TABLE OF CONTENTS ‘WATER QUALITY PROCESS! ND VARIABLES Tenpesatire, Photosynthesis and Regpration Substances ia Wer nity and Total Disolved Solids 2 3 1 6 Total Alkalinity and Total Hardest 7 Acidity z 8 8 5 9 9 0 Biochesssal and Chenical Oxygen Demand Secchi Disk Visility Chloropbsl¢ and Primary Productivity Suspended Solid, Tashdity, and Color rH Dissalved Onsen Nitrogen Phasghorus POND SOIL Texture Cation Exchange Acidity — Onganio Matter and Oxidation Reduction Pood Soil and Aquacultusal Production _ WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT __ 23 Fertilization Liming 25 Toxic Metabolios Mechanical Aeration 28 Water Circulation 30 Miscellancous Treatments 30 Aquatic Plan! Control 2 Heavy Metals 32 Pesticides 3 Calculations For Chemical Treatments WATER ANALYSIS Sampling Water Woter Analysis Kit Secchi Disk Viiily REFERENCES 36 (Ceiswvs To FAHRENHEIT DEGREES _ a MeTuc AND ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS ee a7 Citeieat, SeMpoLs OF SELECTED ELEMENTS a Fins PANTING 3M, AUousT 1998 Information contained herein is auaable an all persons regandess of race, color, sex, oY natal criginWATER QUALITY FOR POND AQUACULTURE Claude E. Boyd Department of Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures ‘Auburn University, Alabama 36849 USA ATER QUALITY includes all physical, chemical, and biel factors that influence the beneficial use of water, Where aquacul ture is concemed, any characteristic of water that affects the sur vival, reproxtuetion, growth, or managemenc of fish or other aquat- ic creatures in any way is a water quality variable. There are many water quality vari ables in pond aquaculture, but only a few of these normally play an important role These are the variables that aquaculturists should attempt to control by management techniques. All other chings being equal, a pond with “good” water quality will pro duce more and healthier aquatic creatures than a pond with “poor” water quality. A knowledge of water quality principles will help the aquaculturist in determining the potential of a body of water for aquaculiure, improving environmental conditions in ponds, avoiding stress-related lisease and parasite problems, and ultimarely producing aquatic creatures more efficiently. Scientific papers and books on warer quolity chynamics and management it ponds are quite technical snd cletailel. Therefore, Boyd and Lichtkopper (6) prepared a simple and concise manual of the major aspects of pond warer quality and ies man: agement for practical aquaculturists. That publication was popular, bur it is now out of print. This manual isa revision of the manual by Boyd and Lichtkoppler. It covers the major water quality variables, including salinity, pH and alkalinity, dissolved oxy gen, plankton, nutrients, and toxic merabolites. t explains how these variables relate to the use of fertilizers and feeds to increase production in ponds It also discusses the improvement of water quality through mechanical aeration and other methods. This manual explains only the usual relationships between water quality variables ancl aquocultural production and provides some common management methods, All aspects of pond water quality and its management cannot be covered in a small man- ual or ina simplistic way. Those wanting a more complete account of water quality may consult Boyd (2) or Boyd and Tucker (7). WATER QUALITY FOR POND AQUACULTURE 1WATER QUALITY PROC! AND VARIABLES TEMPERATURE Warmwater species grow best at temperatures between 25° and 32°C (Celsius). Water temperatures are in year-round at low altivudes in the topics, but ater temperatures are too low in winter in temperate regions for topid growth of warmwarer aquaculture species this any and their food oiganisms. For this reason, management pro ccecres such as feeding and fer an winter in temperate climates. Temperature has a pronounced effect on chemical and biological processes. In general, rates of chemical and ig are haltesl or reduced biological reactions double for every 10°C increase in teme perature, This means that aquatic organisms will use nice as tnuch dissolved oxygen at 30°C as at 20° reactions will progress twice as fast at 30% as at 20°C Thertore, dissolved oxygen requitements of aquatic crea tures are mote critical in warm water than in cooler water Chemical treatments of ponds also are affected by cempera- ture. In warn water, fertilizers dissolve faster, herbicides act uickes, rotenone degrades faster, and the rate of oxygen Consumption by decaying ongante matter is greater. In ponds, heat enters at the surface and surface waters heat faster than deeper waters. Because the density of water (weight per unit volume) decreases with increasing temperature above 4°C, surface waters may become so warm aa! light that they do not mix with the cooler, heavier °, and chemical waters of deeper layers. The separation of pond waters into distinet warm and cool layers is called therinal stratification, The upper, warm layer is called the epi and the lower, cooler layer is known as the hypolimaion. The layer of rapidly changing temperature between the epilimnion and the hypolimnion is termed the chermocline, The temperature profile for a ther- mally stratified pond is shown in figure 1. lo temperate regions, large ponds may stratify in the spring and remain stratified until fall In small, shallow ponds in temperate Figore 1. Thermal seatification ina relatively deep pond 6am. Dai During Tater afternoon and night or) 26 28 300032 Water temperature (°C) ig the day air warms and suface water warms faster than deeper water and surface water cools until pond desteatifes regions and in tropical ponds, stratification often exhibits a daily pattern. During the lay, the surface waters warm and form a dis- Hiner layer. At night the surtitce waters cool to the same temperature as the lower waters and the two layers mix (figure 2). An exten- sive discussion on thermal stratification may be found in nology. in some climates, pond surface in iny standard text on lim- Waters may reach temperatures of 35°C or more. This is above the optimum tempera. ture for most warmwater species, bur the creatures may seek haven from the high temperature in deeper watets Fish and crus pal taceans have poor tolerance (0 sudden changes in temperature. One should not Figure 2. Dacly thermal serauificatiom and destraufcasion in