors as well as corporate environments in Africa frequently influence project execution. Common examples of these cultural standards include valuing relationships more than tasks; one's extended family providing support in return for loyalty; learning being perceived as a one-time event; focus on tradition; material achievement and progress being considered as essential values in society (Hofstede, 1991;Amponsah, 2010). Thus, these values influence the success or failure results of a project (Amponsah,2010). Similarly, the increasing volume of historical data from cross-cultural management studies (Grisham, 2006) indicates that western principles of management could be entirely or partly inapplicable and obsolete in other societies. As the ideals at work and in social environments have a cultural foundation, we must understand the cultural background when it comes to human actions and ‘management (Anbar, 2003). In addition, Turner (1993) pointed out that in contrast to the widespread perception that western-oriented project management methods are simply straight-forward processes that anybody could study and adopt, there are significant cross-cultural challenges in applying such methods in non-western countries. 22.5.6 Corruption and bribery ‘AL-Maghraby (2012) stated that bribery and corruption are the main obstacles facing the execution of complex projects in developing countries. While bribery and corruption may also take place in developed countries, their existence in developing countries is prevalent because of financial limitations, the absence of regulatory structures and a lack of governmental aids (Yanwen, 2012). In any stage of a project, corruption can substantially influence the complexity and hinder its development (Mawenya,2008). For instance, some local authorities and regulatory bodies may delay construction permit awards until some kind of bribery is paid (Mawenya, 2008; Alotaibi and Shah,2016). Correspondingly, Vickridge (2008) emphasised that the project manager ought to be conscious of these concerns and comprehend the codes of practice and ethics of his sector. Other challenges of complex projects in developing countries include: ‘© Influence of external stakeholders © Construction errors * Political interference © Language barriers © Scope creep © Geotechnical issues © Over-expenditure © Project delays © Inefficient equipment ‘© Supply chain complications © Contract errors Sources: Gogulski,2014; AlMaghraby ,2012; ickridge, 2008; Antor dis et al. ,2012. 2.6 Challenges of Project Management in Ghana Historically, infrastructure projects have seen significant failures in terms of time, cost, and quality (Venter, 2005). Researchers have widely recognised and discussed the significance of on-time delivery for complex projects, in which delays were directly associated with cost overruns (Damoah and ‘Akwei,2014;Venter 2005). However, the precise causes of project failures in Ghana has not been established by any empirical study (Amponsah,2010). Nevertheless, the World Bank Report (2007) reported that Ghana’s low success in projects and other development programmes was due to its lack of professional project managers. Several causes, such as socio - political, financial, technology, macro and micro-global as well as socio cultural factors have been associated with project failures in Ghana (AfDB, 2006). Further, projects with a lengthy development lifecycle generally involve the evaluation of the project progress and the underlying causes of project failures being overlooked (Amponsah, 2010). In general, Ghana has Bparticularly high project failure rates and unnecessarily high project cost overruns (Osei-Tutu et al,2009; Daily Graphic, 2006) Furthermore, Amponsah 2010 established the importance of culture during project execution in Ghana. The nature of project organisations in Ghana is prone to be affected by the culture of society. Ghana has its own distinctive traditions as @ consequence of national history and challenges faced over time. In Ghana , for example, the ideals of non-confrontation and peace with nature will typically lead the project participant to refrain from or prevent conflict entirely. This is usually a common intrinsic characteristic of the majority of Ghanaians (Amponsah, 2010;Venter, 2005). This culture affects the PMs decision-making process as project members expect the project decisions to conform to the Ghanaian culture (Amponsah, 2010). Additionally, bribery and corruption affects many complex projects in Ghana (Amponsah, 2010). Corruption occurs when shareholders entrusted with complex projects violate the regulations in quest of personal advantage (Mawenya,2008). In the Ghanaian complex project implementation process, bribery, kickbacks, favouritism, embezzlement and fraud have been identified as major corrupt activities (Osei-Tutu et al., 2009). Further, there is considerable potential for corruption during project implementation phase as procurement strategies are implemented as this stage (Mawenya,2008). Other challenges of complex projects identified in Ghanaian literature include: © Favouritism ‘* Inefficient regulations and standardised codes © Poor scope management © Incompetent staff * Inadequate project management knowledge © Project politics * Poor ground conditions © Poor stakeholder management © Poor procurement strategies © Fear of authority Sources: Atiga and Azanlerigu, 2017; Osei-Tutu et al.,2014; Damoah and Akwei,2014 ;Amponsah,2010; Mawenya,2008; Venter ,2005; Daily Graphic, 2006; AFDB, 2006. 2.7 Conclusion This chapter reviewed the complexity of projects as well as the various aspects of project complexity in both developed and developing economies. The degree of complexity in a project influences the choice of solutions and the relevant tools and strategies to be implemented, The ability to identify complexity at the initial stages of a project may result in better understanding of the project risks and uncertainties which ultimately results in efficient management . Moreover, considering the role of the PM within the project, itis important that the PM be competent to develop frameworks, management 4strategies and appreciate the concept of complexity in order to effectively oversee complex engineering projects considering evidence that the complexity of engineering projects may resul project failure (Maylor, 2005; Bosch-Reckveldt et al, 2011; Saynisch, 2010; Antoniadis, 2012; Antoniadis, 2013). Additionally, some the challenges PMs face in Ghana have been identified Nevertheless, acknowledging project complexity alone does not ensure effective project management. The requisite expertise required by PMs to manage complex engineering projects should complement the knowledge of project complexity. 15CHAPTER THREE SKILLS, KNOWLEDGE AND BEHAVIOURS OF THE PROJECT MANAGER: 3 Introduction Project management is an essential instrument for the progressive economic development goals of developing countries (Venter, 2005; Child and McGrath, 2001). Therefore, Alsweity (2013), Hamzah et al (2010), AfDB (2006) and Hassim et al (2010) pointed out that the construction industry is making a major contribution to socioeconomic development of developing countries. Moreover, the Project Management for Development Organisations{PM4DEV), (2018) stated that the performance of a project organisation is dependent on the technical expertise of the project manager. Kalinova (2007) also established that the major considerations within each project management team are the individuals and their knowledge, skills and behaviours. However, it is quite common for seasoned engineers to be promoted to a PM position based on their profound technical competence. Despite the significance of technical skills, an effective PM should be competent in diverse aspects. Correspondently, there has been a significant interest in the expertise of PMs who are considered to have a direct effect on both the project and the organisational outcomes (Crawford, 2005; Chilpulu et al.,2013). This chapter seeks to examine the skills, knowledge and behaviours required for managing complex engineering projects based on published literature. The chapter also includes the definition of some basic concepts relating to PM competencies as well as the influence of culture on competency. 3.1 The Project Manager According to the Project Management Institute(PM), (2013), a project manager may be defined as “the person who is assigned by the performing organisation to lead the team that is responsible for achieving the project objectives”. Winch (2002) also describes the PM as the person responsible for successfully implementing the client's project mission. Hence, a PM may be described as a person appointed by an organisation to oversee the project team and coordinate the project implementation process by applying various tools and techniques for a successful project delivery whiles ensuring that the project objectives are met. It is therefore imperative that the PM possesses the requisite competencies to effectively manage the project (PMI, 2013). 3.2 Concept of Competence While the terms “competence” and “competency” may be frequently applied interchangeably, Woodruffe (1991) and Moore et al. (2002) agree to certain conceptual and practical distinctions 16between them. The former describes the general capacity to perform a task effectively while the latter refers to the specified type of skills, knowledge and behaviours that a person may possess as a result of their job (Stevenson and Starkweather, 2010). Therefore, whiles competence can be regarded as a work-related framework, competency is considered as a concept related to the individual (Dainty et al,, 2004). Furthermore, Takey and Carvalho (2015) described competence as the capacity to organise, integrate and transfer expertise, skills and resources to achieve or exceed the specified success in work assignments, thereby contributing to the economic and social value of the organisation and the individual . Therefore, it is not only necessary to possess skills , knowledge and behaviour, but also how to effectively and efficiently implement them to produce valuable outcomes to the project and the organisation (Le Boterf, 1995; Zarifian, 1996). According to Kalinova (2007), the advantages of a competency-based approach are outlined below: 6 Competence enables managers to combine various types of information with the aim of representing ideas, findings, conceptual frameworks and event prediction, identifying potential strategies , methods, developments or modifications. . Integrate past and present knowledge to identify what the team is doing well and what needs to be improved. . Promotes the selection of the appropriate knowledge which is relevant to the strategic goals of the project. . Identify various principles, theories and strategies as a foundation for the implementation of conceptual versatility in a project. To validate the "bearing capacity" of thoughts of the PM and on the members of the team, with the objective of encouraging critical thinking before implementing a decision 3.3 Traditional Project Management Competencies Some researchers have proposed profiles of PM competencies whiles other project management organisations including PMI, the International Project Management Association (IPMA), and the Association for Project Management(APM), have developed their own competence frameworks which provide various viewpoints on the requisite PM competencies. The PMI developed the Project Manager Competency Development Framework (PMCO) to assess three distinct dimensions of a PM's competency :Knowledge, productivity and personal. Additionally, the IPMA's Individual Competence Baseline (ICB) Guide covers knowledge, abilities and skill competencies of PMs. The APM competence framework (2015) also groups the competencies of PMs into three competence aspects : behavioural, wvtechnical and contextual, While these frameworks included both hard and soft skill, focus was mainly on the hard skills. Based on these frameworks, the competencies of the PM may be categorised into three : Skills, Knowledge and Behaviour. ‘These aspects of competence will form the basis of this dissertation and will be discussed in the subsequent subsections. 