a shallow axguaculture pond. remove chem from water of one temperature and sucklenly christ them inte a water of appreciably higher or lower cemperatute. Warer Quarry ror POND AQUACULTUREOfien a stulden change in cemperature of as little as 3° oF 42°C: will stress or even kill aquatic creatures. The effcct is usually worse when moving creatures fiom cooler to warmer water. Because temperatures increase with decreasing alti tude, one must allow for ter ing aquatic creatures from high altitude to low altitude waters. Aquaculture species readily tolerate gradual changes verature adjustinent when mow in temperature. For example, one could raise the water rer: perature several degrees aver a few hours without harming ‘aquitic creatures, but if they are suddenly removed from cool water and placed in water that is several degrees warmer they PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND RESPIRATION In ponds, plants are the primary source of enganic matter that ultimately fin Plants have the ability to use carbon dioxide (CO,), water (Hy ients, and sunlight to produce organic imatier in the form of simple sugar (CyHy 04), and osyge (O,) is formed as a by-product. In this process, termed pho- tosynthesis, inorganic carban way into aquatic animal flesh, >), mineral nu carhon dioxide is chemical. ly recluced to onganie earbon in sugar, Light encrey (sunlight) is transformed co chemical energy of sugar. The summary reaction for photosynthesis is Light Energy + 6CO, + 6H,0 + CgH,0, + 60). The simple sume molecules produced by green plant through photosynthesis represent nearly all af the ‘energy available co living things, Both plants and creatures epene! upon pherosynthetivally produced energy. The sit ple sugar molecules also are the building blocks for more ‘TABLE I. TyricaL CONCENTRATIONS OF ELEMENTS Pop WATER AND PHYTOPLANKTON Elmer Water Phytoplankton (opin) (opm were Caton 10 Fa00 Niteagen On 1,600 Phosphoms 005 5 Sulfar 15 15 Chloride 50 Caletum 100 Magnesium 20 Pras 10 150 Sodium 30 1,050 fron a 30 Manganese 005 15 Zine 0.005 1.25 Copper 0.005 30 Boron 202 7 (Goncenimation factors we ton by concentrations in water: WATER Quanniy ror F shtained by dividing concentrarions in phytaplank comples organic compounds, Pkanis make complex carboby dates (starch, cellulose, ete), proteins, fats, vitamins, and other compounds feon the sugars formed in photosynthesis rl photosynrhetically derived sugar as an enecgy Creatures connor prosluce organic matter: They must feed directly on plants or on other creatures that have fed on plants. All energy, nutrients, and structural materials needed by creatures come originally from plants Respiration isa second basic process in aquaculture In vespisation, cnganie matter is combined with oxygen (oxi diced) with the release of water, earbon dioxide, and energy Plant energy released thee ints also make their tissues from these compounds and usc id animal cells have the ability to capeure some of the igh oxidation and to use it toda biolog- ical work. The rest is lost as heat. From an ecological stand point, respiration is the reverse of photosynthesis: CH) OQ, + 60) 3 6CO, + 6H,O) + hest energy In photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is reduced eo organic carbon with the capture of energy and the release of oxygen, while in respiration, organic carbon is oxidized h the release of energy and che uptake of oxygen. Biochemically, photospnthesis ond respitation are cathon dioxide wi guile distinct processes, but for ecological purposes, photo- synthesis and respiration may be thought of as reversible reactions. When photosynthesis is progressing faster than respiration, oxygen will accumulate and carbon dioxide will decline. This is the usval situation in a pond during daylight Atnight, photosynthesis stops but respiration must continue day and night. Thus, at night oxygen declines and carbon dioxide increases. The food chain or food web in an aquacul ture pond (figure 3) initiates wich plants. In ae ponds the most desitable plants are phyto: plankton. These organisms are microscopic Pree slyae char are suspended in the water. Algae often are green in calor, but some may be 16,000 blue-green, yellow, ced, black, or brown, 33,000 When pond water contains enough algae co 2 be discolored, it is said to contain a “phyto io plankton bloom” or, more generally, a 35 ‘plankton bloom.” Algae can grow on the an pond bottom where there is sufficient light 500 tor photosynthesis, The phytoplankton 300 (algae) may be fed upon by microscopic crea a tures called zouplanktan. Collectively phyto: 3 plankton and zooplankton are called plank ton. The plankton die and fragment to form dead organic matter (detritus) which is food OND AQUACTcea ie Zooplankton Tiron = Tilapia > [Insect > tS ere a Zooplankton > [Insects Sunfish >| = Detritus Phyroplanicton Ce SS ese an caren by small 6 Zooplankton 3 [lnseers > [Shrisp Devsivus eee ~ Benthos [acute po Fish meal Catiish Trout ees }—____, Plants meal bh > Pelleted feed Shrimp Figure 3, The foo webs in aquaculture ponds for bacteria, fungi, and various creatures. Detritus settle: the pond bottom; this enriches the soil with The pond bottom supports a community of bacteria, fungi ae, and small creatures that is called rhe henthos. Aquatic Insects are abundant in ponds and feed on plankton, ben- mnie matter thos, or deteieus. In the shallow areas of ponds with clear water, larger aquatic plants (macrophytes) may grow. Aquatic macrophytes alsa may grow while floating on the pond surface. Few fish or other creatures feed directly on macrophytes and their large structure obstructs the water, therefore, macrophytes are normally undesirable in aguacul: ture ponds. Depending upon the species, aquaculture crea- tures ear plankton, benthos, detritus, aquatic insects, small fish and crustaceans, or some combination of these food organisms. Some species of fish even eat macrophytes, and species such as the grass carp can be used for controlling macrophytes in pond. In order to increase production in ponds i is neces sary to increase the amount of food. This can be done by improving conditions for production of phytoplankton, which, in tum, will increase the production of other natural food organisms, Usually, itis only necessary to add to ponds certain inoeganie nuttients in the form of manure or chemi- cal fertilize to increase. phytoplankton growth. Of course, in Warr QUALITY Fe aquaculture, manufactured feed is commonly added to ponds which shert-citcuits the food chain. Additions of manufac: tured feed allow more production than can be achieved in fertilized ponds, but feeding does not change the dependence of aquaculture on plants. Aquaculture feeds are made from plant products or from animal proxducts which were derived from a plant-based food web. Phytoplankton is extremely important inthe dynamics of dissolved oxygen concentrations in ponds. As phytoplankton growth is enhanced by nutrients from fertil izers and feeds, wide swings in dissolved oxygen concentra: tion in water occur between night and day, Excessive phy toplankton blooms may Jead tw an oxygen depletion and associated stress or mortality of aquatic creatures at night and oxygen supersaturation of surface water during day time. Water quality in ponds is to a large degree dominated by phytoplankton abundance and the balance between photosynthesis and respiration SUBSTANC! Dissolved inorganic substances in. water include almost every element in the earths crust and atmosphere Seven ions (sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chlo- Powb AQUACULTURErice, sulfate, and bicarbonate) normally contribute 95% cr more of the weight of the dissolved ions in water, Other ions (for example, phosphate, ammonium, and Taber 2, AccerTAste CONCENTRATION RANGES FoR Disso.ve | INORGANIC SUBSTANCES IN AQUACULTURE POND WATE Flement Form in water Tesired concentiation Taya Moleculraxigen (0,) 5-15 wgiliter nitrate) are extremely important. biologi cally in spite of their relatively low con. Hydiogea HY [log Y= pli) centrations. Nivoren Molecular itzopen A large number of inorganic ele ‘Amoronia (NH) < 0.L miter iments are requiced for plane growel, Mose Nizate (NO, ) 02-10 mgfiver species requie at feast the following: car aes 2% : aa en bon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, Sulfur Sulfate (SO, 100 myliter (fresher) bon, hydtogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, 3 ie males iene phosphorus, chloride, boron, molybdenum, Hydrogen sulfide (HS) Not detectable calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, Carbon Carbon dioxide (CX 1-10 mgfliter 1, copper, iron, and A wganese. Diatoms: Catciany Calcium ion (Ca?*) 5 100 mefliter (freshwater) brackishwares) Gpecies of algae} also require silicon: Aquatic plants make oxygen in phocosyn- Magnesium Magnesium ion (M@g?*) 100 malliter(lreshwvates) thesis, and they obtain hydrogen from 6 1,500 mafliter(brackishwater) 100 mgilizer(lreshwater) water. Carbon diowide enters water from the | Sedium’ Sodium (Na") 11,000 mngiliter (brackishivater) air and from respiration by bacterial decam- Position of organic matter and other living Bannand crejneerinthewmen THROES ie “Hhabaiaieion HCO) 20-200 melliar (noctitea elements enter ponds from the water supply, 71" ost ponds with feeding) from dissolution of minerals in the pond 50-300 eailiter (ulapia and vail feel crustacean ponds) Of course, some algae andl bacteria are able Porasivin Potassium ion (K* 1-10 migliter (feedwater) < 400 mgiliter (brackishwater) bottom, or in additions of feet Carbonate Carbonate won (CO) 0-20 miter Chloride Chloride fon (C13 1-100 mgfiter (Geshater) to fis nitrogen. Thac is, they ean take mole= ‘ 20,000 tagfiter (brockishwoter) cular nitrogen (Nz), which enters water” pichonus — Phasplite lon 01005 - 0.2 mgllier frou the ait, and convert this nitrogen to (HSE, FRO) onginie nitrogen in plane tissue Silicon Silicate (1,Si0,, HSIO,-) 2-20 mgicer Nitrogen and phosphorus are more oq! Ferous ion (Re2") 9 mgr likely to lint phyteplankten growth than Fert ron Fe") Tice other nutrients. Typical concentrations of _ 00-05 matter plane nutrients im pond water and in phy. Manganae! — Mangance ian (Med) | O mutter plankton biomass are shown in table 1 0.05 0:2 meflter Concentration factors indicate how much Ziyet Zinc jon (Zi?*) ebiicapllices each element is accumulated by phyto: Total sine COT - 007 mglter plankton above its concentration in pond Copper! ‘Copper ion (Cu?) water, Less nitrogen and phosphorus 1s Total copper found im pond water relative to phyto- Boron! Borate (HsBO},H,BOs7) 0.05 - 1 mg/liter plankton needs than for other elements. Molybdenum! Molybdate (MoO,) Trace Hence, fertilizers are added to ponds to Salinity ‘Sum of all ions 50). 2,000 mg/liter (treshwarer) supelement the natural shortage of nivo- 2600" 95000 mater (eae jon and phosphotis. Brackishwater ponds TT aisable anges foe dese substances are poorly unslemool, ‘The values Int contain greater concentrations of sulfate, ed as the desired concentrations ate actually the usual concentrations of these six trace metals in surface waters of ponds chloride, calcium, magnesium, potasium, and boron than reported in rable I for fresh water ponds. However, concentrations of other nutrients are nitrogen ancl phosphorus also are key nutrients in fertlisa similar between freshwater and brackishwater por . andl tion of brackishwater ponds ITY FOR POND 5 WarrAtter nitrogen and phosphonus, carbon is the next most common element to lint productivity in aquaculture The av acidic waters and in waters of high pH. Applications of ponds. lebility of carbon is particularly low in agricultural limestone are used to neutralize acidity: and enhance alkalinity and carbon availability in acidic ponds The only economical way of improving carhon availability io high pH water is to add organic matter that decomposes to release carbon dioxide. Low concentrations of trace mer- ng w phytoplankton growth in pools, bur excessive concentrarions in polluted water supplies can ils are seldom lim he toxic. Aauatic ctearures need! slequate concentrations of ions to satisfy their osmotic needs as will be discussed later, bur they do not have strict requirements foe inividsl ions High concentrations of heavy metals ean be toxic t quate creatures. The concentration of dissolved oxygen in the vwarer is a critical factor in the reproduction, growth, vival, and disease tolerance of aquaculture creatures. The forms of the various inorganic substances and their desired fs re prowided in table 2 In addition to the dissolved inorganic substances, pond water may contain suspended inorganic soil particles ‘These parricles wually enter ponds in the water supply (runott is often turbid), or they are suspended in water by wave action or water currents caused by mechanical aera tion or wind. The larger particles will settle to the pond bortom, but some of the smaller particles may remain sus pended for long periods and cause turbidity. Turbidiey by soil pavticles is undesirable when ir restricts light penetra- tion into the water to less than 20 to 25 centimeters. Organ A wide range of organic substances cceuss in pond water. Dissolved compounds include sugars, staiches, amine acicls, polypeptides, proteins, fatty acids, tannins, humic acids, vitamins, etc. Large particles of d matter called detritus also are plentiful. OF course, the plankton and bacteria also conteibute to the organic load in water. It is not convenient to analyze for specific organic compounds. Usually, the total weight of organic matter or the total weight of particulate organic matter in water is aying organic determined. Desirable ranges for organic matter concentra: tions are not known, but pond water usually contains less than 50 milligrams per liter of organic matter Organic substances in water, paiticulatly plankton, cause turbidicy, Turbidity caused by plankton is desirable while turbidity caused by suspended clay particles is nor WATER QUALITY FoR FX 6 Ponds are most productive when turbidity by planktot to 40 centimeters. Ar this restricts visibilicy in water te Jevel of plankton abundance, natural food is adequate, dis solved oxygen for aquatic creatures is usually available, and light does not peneitate to the pond bottoin to encourage growth of cooted aquatic macrophytes, Floating aquatic macrophytes such as water hyacinth (Eichhoria crassies) water lettuce (Pistia sertiodes), duckweed (Lemna sp.) ete., cannot be controlled by turbidity. SALINITY AND ToTaL DissoLvep Soups The wotal concentration of all dissolved ions is salinity. In freshwarer, salinity usually is expressed in mile ligrams per liter. In humid areas, inland waters usually con. \ per liter salinity water with more than 500 milligrams per liter salinity usu tain 50 to 250 millig or reference, ally is not suitable for domestic purposes, andl 1,000 mile ligrams per liter salinity will impart a sakvy taste. In ad regions, and even during the dry season in certain humid an become quite saline. For example, inland ponds in arid regions such as Western Australia or the westem United States often have a salinity of 3,000 to 5,000 mi in waters with a salinity up co 2,000 milligrans per liter; er Salinity In brackishwater ponds, the salinity vaties with the areas, inland wate jgrams per liter. Most freshwater fish ean do well some species tolerate a much hi salinity of the source water, Ocean water usually has about 35,000 milligrams per liter saliniey, but water of estuaties may be similar to freshwater in the rainy season and have much higher salinity in the dey season. Some estuaries with Limited connections to the sea have a salinity greater than ‘ocean water in the dry season because ions are concenitrat ed through evaporation. Salinity decreases with distance upstream from the mouth of estuaries, and salinity may he stratified wich depth in Normally, the salinity of brackishwater is reported in parts per thousand instead of milligrams per liter. One part 1,000 per Brickishwater species can tolerate wide fluctuations in per thousand is milligeams liter salinity. Marine shrimp, such as Penaeus vanmamei and P. monodim, can be cultured successfully in coastal ponds over the salinity range of one to 40 parts per thousand, However, most shrimp farmers prefer a salinity of 20 t0 25 parts per thousind in their ponds. Annual variation in salinity of a shttmp pond in Ecuador is provided in figure 4. Notice that salinity is clearly related to rainfall QUACULTURE— Raita = = = Salinity fall (om) R JFMAMJ JAS Month OND per liter (2). However, ponds with a total alkalinity above 20 milligrams per liter can produce an abundance of fish and other aquatic creacutes. If che alkalinity is below 20 milligrams per liter, liming is necessary The total concentration of all divalent cations in water expressed in anys por liter of ealeram car (Divalent cations are positively charged ions with a terms of millig bonare is the total hardness Salinity (ppt) valence of 2.) Calcium and magnesium ate the clominant divalent cations i neacly all pond waters. As a general rule, hardness, Tike alkalinity, is derived trom the dissoh tion of limestone, When limestone dis solves, it gives equal amounts of hardness and alkalinity. In most waters, total hard- Figure 4, Re Gueyequil, Bewader The rotal concentration of all dissolved substances: in water is the total dissolved solids. Usually, concentrations of salinity and total dissolved solids are similar, TOTAL ALKALINITY AND TOTAL HARDNESS The total concentration of bases in water expressed in milligrams per liter of equivalent calcium carbonate (CaCO) is the total alkalinity. Bases in water include hiycroside, ammonia, borate, phosphate, silicate, bicarbon, ate, and carbonate, but in most pond waters, bicurbomace and carbonate are found in greater concentration than other bases The total alkalinity in water is derived mainly feom the dissolution of limestone in soils, s the concentration of toral alkali determined primarily by soil characteris ties, For exaimple, ponds in areas with sandy soils often have a total alkalinity below 20 mill grams per liter, while ponds in areas with ealeareous soils may have a total alkalinity above 100 milligrams per biter, Other factors being equal, roral ationship between rainfall and salimey in shrimp pens Humid region, acidic soil Humid region, ealeareous soil ness and total alkalinity concentrations are near approximarely equal. Howeves, some notable exceptions are found. In arid regions, carbonates tend to precipitate out as salinity increases and this causes alkalinity to be lower ly acidic: waters, hardness is often higher than alkalinicy because bicarbonate is neutralized by than hardness. In bi the avidity but the hardness ions remain. In some coastal areas, well waters may have alkalini the hardness because of the excha tnuchshigher than tum in aquifers. Well warers of this type are stid ro be natu rally softened. When such waters are used to fill ponds, photosynthesis may cause high pH. Some examples of total alkalinity, total hatdness, and pH