3.3.1 Skills required for managing engineering projects Skill may be defined as the technical faculty and expertise that enable a person to perform a specific task (ICB,2015; Oxford Dictionary, 2019). PMs ought to have appropriate skills to manage projects effectively (Murch, 2001). Moreover, PMI (2017) indicates that a PM's technical skills entail the knowledge and behaviour required for a successful project delivery. These skills are critical in the construction sector where projects can be technically complex and require a reasonable understanding of the principles of engineering and management. ‘The technical skills are applied throughout entire life cycle of the project (PMI, 2007; APM, 2008). Several researchers have also discussed the technical aspects of the skills that are relevant for project management. These skills are also termed as “hard skills”. They are linked to the creation of tangible deliverables related to cost, time and quality, often requiring the efficient utilisation software and analytical techniques (Marando, 2012). Moreover, Crawford and Pollack (2004), merged hard skills with the project's traditional management category. Table 3.1 below includes a summary the PM competencies from various studies: Table 3.1:An overview of the skills required for managing engineering projects Category Skills Procurement management Project Management ‘Managing contracts Quality control Human resource management Risk management Human resource management Stakeholder management ‘Communication management Scope control and management 18Schedule coordination Financial Control Technical Change control Capacity to perform the work to client, satisfaction Budgeting and budget control Coordinating supply chain partners Written and Verbal communication Understanding of systems, structures and procedures Monitoring and Controlling Solution driven Activities Coordination Innovation Establishing project structures Negotiating Project, program and portfolio orientation and implementation Report writing Ability to select team members based on expertise Sales and marketing Time management Acculturation Ability to facilitate meetings Logical reasoning Ability to interpret drawings Whole life planning for the project Sources: PMI, 2017; APM, 2008; IPMA, 2015; Alias et al, 2012; Takey et al., 2015; El-Sabaa, 2001; Gillard and Orice, 2005; Marando, 2012; Loufrani-Fedida and, Missonier, 2015; Smyth, 2004; Anderson, 2011; Crawford, 2005; Crawford and Pollack, 2004; Dainty et al., 2005; Dziekoriski, 2017; Fisher, 2011; Ndhlovu and Weeks, 2013; Zulch, 2014; Trivellas and Drimoussis, 2013; Vale et al., 2010; Guerrero et al., 2014; Jalocha et al., 2014; Barry and Plessis, 2007. 193.3.2 Behaviours required for managing engineering project Behavioural skills are characterised as the interpersonal components of a PM in the work setting, such as attitudes, cultural values and unique personal attributes (Uno and Koppensteiner, 2004; PMI, 2017). identified as soft skills. The soft skills as defined in the PMBOK refer to the PM's Typically, they ar interpersonal traits and behaviours. While PMs may be excellent with hard skills, they usually struggle with soft skill sets. Therefore, soft skills may have a significant effect on the project and are recognised globally as essential for the success of project management (Muzio et al., 2007). Wateridge (1999) stated that majority of project failures are caused by PMs that ignore the soft aspects of management. While PMs have a task to concentrate on, real achievement is in knowing how to delegate work packages (Halstead ,1999). Complex projects therefore mandate the balance of hard and soft skills to achieve the goals of the project (Kalinova,2005). The various behavioural competencies of PMs found in literature are shown in Table 3.2 below: Table 3.2:An overview of the behaviours required for managing complex projects Behaviours ‘Assertiveness Honesty Proactiveness Conflict management Credibility Reliability Transparency Ethical Flexibility Impartiality Emotional intelligence Empathy Punctuality integrity Team leader Leadership ‘Accountability Tolerance Motivator Critical thinking Sources: PMI, 2017; APM, 2008; Stevenson and Starkweather, 2010; Crawford and Pollack, 2004; Alam et al., 2010; E|-Sabaa, 2001; Dziekoriski, 2017; Gillard and Price, 2005; Dainty et al., 2004; Briere et al,, 2015; Bredillet et al., 2015; Azim et al., 2010; Fisher, 2011; Dainty et al., 2005; Marando, 2012; Muzio et al., 2007; Belzer, 2001; Cheng and Dainty, 2005. 3.3.3 Knowledge required for managing engineering projects Knowledge is interpreted as the degree of insight and experience a person has in relation to a specific subject (ICB, 2015). Similarly, knowledge in project management fosters organisational agility, employee development as well as faster decision-making process (Maier and Lehner, 2000; Paulzen 20and Perc, 2002). Effective management of knowledge contributes to the success of most complex project. Therefore, project team members must be encouraged to share their individual knowledge assets whiles integrating and adopting where necessary for project progress (Reich and Wee, 2006;Soderland ,2010; Okhuysen and Eisenhart,2002;Levin, 2010). Table 3.3 below includes technical and contextual knowledge necessary for PMs summarised from a various studies, research and guidelines published in the literature. Table 3.3:An overview of the knowledge required for managing projects. Category Knowledge Technical Project management software & IT Building materials, Construction & contract laws Quantity surveying Electrical engineering Mechanical engineering Civil and structural engineering Health, security, safety and environment Contract Laws Related to Construction Landscaping Geotechnical Engineering Contract Laws Related to Construction Contextual Financing, funding and cash Flow planning Project Sponsorship Project life cycles Governance of project management General Legal Knowledge Diversity awareness Project sponsorship Organisational structure Health and Safety Management Sources: Alias et al., 2013 iziekoriski, 2017; Jatocha et al., 2014;PMI, 2017; APM, 2008; IMPA, 2015, 213.4 Project Manager Competencies in Complex Projects ‘The surging level of complexity and uncertainty concerning engineering projects is being widely acknowledged by practitioners and academics (Thomas and Mengel, 2008). The conventional project management which seems to have direction and control, is effective for simple and precise tasks. However, complex projects require other variants of project management that focuses on flexibility management and team collaboration rather than being solely managed by the PM (Eriksson et al., 2017). Once the complexity of the project increases, the PM's ability to manage all aspects of the project reduces (Gransberg et al, 2013). Therefore, considerations on the standardisation of skills are proposed because the interpersonal skills of PMs seem more suitable for the employee's efficiency than for the methods and procedures listed in the guidelines (Crawford, 2005). In fact, previous studies debated the segregation of competency from skills, behaviours, and knowledge (Stevenson and Starkweather, 2010). Although those controversies persist, Gokhale (2005 ) argued that this disparity originated from the dynamics of time and experience. He further suggested that even though entry- level PMs might provide the set of skills, knowledge and behaviours required for a project, competencies are developed through time and with the necessary experience (Gokhale, 2005). Moreover, a substantial number of PMs have acquired existing project management certifications from professional organizations including PMI, APM, PRINCE2, and lately, the College of Complex Project Managers (CPM) (Dombkins, 2006). According to the Competency Criteria for Complex Project Managers (CSCPM), (2012) complex projects require specialised management which can only be achieved by professionally trained PMs. Contrarily, Crawford (2005 } noted that there is no evidence to indicate that accredited PMs are more professional and effective than inadvertent PMs when executing complex projects. Moreover, Whitty and Maylor (2007 ) added that classifying a project as complex does not always justify the need for an alternative management style if traditional methods have proven to be effective. Furthermore ;complex projects require proactive and open-minded PMs rather than complex management techniques (Mouchi et al., 2011), Previous project management researchers explored the “hard” project management approach. Nevertheless, researchers have in recent years advocated a "soft" approach to project management when executing complex projects (Karrbom and Hallin, 2014). Furthermore, Crawford and Pollack (2004 ) established that complex projects involve exploratory thinking that is typically correlated with versatility, risk-taking, innovation, long-term focus, teamwork and self-control (Geradli , 2009 ;Mom et al,, 2007 ; Dainty et al . , 2005; Hobday ,2000). Complex projects also require the incorporation of emerging technology and knowledge to promote innovation, and creativity. Adaptation is another 2crucial component of managing complex projects owing to the high complexity and possible challenges that may arise in construction projects (Erikson et al ., 2017). Additionally, Pollack (2007) identified adaptation as an essential competency in a complex setting, as situations may alter constantly stating that project participants ought to assess their course of action and adjust as the project evolves. Furthermore, CSCPM (2012) considered project management as a two-end continuum involving traditional and complex. Therefore, complex project management includes all conventional project management skills, which are gradually developed as work progresses (CSCPM, 2012). ‘The various competencies required for managing complex engineering projects are outlined below: Table 3.4: A summary of relevant complex project competencies. ‘Competency Elements Communication| Leadership and Governance Project and Strategic Management Long-term focus lifecycle Planning ‘Monitoring and Evaluation Business strategy System analysis and Integration Culture and Human Nature Organisational setup Project finance Technology Contracts General engineering Knowledge 23Integrity ‘Adaptation (Open-mindedness Teamwork Innovation Ingenuity Flexibility Ethics Critical thinking Assertiveness Accountability Conflict management Productivity [Behaviours Sources: Erikson et al, 2017; CSCPM, 2012; PMI,2017; Geradli,2009;Mom et al, 2007; Crawford and Pollack, 2004 3.5 The Cultural Impact Spalek (2014) observed that the country in which an engineering project is being executed has an impact on the competency characteristics of the PM managing the engineering project. Jiang and Pretorius (2014) buttressed this statement by investigating the behavioural competencies necessary for Chinese and South African PMs and discovered that indeed a country's cultural background strongly influences behavioural competencies. The cultural beliefs of the people and their general way of life may have direct and indirect influences on their competency at the workplace (Trivellas and Drimoussis 2013). 3.6 Conclusion Research has proved that project performance is generally dependent on efficient managerial approach to address uncertainty and that traditional management approaches have proved to be unsuccessful in complex environments (Rernington and Pollack, 2007). This issue has been disputed by other researchers who claim that the traditional management approach seems to be feasible in complex situations (Crawford,2005). This chapter presented some traditional and complex skills 24knowledge and behaviours required for managing engineering projects. Till date, there has been no published literature on the competences required for managing complex engineering project Ghana. The author, thus, recommends that these competencies be investigated. The research methodology adapted to address this issue will be discussed in Chapter 4, 25CHAPTER FOUR RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 4 Introduction This chapter reviews the research design, methodology and instruments adopted based on the objectives and aims of this dissertation. Additionally, the ethical issues concerning this research are ‘addressed, including the procedures for analysing data. Lastly, this chapter justifies the validity and reliability of the research, Figure 4.1 below outlines the overall research process: unite Figure 4.1 : An overview of the research process 264.1 Research Design Research design is basically the plan for data collection and analysis. The purpose of a research design is to provide answers to the research question (deVaus, 2001). To deliver an acceptable research design, the “Research Onion” as described in Saunders et al. (2015) was adopted. The research onion is shownin figure 4.2 below: Figure 4.2: The Research Onion (Saunders et al., 2015). The research onion as illustrated above, encompasses the entire research procedure and is a complete guideline for all researchers (Saunders et al., 2015). This research onion enabled the author to work on the research execution strategy from a broader perspective to achieve simplified and specific results to the aim and objectives of this dissertation. In summary, it can be deduced from the research onion that the research design capitalises on the philosophies, approaches and objectives of the study, whereas the methodology is to ascertain the most feasible strategies, choices and timelines of the proposed research (Saunders et al., 2015; deVaus, 2001; Morgan, 2014). 4.1.1 Philosophies Philosophy of research describes a set of beliefs and assumptions regarding the development of knowledge (Saunders et al, 2015). The approach to the research question , the techniques used along with how the data gathered are interpreted, represent the research philosophy (Dudovskiy, 2018). Three factors influence the philosophy of the research (Saunders et al., 2015; Flowers, 2009; Hatch and Cunliffe, 2006; Mkansi and Acheampong, 2012). Therefore, itis necessary to differentiate them and to consider the premises behind each philosophy based on three distinct factors before selecting a suitable research philosophy (Aliyu et al., 2015). The factors influencing philosophies are highlighted below: + Ontology: This is the theoretical study of reality and of existence (Oxford English Dictionary, 2020) 2: Epistemology: This concerns the study of knowledge (Oxford English Dictionary, 2020). + Axiology: This applies to the study of value (Oxford English Dictionary, 2020). These parameters illustrate how the researcher interprets the importance of values, appropriate knowledge as well as the nature of reality (Flower, 2009; Saunders et al., 2009; Holden and Lynch, 2004). Once the variations between these variables were established, the next step was determining whether the study is objective or subjective. Positivism (Objectivism) and Interpretivism (Subjectivism) were described by Collis and Hussey (2014) as two ends of a continuum with different philosophies connecting them. PMs have various skill, varying degrees of experience, and different characteristics for discernment. This dissertation is focused on understanding how current PMs appreciate the skills, knowledge, and behavioural characteristics of their work. Their views would be assessed, making this research subjective in nature (Flower, 2009), Moreover, each person perceives truth in various ways form individual experiences, Therefore, there are many realities for all rather than one universal truth (Research Methodology, 2019). Additionally, decisions in project management are not restricted to specific choices. This work can thus be described as an exploratory study that tends toward an interpretive framework, Furthermore, an interpretive study appears to be accurate and honest considering the quality of primary data collection (Saunders et al.,2015) 4.1.2 Approaches ‘According the research onion in figure 4.1 above, there are two approaches to research works: inductive and deductive (Saunders et al,2015). The application of theory to the research is the main distinctive factor in a deductive or inductive study (Dudovskiy, 2018). The goal of deductive research is to verify a hypothesis whiles inductive research attempts to use data obtained to develop a new theory. A deductive analysis is thus a theoretical-driven analysis (Collis and Hussey, 2014; Burney, 2008; Trochim, 2006a). According to Wilson (2010) , the objective of a deductive analysis isto establish a hypothesis based on established theories, and then verify the hypothesis using an appropriate research strategy. Conversely, an inductive analysis starts with findings, accompanied by hypothesis formulations resulting to the creation of a new theory (Pasian, 2015; Lodico et al., 2010). Abduction is the third logical method explored by Saunders et al. (2015). The abductive method switches between theory- to-data interpretation and data-to-theory. This includes a combination of both deductive and inductive analyses (Suddaby, 2006). Therefore, abduction is regarded as a neutral ground for deductive and inductive analyses, beginning with unpredictable details and testing them to discover their interpretations (Dudovskiy, 2018). Additionally, the deductive method is rigid and does not encourage the author to fully analyse the study problems to arrive at reasonable conclusions (Yin 2003). Therefore, the inductive approach was appropriate for this research as recently collected data from PMs in Ghana was used to establish a new conceptual structure. The inductive approach may be time consuming and resource intensive (Saunders et al.,2015). However, due to the lack of previous research on the skills, knowledge and behaviours required for managing complex engineering projects in Ghana, an inductive approach was adopted for the purpose of this research. Furthermore, this was a qualitative research which made the inductive approach applicable and enabled the author to analyse the results subjectively (Research 28Methodology, 2019; Saunders et al,2015) . The major advantages of the inductive approach according to Saunders et al., 2015 are listed below: + Facilitates the understanding of human interpretation of events. + Improves comprehension of the context of the research + Promotes qualitative data collection and analysis. + A flexible framework which enables research to evolve as research progresses + Less preoccupation of generalisation 4.1.3 Research purpose Understanding the purpose of the proposed research and how it can be accomplished is crucial (Dudovskiy, 2018). The four forms of analysis that can be adopted in any study are summarised below: Descriptive: Used to describe an existing theory (Collis and Hussey, 2014). Evaluative: jsed in analysis to determine how well a process performs (Saunders et al., 2015) Explanatory: used to study a situation in order to identify the relationship between its cause and effects (Dudovskiy, 2018). Exploratory: Used when the research involves little or no previous studies as well as limited information for reference (Collis and Hussey, 2014). For this research, an exploratory approach was appropriate. A deeper understanding of the problem was required as this was essentially an initial research to investigate the problem (Maxwell and Mittapalli, 2008; Robson, 2002). Additionally, this research may not provide an explicit solution to the problem but could be a basis for future research (Maxwell and Mittapalli, 2008; Saunders et a, 2015). Future studies may be a descriptive in nature to critically evaluate the competencies required by PMs in Ghana. 4.2 Research Methodology ‘The research methodology is influenced by the philosophy, approach and purpose (Bryman and Bell, 2007; Crossan, 2003; Johnson and Clark, 2006). Furthermore, research methodology focuses on research techniques that affect the procedure for data collection, evaluation and interpretation (Denzin and Lincoln, 2011; Saunders et al ., 2009). Therefore, the other components of the research onion (Saunders et al. ,2009) which comprises strategies, choices and time horizons would be considered . 