in pond water from dif ‘logic regions are provided in table 3 we for total hardness is the same as for ferent climatic an The desirable nat total alkalinity Tame 3. Torat VALUES FOR TOTAL Al AND PH oy WATERS OF PONDS LOCATED AT SITE ALINITY, TOTAL H. or Dirvete RONESS, rT wes TH Moming Total alkalinity: Toral hardiness (rngllirer) (mg/liter) Aftemnoa 85.05 75-80 80-90 alkalinity will be higher in ponds in arid And region 75-85 85-95 regions than in ponds of humid areas. Filled by warer from well 100 - 500 5-10 80-85 90-110 The natural fertility of pond water inereases with increasing otal alkalinity up to at least 150 awilligeams Brackishwater with naturally softeneal water ‘WATER QUADITY FOR PoND AQUACULTUREAcIDITy Carbon dioxide is acidic, but normally it cannot depress the pH of water below 4.5, Waters that have a ral acid acid, Such waters are not alkaline, and they are unfit for usually sulfuric lower pH contain a strong aquaculture The mined total acids in water expressed in cerms of milligrams per You can think of acidity as negative alkalinity, because it represents acidity of water is a measure of the the amount of calcium carbonate thar would have to be added to water to raise the pH to the point that adklition of more calcium carbonate would cause alkalinity BlochesicaL AND CuenicaL OxyGEN DEMAND The rate of oxygen consumption by the plankton and hacteria in a sample of pond water is measured to deter mine the biochemical oxygen demand. A sample of raw warer ot diluted water is incubated in the dark for five days at 20°C. The loss of dissolved oxygen trom the water durin (BOD). Aquaculiure ponds typically have BOD values of the incubation period is the biochemical oxygen derma five to 20 milligrams per lite: The higher the BOD, the reater the degree of enrichment of pond water with argaty te matter: Although BOD often has been measured in pond waters, the desirable range is not well defined. Oxygen depletion isa danger in ponds without mechanical aeration when BOD exceeds Chemical oxygen demanil is measured by convert > milligrams per liter: ing all of the organic matter in a water sample to carbon dioxide and water by oxidation with potassium dichromate and sulfuric acid. The amount of potassium dichromate con- sumed in the oxidation is measured and the oxygen equiva lent of the dichromate is the chemical oxygen demand (COD). For example, if @ sample has a COD of 50 mil- ns per liter, 50 milly be ins per liter of ox: necessary to oxidize completely the organic matter. The COD isan index of the organic entichment of pond water The COD of pond waters may range from less than 10 to. snore than 200 milligrams per liter. The usual range is 40 to 80 milligrams per liter The BOD and COD are not used much in sguacul- ture pond management, but they are commonly used in estie mating che strength of pollutants in effluents. Because of the recent concern over the influence of pond effluents on water bodies into which they are released, environmental management is expected ty become a major issue in aqua. culture. Thus, the aquaculwrist should be familiar with BOD and COD. Speci Disk Visipiuiry The Secchi disk is a 20-centimeter diameter disk painted with alternate black and white quadrants (figure 5) Ie is weighted under the bottom and attached at the center ‘of its upper surface with a calibrated line. The depth at which the disk just disappears feom view is the Secchi disk visibility, Obviously; care must be taken to standard provedlute for reading the Secchi disk, In many wateis, there is a close correlation between Secchi disk visibility and ize the plankton abundance. As plankton density increases, visibili- ty decreases, However, if waters contain much turbidity from suspended clay particles or detritus, the Secchi disk visibility will noc be suggestive of phytoplankton abundance, The general relationship between Secchi disl visibility and the condition of the plankton is provided in table 4, CHLOROPHYLL A AND PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY Ic is possible to measure the chlorophyll a concen tation and use it as an index of the abundance of phyto- plankton, In general, as the chlorophyll « concentration increases, phytoplankton abundance increases, Productive Pon AQUACULTUREaquaculture ponds often have chlore- phyll a concentrations of 50 te 200 micrograms per liter (0.05 to 0.2 mil- ligrams pet liter) Primary productivity is an esti- mate of the amount of oxganic matter fixed by photosynthesis. In ponds, phy- toplankton usually is the largest produc- er of erzaie matter Rates of primary 22306 productivity usually are expres in 32-456 rams of carbon fixed per square meter per day. Although the aquaculture liter ature is replete with references to More than @ em, chlorophyll a and primary productivity, it is seldorn feasible tome sure these 10 variables in p aquaculture. The Secchi disk visibility isa simpler method for assessing plank ton abundance PENDED SOLIDS, TURBIDITY, AND COLOR The term turbid indicates that warer contains sus pended] material whieh interferes with the passage of light. Inv aquaculture ponds, turbidity which results from plank tonic organisms isa desirable rai, whereas turbislity caused by suspended clay patticles is undesirable. Even with the later condition, the clay particles are seldom abundant enough in water to directly harm aquatic creatures, If the pond receives runoff that earries heavy loads of silt and clay, the silt secles over the pond bottom and smarhers fish exes and benthic organisms, The finer clay particles which remain in suspension restrict light penetration and limit Uhe growth of plants, A persistent clay tusbidity chat restricts visibility into the water to 30 centimeters o€ ess may pre- vent development of plankton blooms. Methods for con= trolling clay turbidity will be discussed later: Some ponds receive large inputs of vegetative mat ter from their watersheds. Extracts from this plant material (hurnates) often impart calor to the water. Color from veg- tative extracts often appears as a dark stain giving the water the appearance of tea or weak coffee, Pond waters with high concentzations of humates are typically: quite acidic and have a low total alkalinity: Auhough color does not adversely affect aquatic creatures diecerly, 1 restricts light penetration and reduces plant growth. Ageicultural limestone