4.2.1 Research strategy ‘The Strategy is an action plan to aid the researcher in accomplishing the research goals as well as addressing the research question (Saunders et al., 2015). There are several strategies for research data collection. These instruments have been highlighted below: Experiment: Widely used for study of causal-effect interactions in natural science. This technique was not suitable for this study as it is primarily used for evaluating hypotheses in experimental studies (Dudovskiy, 2018) 29Survey: Mostly applied in non-experimental studies and is frequently used in business and management research works (Saunders et al., 2015). This research strategy was appropriate in this Case Study: In-depth analysis on a specific subject within the limits of a given real-life context (Fellows and Liu, 2008, Saunders et al., 2015). Even though exploratory case studies may be applicable with the Use of additional methods of data collection, this strategy was not adopted as there was no existing data or case studies available in Ghana relating to the topic of this dissertation, Archival Research: Focuses on using recent and historical documents as data collection sources (Barmayehvar, 2013; Saunders et al., 2015). Since there are no published data on the topic of this research, this strategy was unsuitable, Ethnography: A study of the cultures and environments of humans in which the researcher is part of the individuals being observed to examine their activities and behaviours (Collis and Hussey, 2014; Fellow and Liu, 2008); This strategy was inappropriate for this study's purpose. Action Research: Concerned with recognising, exploring and analysing challenges for the development of viable solutions. Its key outcomes are mostly used to resolve organizational challenges which was not the aim of this research (Saunders et al., 2015). Grounded Theory: A structured set of methods for creating a new theory (Collis and Hussey, 2014). As grounded theory should be focused on earlier work to establish a new theory, it was not suitable for this research (King, 2004) Narrative Inquiry: A strategy that evaluates and analyses the lives of people requiring individuals to share stories from their own experiences (Creswell, 2014). Although PM experiences are essential for investigating the research question, this research primarily focused on storytelling and narrative experiences of participants (Saunders et al., 2015). The survey research strategy was adopted for this research. This refers to the information gathered from a sample population through their feedback and responses to questions ( Check and Schutt, 2012). This strategy assists the researcher in gathering data through different research instruments; it may be used to perform a quantitative analysis ( e.g, close-ended questionnaires), a qualitative analysis (e.g. interviews or open-ended questionnaires), or both (mixed—method analysis) (Ponto, 2015; Dudovskiy, 2018). Even though it is typically used in deductive approaches, Collis and Hussey (2014) stated that this technique can also be used as an inductive approach, particularly if an interpretive analysis was conducted. In order to identify and analyse certain human features, characteristics and behaviours, a survey strategy may be used (Singleton and Streits, 2009). This is specifically aligned with the purpose of the research which aims to explore the competencies of PMs in Ghana through their experiences and opinions. Additionally, surveys are faster and easier than other strategies (Dudovskiy, 2018). Furthermore, the exploratory and subjective nature of this research required people’s opinions making @ questionnaire-based survey equally suitable (Dudovskiy, 2018). The use of open-ended questionnaires and online interviews enables the author to obtain relevant suggestions from respondents as well as accurately compare data as questions are generally standardised (Research Methods, 2019). Questionnaires provide a faster approach to finding facts and provide flexibility 30where a respondent may consult others when answering questions. Interviews allow participants to provide detailed responses to the questions (Naoum,2007). Furthermore, the only tools available for collection of data amid the coronavirus pandemic was the internet. Thus, an internet-mediate questionnaires and online interviews for this dissertation were safer and economical. 4.2.2 Choices Researchers generally employ two different methodological choices when conducting their studies. These are the quantitative and qualitative choices (Saunders et al., 2015).These can be used independently or simultaneously. Applying these research choices according to Saunders et al.,(2009) could be mono method, mixed method and multi-method. The mono method involves the “use of a single data collection technique and corresponding analysis procedure or procedures” whiles the multi-method and mixed methods basically involve using two or more quantitative or qualitative data collection methods for a research or a combination of both qualitative and quantitative techniques (Barmayehvar, 2013; Fellow and Liu, 2008). The key distinction regarding mono-method and multi- method is that mono-method entails either qualitative or quantitative data collection and analysis (Fellow and Liu, 2008; Saunders et al., 2009; Morgan, 2014) The figure below summarises the various research choices Research choices ———_, ‘Mono method Multiple methods Multimethod ‘Multimethod —_Multhmethod ——-Mixed-method Mixed: mode! quantitative qualitative research teseareh studies studies Figure 4.3: Methodological Choices ( Saunders et al., 2015) ‘The quantitative approach is used to investigate a natural occurrence by establishing hypotheses and assessing the relationships between the variables (Saunders et al., 2015; Creswell, 2014). This research approach is characterised by objectivity which is frequently aligned with a philosophy of positivist studies (Saunders et al., 2015). In addition, this method of research relies on using a deductive approach and gathering numerical data to analyse and objectively evaluate a hypothesis (Berrios and Lucca, 2006; Dudovskiy, 2018). Conversely, a qualitative research is usually exploratory and focuses on exploring and interpreting social dynamics (Dudovskiy, 2018; Creswell, 2014). It is also defined by subjectivity and is associated with a paradigm of interpretation (Saunders et al., 2015). Additionally, qualitative research also relies on an inductive approach where data analysis is focused on understanding of non-numeric data such as words, images and videos (Biggam , 2015; Creswell, 2014) ‘The defining features of qualitative research are the belief in multiple dimensions, the dedication to identifying a strategy to an in-depth understanding of the phenomena, the commitment to the perspectives of the respondents, the conduct of investigations with minimal disruption to the 31traditional context of the phenomenon and the presentation of results in a literary style filled with statements by the respondents (Fellow and Liu, 2008; Given, 2008). A qualitative approach was selected as this research seeks to understand the management of complex engineering projects from the perspective of those experiencing it (Denzin and Lincoln, 2000; Sandelowski and Barroso, 20033; Tong et al., 2007}. Although the qualitative nature of this research might have some limitations regarding the subjectivity of results, the author believed that this research would still contribute immensely to the gap in knowledge regarding the topic. Correspondently, a qualitative multi-method qualitative technique was employed. This was due to time constraints. Additionally, many PMs were unavailable for interviews within the time available for that purpose. The author then included open ended questionnaires to obtain sufficient data for the analysis. Respondents were working from home due a mandatory lockdown. Therefore, many opted to answer the online questionnaires at their earliest convenience. 4.2.3 Time horizons Time horizons can either be longitudinal or cross-sectional (Saunders et al., 2015). Longitudinal research occurs over an extended period whiles cross-sectional studies depicts the results at a time (Biggam, 2015; Bryman 2015 ; Collis and Hussey ,2014).This research is aimed at identifying the challenges of complex engineering projects in Ghana as well as delving into new insights and domains of further investigation. Since this research has no historical information in Ghana and is happening at a specific time, the author believed that a cross-sectional study was appropriate (Miller,2007;Morgan, 2014; Saunders et al, 2015). Moreover, a cross-section method was suitable for the study due to time constraints. 4.3 Data Collection The purpose of this process is to obtain accurate data to enable the researcher to progress with the accomplishment of the research goals (Fellows and Liu, 2008). The techniques used to obtain data for this research are discussed in the following sections: 4.3.1 Research instruments Asmentioned in section 4.2.1 Survey process allows the use of multiple data collection tools, primarily questionnaires and interviews (Ponto, 2015). Questionnaires can either be qualitative or quantitative based on the nature of data required. These questions may also be open or close-ended (Saunders et al,, 2015; Collis and Hussey, 2014). Responses generated from the close-ended questions are evaluated statistically using quantitative methods (Dudovskiy, 2018). These questionnaires are usually straightforward and easier for respondents. Additionally, less eloquent participants can partake, and responses are easily compared, However, such questions are inappropriate as this is a qualitative research. Participants with limited or no knowledge on the topic may respond anyways which compromises the quality of the data. Further, close-ended questionnaires limit the answers as respondents would answer based on available options (Biggam, 2015) Alternatively, open-ended questions may be used for obtaining qualitative data. Open-ended questions are used in exploratory studies where comprehensive responses are required from a respondent's perspective and experience without providing a list of potential answers ( Farrell 2016). Moreover, open-ended questionnaires facilitate answers from the respondents’ perspective devoid of any influence from the researcher (Reja et al., 2003). Since the various PMs may possess varying 32levels of expertise and competence, open-ended questions were appropriate for addressing the various competencies that were introduced. However, the responses from open-ended questions can be time-consuming and unappealing to respondents which may affect the details provided in their responses. Correspondently, interviews were included in the primary data collection where interviewees were guided to answer relevant questions (Stuckey, 2013). Collis and Hussey (2014) also stated that interviews are focused on obtaining data on the perspectives, comments, previous tasks performed, behaviours, emotions and similarities between for an interpretive analysis . Therefore, interviews were ideal for the context of this research. Interviews may be structured, semi-structured or unstructured Structured interviews are for