applications have been used to. successtully remove humates from natural waters, In addition te color, the water may have scutn, foam, bubbles, and other material on the sutface. Seums le from floating often re je o¢ pollen. Foam usually ‘TABLE 4. RELATIONSHI Conornien Secchi dak reading BETWEEN Seccnt Disk VISUILITIES AND © OF PHYTOPLANKTON BLOOMS Comments Too turbid W pond turbid with phytoplankion, there will be prchl When turbidity s from suspended soi] particles, prochictvity wll be Loe Turbidity bevoming excessive If surbidity i from phytoplankton, pond isin goed condition, Phytoplankton becoming scarce Weer is too cleat. ate productivity and danger of aquatic weed preblems ins with low dissolved oxygen concencrations. results from protein in the water, and bubbles result from dissolved oxygen supersaturation or release of methane, car bon dioxide, and other gas from decomposition of organic atte. The suspended solids that ienpart turbidity to water ace measured by weighing the amount of material retained when pond water is passed through a fine filter. Suspended solid concenitations often range from 10 te 50 milligrams, per liter, but higher concentrations may occur in very tuehid ponds. The turbidity is estimated from che amount of light that is adsorhest by a water sample. [nsirumencs called neph- rors of turbidimeters are used toy wake turbidity mea from 10 49 50 neph- neier turbidity units in ponds, Practical aquaculturists surements, Turbidity often ran ck seldom measure suspencled solicls or turbiclity, they rely upon, Secchi disk visibility to evaluate turbidity of pond water. Ie is not unusual for aquaculrurists to observe ancl record the color of water Color results from suspended and dissalved substances, and when color is chan water quality conditions and especially phytoplankton communi ties also are changing. Some farmers have observed their ponds enough to prechict the suitability of their water for fish culture from Secchi disk visibility, color, and appearance pH ‘The pH is defined ay che negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion (H+) concentration: pH = ~log [Ht More simply, pH indicates how aide or basie a water is, For practical puqposes, warer with @ pH of 7 is considered net- ther geidie nor basic; it i said to be neutral. Water with a pH below 7, is acidic, Water with a pH above 7 is consid- ered basic, The pH scale extends from 0 to 14, the more the pi diters from 7, the more acidie or basic a wat Warer QUALITY FoR POND AQUACULTURE 9The pH of most freshwater ponds is between 6 and 9 ‘TABLE 5. THe Eerecr oF PH ON Pop Fist ab CRUSTACEANS x os nd within a given re et eal hereof Ib 4 Noreprodiction Pond, there oft 4 daily fluctuation 56 Slow growth 69 Best growth, in pH of one or nwo aL Slow growth units. Brackishwater Fl Alkaline death point ponds usually have pH values of 8 10 9, and daily pH fluctuations usually are less than in freshwater ponds. Daily fluctuation in pH resales from changes in the rate of photosynthesis by phytoplankton and other aquatic plants in response to the daily photopetiod. Carbon dioxide is acidic as shown in the following equation: CO, + HO = HOO, +H. Ifcarbon dioxide concentration increases, hydrogen fon concentration increases and pH decreases. Conversely, if carbon dioxide concentration decreases, hydrogen ion can centration falls and pH rises. Thus, when phytoplankton remove carbon dioxide from the water during daylight, the PH of water increases. Ar night, no carbon dioxide is removed from the water by phytoplankton, but all pond ‘organisms felease carbon dioxide in respiration. As exthon dliowide accumulates in the water at night, the pH falls. The chily cyele in pH is illustrated in figure 6. The daily Quctua- tion in pH is nat always as great as shown in this figure, but wide pH fluctuation can result when phytoplankton are abundant. Ponds with moderate or high total alkalinity ust ally have higher pH values in the early morning than ponds with low total alkalinity: However, when phytoplankton are abundant, much higher afternoon pH values occur in — Low alkalinity = Moderate alkalinity 6am. Neon Gpan. Midnight 6 Time of day Figvere 6. Daaly fluctuation in pH in fish culuore ponds 10 ponds with low alkalinity than in ponds with greater alka- linity. This results because of the bullering capa ed by the higher alkaliniy The dizect influence of pH on pond fish and crus: taceans is presented int table 5. There are, however, excep tions to these effects. For example, some Amazon River fish live and reproduce in waters of pH 4.0 te 4.5. In sur- face warets, brief occurrences of pH above 9, which are common in aguaculture ponds, normally do not harm aquaculture species. Where the pH of pond water is too low, lime may be applied to improve pH. Low pH is more common than high pEL. This is fortunate, for there is no really reliable procedure fer reducing high pH. Usually, acidity problems in ponds do not result from direct effects of low pH on growth, reproduction, or survival, but from the effects of low alkalinity and acidic muds on plankton and benthic production (3), The effects, of course, are reflected in law produetion of fish and other culture species. In some ty aflond- ‘coastal areas, soils contain from 1 to 5% sulfur in the form of iron pyrite. Such soils are called potential acid sulfate soils. If ponds are built in such material and pytitic soil is exposed to the air in levees or watershed, oxidation of pyrite can result in the formation of sulfuric acid, This acid «can leach into ponds and cause an extremely low pH. on e from coal mines also may contain sulfuric acid from oxida- pyrite often is associated with coal deposits, and deain: tion of pyrite and have a very low pH Dissovep OxyGEN Dissolved oxygen is the most critical water quality variable in aquaculeure. Aquaculturists need to choraughly understand factors affecting the concentration of dissolved oxygen in pond water. They also should be aware of the influence of low dissolved oxygen concentrations on aqua culture species Sol lity The atmosphere contains 20.95% oxygen. Atstan- dard atmospheric pressure (760 millimeters of mercury), the pressure of oxygen in air is 159.2 rnillimeters (760 X 9.2095). The pressure of oxygen in air drives oxygen into water until the pressure of oxygen in water is equal to the Pressure of oxygen in air. When the pressure of oxygen in water and air is equal, net movement of oxygen fram ait to water ceases, and dissolved oxygen is said to be at equilib rium or saturation, The solubilities of dissolved oxygen at saturation for standard atmaspheric pressure and different tempera- QUALITY FOR POND AQUACULTURE.