statistical data gathering and are considered as quantitative study interviews. These take the form of defined questions that are answered in a certain order by interviewees and are widely applied in various descriptive and explanatory studies (Dudovskiy, 2018; Saunders et al., 2015). However, unstructured and semi-structured interviews, especially in exploratory research, are identified with qualitative research (Barmayehvar, 2013). These contain essential questions and themes which should be addressed (Saunders et al., 2015). However, Saunders et al. (2015) stated that for exploratory studies, unstructured and semi-structured interviews are suitable. Unstructured interviews are the easiest approach to in-depth interviews as they portray the respondents’ experiences and enlighten the interviewer (Berg, 2009). However, comparison of responses may be challenging as questions are not formulated prior to unstructured interviews (Dusovskiy, 2018). Owing to time limitations and demanding PM schedules, it was challenging to interview a substantial number of participants. Therefore, both open-ended questionnaires and serni- structured interviews were used to obtain primary data for this study. ‘The questionnaire method allowed respondents to complete the survey at their convenience. Additionally, respondents had the opportunity to start the questionnaire and save their progress. Contrarily, the semi-structured interviews provide a rigorous way of obtaining data with in-depth responses. Questions were prepared ahead of interviews. The demeanour of interviewees and data were captured by the interviewer while interviewees could seek clarification on certain questions. (Schutt, 2011; Yount, 2006; Krosnick and Presser, 2010). Secondary data regarding the competencies of PMs was obtained from published literature. Section 4.3.2 specifies the sample size of the participants. The structure of the questionnaire is also included in Appendix D. 4.3.2 Sample size Dudovskiy (2018 ) identified five steps for the sampling process 1. Identifying Target Population: PMs, engineers and construction workers in Ghana with past and current experiences in executing complex engineering projects were the primary source of data, 2. Sampling Design: This research involved only experienced participants (Dusovskiy, 2018). Considering budget and time limitations, the author could only conduct a restricted number of interviews with participants. 333. Sample Size: According to Crouch and Mckenzie (2006), 20 or less interviewees are ideal for inductive exploratory studies. Furthermore, Saunders et al. (2015) recommended @ minimum requirement of 5 to 25 participants for semi-structured interviews. Dwakin (2012) also argued that while the sample size may be limited in qualitative studies, it is adequate as such studies are inductive and rely on interviewees’ experiences. The interviewees included 1 PM and 2 site supervisors in Ghana. Additionally, 12 PMs completed internet-based questionnaires for this research. 4, Samy is classified as purposive sampling according to Saunders et al. (2015). While Dudovskiy (2018) argued that this procedure is not truly representative and may be skewed by the direct experience of PMs, the author believed the approach was suitable for this exploratory research and paves the way for further descriptive and explanatory studies. 1B Method: Selection of participants was based on their expertise in complex projects. This 5. Appl filled an internet bases questionnaire. The data collection process lasted between 3 to 10 weeks due to unavailability of some participants and internet connectivity issues. ‘Sampling Method: 3 semi-structured online interviews were conducted whiles 12 PMs 4.4 Data Analysis The data analysis approach depends strongly on the philosophy and whether the study is quantitative or qualitative (Collis and Hussey, 2014). The various methods for evaluating qualitative data are described below: ‘Thematic Analysis: A conventional and flexible method of examining substantial qualitative data by establishing themes and patterns from the data (Saunders et al., 2015; Braun and Clarke, 2006). ‘Template Analysis: A form of thematic analysis that involves the creation and arrangement of coding frameworks for practical interpretation (King, 2007; Saunders et al ., 2015). Grounded Theory: A method of data interpretation aimed at inductively creating a theoretical hypothesis of a given phenomenon (Creswell, 2014; King, 2004). This technique was not applicable in this research as the survey approach was adopted in section 4.2.1 Narr ive Analysis: A technique involving the reformulation of narratives from respondents considering the nature of each story and the respondent's individual experiences (Earthy and Cronin, 2008). While PMs' experiences count, this approach was inappropriate for that research. Discourse Analysis: This encompasses a range of verbal and written techniques considering the impact of their social factors. This also involves interpreting non-verbal components including symbols and body language (Saunders et al ., 2015; Dudovskiy, 2018). However, that was not the focus of this study. Content Analysis: A method for analysing qualitative data through categorising, summarising and tabulating the results (Research Methodology, 2019; Dudovskiy, 2018). This approach converts qualitative data into quantitative data for statistical analysis. This was inapplicable as this research was purely qualitative Data Display and Analysis: This involves collecting and compiling qualitative data into visual representations to explain information presented in textual formats. Organising the data provides 34deeper insights on the data and the relationships between data (Verdinelli, 2013; Miles et al . 2014). While this is significant in qualitative research , it was not adopted in this study, ‘Thematic and Template Analyses were appropriate for the study. Braun and Clarke ( 2006) labelled ‘Thematic Analysis as the fundamental approach to qualitative analysis. Template analysis involves coding themes and patterns from qualitative data resulting in clarifications, interpretations, and theory development (Saunders et al., 2015). The distinction between these processes depends on the approach to data (King, 2012). Template analysis was adopted in this research with the coding template facilitating the framework development. 4.5 Research Ethics Ethical issues were recognised in this research since human subjects were involved (Moran, 2006; Biggam, 2015). The acquisition, storage, consumption and disposal data is a critical aspect of research ethics (Fellow and Liu , 2008). Additionally, Biggam (2015) outlined various ethical issues to consider during research. These are presented figure 4.4 below: Figure 4.4: Ethical research principles (Biggam,2015) 4.5.1 Informed consent Participants were contacted via voice calls prior to the interview where the researcher explained the aims and objectives of the research and well as the how the researcher intends to analyse the primary data (Lawton,2017).The author opted for voice calls due to the limited time available for the research as completing written consents would have delayed the data collection process. Additionally, the cover letter of the open-ended online questionnaire contained a summary of why participants have been selected for the research. The cover letter also indicated that completing the questionnaire meant the participant had agreed to all the terms listed. Finally, the author sought permission from 35the interviewees to record the sessions. A few participants preferred notetaking to being recorded which was respected. An approved research ethics form i included in Appendix A. 4.5.2 Voluntary participation The researcher contacted participants vie emails and voice call to if they were willing to participant in the survey. Moreover, there was a cover letter attached to the questionnaire (Appendix C) which stated the purpose of the study and indicated that participants may withdraw from the survey at any time. This information was passed on to interviewees as well, 4.5.3 Confidentiality ‘The following steps were taken to ensure confidentiality: + Each transcription was retained in MAXQDA / Microsoft word, while online questionnaire responses were saved in MAXQDA and google drive(cn9msm) Participants were kept anonymous. + Nonames of individuals or companies in were published. Instead, arbitrary codes known only by the author, were used to identify participants. + The section on reference list was restricted only to secondary literature © Allthe data collected was secured in a private university drive (cn9msm) and research data use conformed with the Code of Practice of the University regarding Data Protection. 4.5.4 Risk and harm to participants Inacover letter, participants were informed that they would not be affected negatively through their participation as the researcher would comply with relevant privacy, anonymity and confidentiality procedures as reported by Trochim (2000). 4.6 Validity and Reliability Assessing the validity of the study is crucial for determining if the conclusions and the analysis of the results truthfully represent real-life circumstances and can be verified (Golafshani, 2003; Biggam, 2015). Qualitative validity applies to the accuracy of results and processes used by the researcher. However, qualitative reliability seeks to assess the consistency of the outcomes relative to previous studies (Gibbs, 2007), Saunders et al. ( 2015) and Creswell (2014 ) identified two fundamental validity methods as triangulation and member validation. Moreover, to validate the conclusions drawn, a complete draft of the study was also sent to another researcher for review. This was done to eliminate researcher bias (Robinson, 2002). 4.6.1 Triangulation Triangulation involves using multiple data sources to investigate a certain phenomenon in a study. This justifies and authenticates the legitimacy of the data collection ,processing, and interpretation techniques (Saunders et al., 2015). Obtaining data from multiple sources boosts the quality of the study (Biggam, 2015). Triangulation can be grouped into four (Collis and Hussey, 2014; Creswell, 2014) ‘Theoretical Triangulation: Using theory associated with one phenomenon in a discipline to describe another phenomenon in a new discipline. Data Triangulation: Involves using several databases to research a phenomenon. 36Investigator Triangulation: Involves various researchers investigating the same concept independently and contrasting their outcomes, Methodological Triangulation : Using more than one method of collecting data within the same research framework (e.g. questionnaires and observations). Considering the limited availability of published literature on PM competencies in Ghana, data from chapters 2 and 3 was used for triangulation in Chapter 5. 4.6.2 Member validation Validation of the member improves the accuracy of the data analysis an terpretation. Interview transcripts were sent back to interviewees for comments and feedback. Additionally, the proposed framework of competencies was forwarded to participants for comments and feedback before the final framework was developed (Creswell, 2014). Although qualitative studies may hinder member, validation, a selection of respondents were identified to comment on the proposed framework (Saunders et al. 2015). These feedbacks are included in Appendix K. 4,7 Conclusion The research methodology adopted for accomplishing the aim and objectives of this research was discussed in this chapter. These methodology options were selected and justified using the research onion by Saunders et al. (2015). Table 4.8 below summarises the components that were employed in this dissertation, Table 4.1: A Summary of the Research Methodology Research onion components ‘Author's choice Philosophies Interpretivism “Approaches Inductive Strategies Survey Choices Multi-method Time horizons Cross-sectional Research Instruments Semi-structured interviews and Internet- mediate open-ended questionnaires Data Analysis Template analysis ‘This chapter addressed the ethical dimension of the research which guaranteed the integrity and consent of participants. It also explained validation and reliability to establish the credibility of the dissertation. Data triangulation was used for comparing the details provided by the participants with the existing literature. Finally, member validation was applied to obtain feedback after the data analysis . 37CHAPTER FIVE DATA ANALYSIS 5 Introduction In this Chapter, the primary data obtained through the interviews and questionnaires was evaluated according to the methodology described in Chapter 4. The aim of this chapter is to summarise the results of the primary data collection for this research i.e. skills knowledge and behaviours for managing complex engineering projects in Ghana. Firstly, a general outline of the data collected is provided in addition to an overview of the professional profiles of the participants. Secondly, the data gathered is processed and coded for a two phased analysis. The first phase involves template analysis where the author produces a template which represents the study findings. The second phase was to examine the outcome of the template analysis. Lastly, data triangulation involving secondary data from reviewed literature (Chapters 2 and 3) and the findings of the survey was performed to validate the research results. 5.1 Data Collection Overview ‘As mentioned in Chapter 4, the primary data was obtained between 05/06/2020 and 01/08/2020 through semi-structured online interviews and internet-mediate questionnaires. All surveys were conducted in English. Additionally, the participants of this study have been involved in various complex engineering projects in Ghana making their responses reliable. To ensure anonymity ,the 12 PMs from the questionnaire are referred and as PM1, PM2...PM12 respectively whiles the Interviewees are referred to as PM13, Site supervisor(SS)1 and $S2 respectively. The professional profiles of the participants are presented in Table 5.1 below: Table 5.1 : Summary of the professional background of sample population Respondent/interviewee | Complex Project type(s) sector Project projects location executed PML 2 transportation Private ‘Accra PM2 3 Building Private ‘Recta construction/Bridges PMB 3 Building construction | Private/public | Accra pma 5 Building construction | Private ‘Accra PMS 2 Building construction | Private ‘Aecra PM6 2 Building construction | Private/public | Accra Railway/bridges PM7 5 Building construction | Private Kumasi PMB 3 Environmental Public ‘Accra /waste management PMS 3 Building construction | public ‘ecra PMi0 1 Water treatment | private ‘Accra PMI 1 Waste management | public Takoradi 38Miz 10 Building construction | private ‘Accra M13 3 Building construction | Public SSL 8 Building private ‘Accra and construction/Bridges Kumasi S82 6 Building private Tamale and construction/Railway Accra 5.2 Data Analysis Phase 1: Template Analysis ‘Template analysis was used in this research to interpret the data obtained from semi-structured interviews and online questionnaires for developing a conceptual framework of the requisite PM competencies for managing complex projects in Ghana. King (2012) suggested 7 succinct guidelines for approaching the phase of template analysis as illustrated below: 1. __ Establish a priori themes 2. Transcribe all interviews and get familiar with the available data 3. Perform initial coding 4. Generate an initial template 5. Develop the template 6. Use the final template to interpret findings 7. Perform Quality and reflexivity checks in one of the steps above 5.2.1 Data preparation The primary data obtained was prepared before analysis (Saunders et al., 2015; Bailey, 2008; King, 2012). This process involved sorting responses to questionnaires, transcription, and familiarisation with the raw data to facilitate the process of analysis. 5.2.1.1 Interview transcriptions and response sorting The first stage in analysing qualitative data is to present all collected data in written language (Bailey 2008). Correspondingly, answers to questionnaires were compiled and the interviews were transcribed. These transcripts are available in appendix O. 5.2.1.2 Data Familiarisation Furthermore, Saunders et al . ( 2015) and King (2012) stressed the importance of getting acquainted with data collected as well as establishing repetitive themes that emerge from these data The author viewed answers to questionnaire before every interview. Therefore, the responses to the questionnaires assisted the author in identifying key questions to ask interviewees during interviews. After receiving responses and transcribing all the interviews, the author carefully read through each respondents answers as well s transcripts identifying and highlighting the key thernes emerging from various parts of the data of data provided by participants. 395.2.1.3 Defining a Priori themes The author highlighted two major themes as well as three sub-themes .These themes, a illustrated in figure 5.1 below, were derived from the aims and objectives of this study. Despite this study's inductive nature, the author found it appropriate to extract the themes from existing literature to provide a foundation for the proposed competency framework and also facilitate the data triangulation process described in Chapter 4. Moreover, King (2012) endorsed the adoption of predefined themes in inductive studies where he considered it appropriate to always identify some key themes relevant to main concepts in the inductive research in advance. Competencies required for managing complex engineering projects in Ghana Challenges faced by PMs keys (7 themes QD Sub-themes Figure 5.1: Primary themes and sub-themes established from raw data ‘The challenges Faced theme includes the issues affecting complex engineering projects in Ghana as identified by the participants concerning complex project management in Ghana. The relevant competencies theme comprises all applicable competencies (skills, knowledge, and behaviours) outlined by the participants for addressing the challenges identified required. 5.2.2. Coding procedure ‘A code in qualitative research, as described by Saldana (2015), is often a term or a phrase that, symbolically provides a summative, significant and core-capturing meaning to a section of language- based or graphical data. Therefore, coding was used to categorise data with similar meanings (Saunders et al., 2015). Additionally, Saunders et al . ( 2015) established three ways of deriving codes for qualitative data. These include codes extracted from the data by the researcher, codes obtained from the participant's words (ie. in vivo coding) and codes extracted from published literature (i.e. priori codes). The coding approach assumed a hierarchical structure as King (2012) recommended. According to king (2012), the higher the coding levels, the greater the level of precision; higher hierarchical codes 40represent general themes that originate from the responses and transcripts, while lower ranked codes subdivide and classify sub-themes that appear below higher-level codes. Coding was performed using MAXQDA analytics pro 2020. Using this software enabled the author to import all data into a single location to facilitate analysis the results, thus, simplifying the coding process. In vivo and priori codes were both adopted for data coding . 5.2.3 Template design ‘The initial template was designed using the data from questionnaire responses and interview and transcripts. The template analysis generally begins with a series of predefined codes to aid the data analysis process (Nowell et al .,2017). These redefined codes are the priori themes and sub-themes stated in sub-section 5.2.1 3. The initial template was continually revised and modified as the author reviewed various responses and transcripts. Additionally, these codes were constantly updated and modified to suit the study's aims and objectives prior to developing the final template. As this is an inductive study, Saunders et al. ( 2015) recommended that data be coded to the highest level possible to explore the different interpretations of the data obtained. The template in this study was designed in using a layout proposed by King (2012). The author's final template for the analysis which includes an overview of the challenges faced by PMs in executing complex engineering projects in Ghana as well as the competencies (i.e. skills, knowledge and behaviours) required for managing such complex projects is included in Appendix |. 