“TABLE 6. THe SOLUBILITY oF OXYGEN (Maj AND SALINITIES FROM MOIST AIR WITH /LITER) IN Ware AT DIVER? TEMPERATURES Pressure OF 760 MM Ho. Ares Cour (9) Temperature Salinity (pe) re ° 5 0 5 20) 13.13 12.04 1282 1240 1249 1207 1.16 1176 1185 uaz 136 1.18 W127 10.91 11.00 1065 1.74 140 1o49 1016 10.25 9.93, 10.02 v7 9.80 950 959 9.29 938 3.10 919 BOL 9.00 a 882 855 5.64 835 5.47 822 831 8.06 8 a4 71 718 7.06 oot 605 683 6.04 672 654 661 ob 651 638 693 64d 6.24 682 - 631 old 672 637 6.21 605 661 6.28 62 5.96 6351 als 6.02 587 # oal 609 504 59 tues are provided in table 6, Notice that the concentration of dissolved oxygen at saturation declines markedly as water temperature increases. The concentritton of dis solved oxygen at saturation also declines with inerensing we for freshwater aquaculture, At high salinity, water hols considerably less dissolved oxygen than at low salinity. The concentration af disselved oxy with decreasing baromectic (atmospheric) pressure salinity, bue this effect is not great over the salinity at saturation decreases Variation in barometric pressure ata given locality may be ignored, but variations in barometric pressure resulting fiom elevation must be taken into account whe data from table 6 is used If the pressure at a particular site is known-even if the elevation of the site is not known-the correction of dana in table 6 may be made with che equation: 0, Ha] where DO, + corrected dissolved ony bo, neoncentratton At Warr QUALITY FOR POND AQUACULTURE nHsaturation (mites) DO, BP concentiation at saturation from table 6 local barometric pressure. Where barometric presure is unknown, the approx: imate change in pressure with increasing elevation is as fol lows: 0 10 600 meters — 4% deerease in haromet per 300 meters; 600 10 1,500 meters — 3% decrease in haroe metric pressure per 300 meters; 1,500 ro 3,000 meters — 2.5% decrense in barometric pressure per 300 meters, For suppese the elevation at a pond surface is 250 exampl meters and the water temperature is 30°C. The approsimate 250m x 0.08 baromettic pressure will be: 300 | Ac 30°C and 760 milliinerers barometric pressure, the d ‘T6Omm — 760 [ T#lnum. solved oxygen concentration af saturation is 7.54 milligrams per liter (table 6). The actual concentration of dissolved oxy- gen at saturation for the pond surface is al DO, = 7.54 [22] = 735m = 754 5 Pressure at @ point in water is influenced by the slepth of the point beneath the water surface. The weight (pressure) of water above the point is called the hyclrestatie presure, and the total pressure at the point is hydrostatic pressure plus barometric pressure. The solubility of dissolved oxygen at saturation at the point is @ function of catal pres sure, Thus, the solubility of dissolved oxygen at saturation The approximate increase in pressure with increasing depth is 73.42 milli- liters of mercury per meier. Thus, ifthe barometric pressure is 760 millimeters and depth is one meter, the total pressure is 760+ 73.42 = 833.42 millimeters. Aquaculture ponds ate shallow and the effect of depth on the solubility of dissolved svat saturation normally is Plants growing in pond water produce oxygen in imereases with increasing water depth. oxy rod. photosynthesis, and during daylight, plants may produce oxygen 30 fast that dissolved oxygen concentrations in water rise above saturation. Water containing solved oxygen than expected for the existing barometric pressure and water remperature is said to be supersaturated wore dis with dissolved oxygen. Water aloo may contain less dis en than expected at saturation for prevailing ms. Respiration by organisms in ponds solved oxy nay cause dissolved oxygen levels to decline; dissolved oxyey cally declines below saturation at night. When water 3s below saturation with clissolved W Quai 5 POND 2 oxygen, there is a net movement of oxygen molecules from, lo water. At saturation with dissolved oxygen, the nun ber of oxygen molecules leaving the equals the num- bor entering; there is no net mavement of oxygen mole- tiles, Net movement of oxygen molecules from water to air ‘occurs when water is supersaturated with dissolved oxygen. The larger the difference hetween the pressure of oxygen in water and ait, the greater is the net exchange of oxygen molecules, The degree of saturation of water with dissolved oxygen frequently is expressed as percentage saturation, The equation for estimating percentage saturation ist DO concentration in water %% Saturation = x 100. DO concentration ar saturation For exanple, if the barometric pressure i 760 millimeters, the water temperature is 20°C, and the dissolved oxygen concentration is 11.9 milligrams per lites, the percentage sat- tion is (110+ 9.08)» 100 = 121.1% Effects on Culture Species The influence of dissolved oxygen concentrations ton pond aquaculture species is summarised in table 7 Concentrations of dissolved oxygen can fall so low that creatures in poncls die. However, adverse effects of low dissolved oxygen more often are expressed as reduced srowth and greater suscepubility to disease. In ponds with chronically low disselved oxygen concentrations, crea- tures will eat less and they will not convert food to flesh as efficiently as in ponds with normal dissolved oxygen concentrations Gas supersaturation also can be harmful to culture species. Gas bubble trauma results from bubbles of gases forming in the blood. This may result when creatures ini TABLE 7. INFLUENCE OF DissouveD OXYGEN CONCENTRATIONS ON POND AQUACULTURE SPECIES Disolved oxvgen fect al W exposure lass more than afew hours Les than Tor? myjhnter 2-5 mgfliter Groth will ke slow iFexposure to low dissolved exysen is continuoe 5 imgfliter-saturation Best consition for good growth Above saturation Can be harmful itsypersaturated conditions exist throughout pond volume problem sally, there isc TOREtially in gas-supersaturated water are suddenly exposed to water of much lower gas concentration. ‘The blood was supersaturated with gas under supersaturated conditions, but at 3 lower concentration of dissolved gas, the supersat- urating