5.3 Data Analysis Phase 2: Statistical Analysis and Triangulation of Data It is insufficient to perform the template analysis and produce the final template by only generating codes from the primary data, as itis just a summary of the data collected and thus requires further evaluation and interpretation. Moreover, a key benefit of template analysis is its flexibility and its ability to represent and interpret the aims of a particular study in diverse ways (Saunders et al ., 2015; King, 2012). Therefore, this stage sought to review the list of challenges and competencies compiled from the template analysis phase to provide an overview of their recurrence within the primary data, Furthermore, this process highlighted the significant competencies required by PMs in a Ghanaian setting which requires further review. There were two aspects of this analysis. The first part explored the engineering challenges reported by the participants whiles the second part considered the necessary competencies for addressing these challenges. These findings were extracted from MAXQDA Analytics Pro 2020. In addition, data triangulation was used to test the validity of the findings, as mentioned in Chapter 4. Hence, Figure 5.4 below illustrates the triangulation procedure adopted by the author for validation of the findings. aFindings Analysed,interpreted and ised Triangulation Validating findings, conclusion and additional research =» Figure 5.2: An overview of the data triangulation process Secondary data ‘GBEETHET TOM existing literature (Chapters 2 and 3) obtained from Ghana 5.3.1 Engineering Complexity Factors in Ghana Chapter 2 of this research reviewed the various factors of complexity that influence complex engineering Projects. Most of these complexities were largely related to global engineering projects while others were specific to developing countries. Section 2.6 also discussed significant challenges affecting complex engineering projects in Ghana. Accordingly, the findings of the template analysis were triangulated against the complexity components in the existing literature as well as the challenges associated with complex engineering projects in Ghana in Table 5.2 below. Additionally, the number of participants that identified each challenge was included. The sections in “Bold” reflect the aspects of complexity whiles the sub-elements represent challenges associated with these complexities. Statistically, the frequency of challenges identified ranged between 1 and 7 respondents. Nevertheless, a challenge being identified by many participants might not make it more relevant than others. Moreover, these considerations are just indicative and therefore not entirely representative, as the quantification of qualitative data frequently disregards the context and actual interpretations embedded in the responses of participants. Additionally, the challenges identified were represented with) orto indicate their occurrence in both primary data and existing literature or their absence respectively. 42Table 5.2: Results of data triangulation of the challenges faced by PMs in Ghana ‘ad of competent staf Polis and Economice Favour and ribalem gousm/Grendiosity ‘Stakeholder coorsination ‘xtsmal Staksholdere Project Finances “echnical and Technological Equipment availabiltyConsidering the data triangulation observations, majority of the challenges identified by the participants reflect the results of previous research in Ghana. This may be due to the limited literature regarding complex projects in Ghana. However, the findings of the study may be considered as validated at the national level since the primary data also reflects what is happening in Ghana. Further research is required regarding both complexity and competencies. 5.3.2 Project Manager Competencies Tables 5.32 to 5.3c illustrate the required skills, knowledge and behaviours for managing complex projects in Ghana as Identified by the participants. Therefore , a competency identified by one or more participants demonstrates a general consensus of PMs to its necessity, thereby highlighting its significance. Again, it is important to note the competencies listed only once are not necessarily irrelevant, if further studies are to be conducted. This would be discussed into details in Chapter 6. ‘Though some of these competencies are often applied to conventional project management, they nevertheless apply to complex projects. In the case of managing complex projects in Ghana, the competencies outlined in the final template were triangulated against global competencies from existing literature discussed in chapter 3. This was due to the lack of published literature on PM competencies in Ghana. The inference of a competency identified in both data from Ghana and the existing literature is the affirmation of the importance for that competency for PMs on a general scale primarily for managing complex engineering projects. In addition, there seems to be a limited number of competencies reported in both global literature and Ghanaian data. This may be caused by the lack of literature from Ghana as well as the limited number of available participants. However, competencies identified in Ghana alone should be analysed for complex projects worldwide to determine if they can be incorporated into the standard body of knowledge, or whether they are only applicable in Ghana. Additionally, the competencies identified were represented with [iam or jgumumito indicate their occurrence in both primary data and existing literature or their absence respectively. 44Table 5.30: Data triangulation results for the skills required for managing complex engineering projects in Ghana Skills Effective communication Primary data from Ghana/Frequency Data from existing literature-Global Cost control Stakeholder management Listening. Interpret engineering drawings Planning and scheduling Diplomacy Team members Leadership Comprehending stakeholder expectations Progress updates Project Management Process ‘Scope management ‘Schedule Management ‘Scope management Monitoring project schedule PM Skills Delegating work Coordinating activities Software familiarity Critical thinking ‘Stakeholder satisfaction Monitoring and controlling Project progress Whole life assessment 45Table 5.3b: Data triangulation results for the knowledge required for managing complex engineering projects in Ghana. [Primary data from Ghana/Frequency [Data from existing literature-Global Procurement Strategies Time management Quality management Risk analysis [Construction expertise Environmental laws Culture of project location ‘Scope management Estimation and Scheduling 46Table 5.3c: Data triangulation results for the behaviours required for managing complex engineering projects in Ghana. Behaviours Punctuality Patience Foresight Humility Work ethics Resilience Determination Logical thinking Emotional intelligence [Assertiveness Hard work Transparency proactiveness Open mindedness Decision making [Adaptation to Change Creativity Problem Solver [Creativity Primary data from Ghana/Frequency a7 Data from existing literature-Global5.4 Conclusion The findings of the data analysis process were presented in this chapter. The summary of the data obtained as well as an overview of the professional profiles of the participants were also provided. Additionally , the data obtained was prepared and coded with MAXQDA before being analysed in two terms phases. First, a template analysis was conducted where the author analysed the primary dat: of challenges faced and required competencies. The challenges of complex engineering projects and the competencies resulting from the primary data were established. ‘The outcomes of the template analysis were then evaluated, and the frequency of the competencies was assessed to identify the fundamental skills, behaviours and knowledge for managing complex projects in Ghana. This process was then combined with data triangulation in order to validate the findings of the study. The data triangulation results indicated that the results from the data gathered corresponded with the results in the published Literature 48CHAPTER SIX DISCUSSION 6 Introduction In this chapter the outcomes of the data analysis process are evaluated. This research aims to create a theoretical model from the practical viewpoint of a competent PM, by developing a competency framework focused on skills, behaviours and knowledge. Prior to developing the framework, the nature of complexity and the key issues surrounding complex engineering projects in Ghana were considered in previous chapters. ‘Two aspects will be discussed, based on the data analysis. Firstly, the challenges faced by PMs in executing complex projects would be discussed. Secondly, the competencies needed by PMs to address these challenges as well as execute complex projects in Ghana would be examined, 6.1 Challenges of Complex Engineering Projects in Ghana ‘The challenges faced by PMs in Ghana were further examined in Table 5.3a above, where the number of similar responses were established from the participants. While the latter may be a predictive factor regarding the significance of an issue, the author acknowledges that some responses that appeared once may be equally relevant due to the study's exploratory nature. Hence, the discussion would be presented in two stages. This begins with discussing the outcome of the data triangulation. The author would then go into more depth by explaining the main issues impacting complex projects in Ghana. 6.1.1 Step 1: Data triangulation results Table 6.1 below summarises the relevance of the challenges presented in Table 5.2 based on their presence in various data presented in Chapters 2 and 3. The challenges were presented in five categories. Table 6.1: Categories of challenges facing complex projects in Ghana Category Primary data Data from Data from from Ghana _| existing literature | existing -Ghana literature-Global A Vv v v 3 v v x c v x x D x v v E v x v (A) Primary data from Ghana and Data from existing literature (Ghana & Global) Most of the challenges identified by participants were stated both in Ghanaian published literature and internationally. Lack of competent staff, scope changes and poor human relations were among the issues that run through all the data. Due to their universal familiarity, these challenges may be regarded as highly influential to the complexity of engineering projects around the globe. 49Correspondingly, the author recommends that these issues be considered when designing the competency framework. (8)Primary data from Ghana and Data from existing literature - Ghana This category deals with the engineering issues identified in the primary data and supported by Ghanaian literature. As these issues were found lacking in globally published literature, they may be considered as unique to Ghana. The author considers this quite fascinating as some complexities attributed to developing countries were absent in those challenges identified by the participants in Ghana which is a developing country. The author believes that this variation may be due to socio- cultural aspects in Ghana. Thus, other countries also face country-specific challenges which may need to be addressed while handling complex engineering projects in those countries. Ultimately, issues identified in both primary data and published literature in Ghana are considered influential and should be fully considered during the project management process in Ghana. (C) Primary data from Ghana only Engineering challenges observed in primary data from Ghana alone are considered significant and specific to Ghana even though these were few. These issues may not be relevant to PMs outside, However, these issues may be missing from both local and international literature due two reasons: () Existing literature in Ghana: Whiles earlier studies may have assessed issues in the Ghanaian engineering sector, they were all related to simple engineering projects. As established in chapters 2 and 3, no prior work related to complex engineering projects has been performed in Ghana. Therefore, these issues may concern complex projects only and thus contribute to the general knowledge body. The author proposes, however, that further investigation be conducted to validate their significance. (I) Existing Literature (Global): These challenges may be missing from international literature because the frequency of such problems may be globally insignificant and therefore only important in Ghana, (0)Data from existing literature-Ghana and Global Several challenges of complex projects encountered in both international and Ghanaian literature were stated by the participants during the surveys. Therefore, their existence, particularly in local literature , indicates their relevance in the Ghanaian setting and ought to be assessed. Nevertheless, the author believes some issues identified were limited due to some of the reasons stated below: () Due to time constraints, limited number of PMs were surveyed, and the challenges explored were limited (ll) As stated in Section 6.1.1 € (I) above, Ghana lacks prior research related to complex engineering projects. Hence, many of the challenges PMs face seem not to have been captured within the limited literature available. Highlighting that certain issues have been established in Ghana's current literature as impacting the engineering sector, the author recommends considering these issues when establishing the competency framework for Ghana, 50(E) Primary data and published global literature only Some challenges were only observed in primary data and published literature. These challenges are relevant for managing complex projects. However, they may be absent from published literature in Ghana due to the limited research on the challenges of complex engineering projects in Ghana. 6.1.2 Step 2: Key challenges hindering complex engineering projects in Ghana This segment addresses the critical issues as captured by the participants. While a considerable number of issues are important and contribute to the scope of Ghana's projects, the author argues that only specific issues should be highlighted. The rationale being that this study aims to establish a framework of competencies for PMs to handle complex projects. However, some of the issues are beyond the PM's control and the scope of this study. Such issues include exchange rates and tax regimes. Additionally, the time available for discussing these issues is limited. Therefore, the author's focus is on the challenges that were found in both existing literature and primary data as well as those that were identified by several participants 1. Project scope Scope changes Scope changes has been listed as one of the key reasons engineering fail or delay (PMI, 2015). Complex projects are characterised by a variable work cycle that involves frequent alterations and revisions (Vidal et al.,2011). Similarly, PM12 expressed the impact of scope changes on complex projects as: “another challenge has to do with scope. The scope of projects change almost every three months. Which is why most projects never get completed. Scope change occurs so many times and it ends up leading to another important challenge ,which is exceeding the budget” ( PM12,2020). Additionally, every engineering project involves some degree of variation (Sense, 2014). This is especially obvious for complex projects due to the highly diverse scope of work which makes advance scheduling and planning difficult (Maylor et al., 2008). Similarly, participant SS1 supported this view by expressing his thoughts on design changes by stating that: “Changes in drawings is definitely a challenge. Sometimes we are at a very advanced stage when the drawing get changed and we have to destroy certain things and start with the new drawing. We don’t also receive information in time which makes the work difficult”(SS1, 2020). Although these changes referred to drawings, the author believes that the drawings form a major part, of the project scope especially at the design and implementation phases of most complex projects. Therefore, frequent changes in these drawings would definitely affect the entire scope of the project. Furthermore, scope variations was identified by PM,PM6 and PM 11 using various phrases in their responses to the online questionnaire. ‘Accordingly, PM3 and PMS recommended scope management, stakeholder management, construction expertise, procurement strategies and flexibility as the relevant skills, knowledge and behaviours for managing scope changes respectively. Moreover, these competencies enable PMs to understand the dynamics of project scopes and how to control the entire projects Poor scope management ‘According to PM1, PM4, PM6 and PM11, poor scope management is another major challenge facing complex engineering projects in Ghana. Most complex projects in Ghana commence without any 51appropriately defined scope or monitoring schedule (Ahadzie et al.,2009). Additionally, this challenge exists in both local and international literature regarding complex engineering projects which emphasises its influence on complex projects. Therefore, scope management and schedule management skills, knowledge of procurement strategies and flexibility were recommended for dealing with poor scope management in complex projects (PM3,2020; PMS,2020; PM12,2020). 2. Project Finance i. Lack of sufficient funding Like most other developing countries, Ghana has a tremendous need for new projects, primarily inthe development of infrastructure (Venter,2005). Nevertheless, several projects experience setbacks due to limited funds (Mawenya,2008; Ventor,2005). Accordingly, $S2 stated that: “These complex projects also lack the consistent allocation of project funds. Funds may be available at the beginning, but it doesn’t usually last or funding is always delayed” (SS2, 2020). This statement highlights the fact that Ghana lacks the funding for complex projects. This challenge was also stated by PM2, PM6, PM7 ,PM8, PM9 and PM110 in addition to being mentioned in existing literature in section 2.5.2 above. This emphasises the impact of limited funding on complex engineering projects in Ghana. This issue can be mitigated with skills such as whole life assessment, stakeholder management and diplomacy. Additionally, knowledge of procurement strategies and determination may aid in managing this issue (Osei-Tutu et al, 2014; Amponsah, 2010; PM12,2020;PM1,2020). Possessing these competencies may equip the PM with expertise to manage the project and secure funding for all aspects of the project life cycle (Amponsah,2010). . Cost overruns Additionally, PM1 and PM3 identified cost overruns as another financial challenge. As established in section 2.5.2, most complex projects in developing countries usually resort to alternative sources of generating funds. Correspondently, complex projects in Ghana are usually funded externally by foreign development banks (Amponsah.201;Venter,2005). Therefore, PMs face significant difficulties in securing funding for complex projects and should be properly equipped with sufficient expertise (Osei-Tutu et al,, 2014). Moreover, complex projects include uncertainties that affect the estimated budget of projects (APM,2015). The author believes that the estimated budgets for complex projects in Ghana lack adequate funds for variations. Therefore, any uncertainty encountered affects the overall cost of the project significantly. Nonetheless, cost overruns may be mitigated by knowledge of cost control, estimating and scheduling wprocurement strategies and whole life assessment skills (Osei-Tutu et al,2014; PM3,2020; PM9,2020). Possessing these competencies enables the PM to develop appropriate budgets as well as manage the funding available for the project. 3. Human Resources i, Lack of competent staff The major human resource challenges identified by participants was the lack of competent staff. Although labour supply in Ghana is sufficient, the quality of labour available is considered a significant 52issue with a detrimental effect on the engineering sector (Venter,2005). This is attributed to the lack of skilled labour, where most of the workforce are unskilled and possess inadequate qualifications. Most PMs are also not professionally trained (World Bank Report, 2007). This issue was raised by PM7 as the challenge of getting “qualified staff” whiles PMB termed it “lack of adequately skilled personnel”. Additionally, PM9 also stated “Getting adequately trained artisans” as challenge. The author affirms that this as a significant challenge affecting complex projects as it also exists in existing literature as determined in table 5.2 above. Moreover, PM3 mentioned the challenge of the quality of work produced which the author believes may be affected by the type of labour executing the work. While this issue may be unavoidable at a project level, the PM must have an extensive range of behavioural faculties to deal with the varied labour structure and necessary resource management expertise to assign the appropriate tasks to the suitable human resources. This issue may be controlled through delegation of work, software familiarity, teamwork and developing appropriate work ethics (APM,2015; Osei-Tutu et al.,2014; PM9,2020). This would enable team members develop competencies through executing tasks and learning from other team members. Poor human relations Complex project involve a variety of human resources which requires extensive management to successfully execute the project (APM.2015). Similarly, PM13 highlighted this issue saying: “Human relations is one of the major challenges of construction management in Ghana. | would say the weakest point of our project management systems. Many project managers are not trained in ‘HR which affects how they relate to other project team members”(PM13,2020). Project performance is highly dependent on the team members. Therefore, the PM must possess human relation skills to effectively manage the team and all other aspects of the project. Complex projects definitely involve human subjects at all levels of the project organisational structure. Clients, stakeholders, consultants and project team members all require effective management for progress. Effective communication, stakeholder management and leadership skills may aid in dealing with the issue of poor human relation. Additionally, teamwork, flexibility and culture of the project location are the respective behaviours and knowledge for handling poor human relations in Ghana (P110,2020; $51,2020; $52,2020) 4. Socio-cultural Issues Tardiness Generally, Ghanaians seem to disregard time consciousness as being late is a norm (Akwedoba, 2016). This affects project delivery as workers maybe be constantly late to work and always present many excuses to defend their tardiness. Tardiness and was identified by several participants. PM3 and PMS proposed time management as a relevant knowledge for dealing with tardiness. Furthermore, leadership and monitoring and controlling skills also aid in mitigating tardiness while punctuality and teamwork may be relevant behaviours for managing tardiness (3S1,2020; PM4,2020;PMS, 2020). 53