gases in the blood form bubbles. These bubbles have adverse effects on various organs and physiological processes. The most comman causes of gas supersaturation are encrainment of air by water falling over high dams, air ‘entrainment through leaks on suction sides of pumps, and sudden transfer of creatures fiom cool water to warmer watet, Photosynthesis carn cause supersaturation of pond surface waters with dissolved oxygen, bur this is usually not harmful to pond species. They can move to greater depths where dissolved oxygen concentrations are lower and the dissolved oxygen concentration at saturation is greater. Plankton and Light passing chro ly, and the rate of quenching increases as the amount of par olved Oxygen Ih pond! water is quenched rapid ticulate matter (turbidity) in the water increases. As a result photosynthesis occurs most rapidly in rhe surface layer of water, and dissolved oxygen concentrations decline with dope. Plankton blooms rece light penetration, and the available tor photosynthesis at a given depth is proportional to the amount of plankton. In ponds with a Jot of plankton, dissolved oxygen concentrations may fill to 0 milligrams per lier at depths of 1.5 of two meres (figure 7). Because of this, itis best to use relatively shallow ponds (one to 1.5 meters) for aquaculture where elimacic condit and water supply permits, OF course, in areas with a long dry season, it may be impossible to maintain adequate water dept in shallow ponds. Concentrations of dissolved oxygen exhibit a daily escle. The lowest concentrations of dissalved oxy, about dawn, During daylight, photosynthesis. cause trations to increase, and maximum dis- dis. solved oxygen cones solved oxygen concentrations are reached in the afternoon, During the might, photosynthesis ceases but continuing use of oxygen by pond organisms causes dissolved oxygen con- centrations to decline. The daily cycle in dissolved oxygen is ronounced in ponds with heavy phytoplankton blooms (figure 8}. The influence of the daily eyele of dis solved oxygen on grawth of aquaculture species is poorly understood, but most workers feel that good g achieved as long as the dissolved oxygen concentration does not fall below 25 or 30% of saturation during the night and does nor remain at this low level for more than one oF two hours Cloudy weather can influence dissolved oxygen concentrations as illustrated in figure 9. This results because cloudy weather reduces the rare of photosynthesis through, light Limitation, buc it has little or no effect on respiration, The influence of clouxly weather is more pronounced ina pond with a heavy phytoplankton bloom chan in a pond swith less phytoplankton. In summary, as fertilization of feeding rates are fe os gio £15 pads st 20 fo LS ialemte fen bo & Lit aon Nom 8 12 16 20 Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) 24 © Heavy plankton bloom © Maderate plankton bloom © Light plankton bloom ob L 1 Noon 6 pam Tune of day HL 1 night a.m. M Figure 7. Influence of depth an dissolved onygen comeeninations i pions eit deren cemorous of plankrom Figure 8. Ejfect of aime of day amd plankton density an concen brations of dissolved oxygen in surface water WATER QUALITY FOR POND AQUACHETURE 13.Dissolved uxygen (i Gam Time of day increased in aquaculture ponds, phytoplankton abundance increases. This permits greater aquacultural production, but it also causes dissolved oxygen concentrations to fhictuate widely between day and night and 10 decrease with depth, IF Fert blooms will become so dense that growth of culture species will decline or the culture species will die because of low dissolved oxygen concentrations. The aquaculturist must ion or feeding rates are 100 high, phytoplankton adjust the fertilization or feeding rates so that there is both adequae plankton and dissolved oxygen far good produce tion of fish or other species, Because of differences in responses of individual ponds to fervilization and feeding, i is not possible to recommend a single, maximum safe ferti izer of feed application rate and schedule suitable for all ponds, It is essential that che pond manager observe each pond carefully and adjust ferviliser and feed applications tc Figsae 9. Effect of clotly weather on dissolved oxygen concen- ‘rations i pond pe Se 38 — Surface wusandsymnl) ters 2 18 26 April 30 May fit pond conditions Phytoplankton in ponds may suddenly die and decompose causing a dissolved oxygen depletion (8). An example of a phytoplankion die-off is shown in figure 10, and the influence of the die-off on dissolved oxygen cone Centrations is illustrated in figure 1]. The dissolved oxygen ‘oncentrations did not return to normal until a new phyto- plankton bloom was established. Most phytoplankton die offs involve species of blue-gre en algae, During calm weather, biue-are p algae often form scums at pond sur faces. Intense sunlight may result in sudden death of algae cum. Blue-green alg; in thi we have high concentrations of — Surface (anil) Figure 10. Changes in phytoplankton abundance before, during and afier a massive phytoplankaon die-offm a prod Water QUALITY FoR F Figure 11. Dissolved oxygen concenirat after a massive phytoplankion die-off a pod 8 before, during, and 1400 + Secchi Saihiley Dissolved essen 80 ity (em) ed oxygen (mg/L) ” ‘Secehi disk vi 1 20 30 Feed (ky/ha/day) Ey Figwe 12, Effect of feeding rate om dissolved oxygen eoncenara- tions at dawns aad on Secchi dish vsbilies in pons nitrogen in their tissue, so they decompose rapidly Mats of filamentous algae which develop on pond bottoms may, under certain conditions, float to the surface of a pond and die. This phenomenon also can deplete dissolved oxygen Bottom Sediment and Dissolved Oxygen Although plankton abundance usually is the domi: rant factor in dissolved oxygen dynamics in. aquaculture ponds, the bottom sedimentsalso consume cissalved oyygen. Bocrom sediments, especially in old ponds where large fe accumulat amounts of organically-entiched sediment hy ed, research on dissolved ox ren demands. There has been little ai lai exert large ox} consumption rates by pond bur thete is evidence that respiration by the benthic community ean easily remave two to three milligrams per liter of disolved oxygen from che pond water in 24 hous, Feeding and Dissolved Oxygen Phytoplankton abundance is eontealled by nutrient supply, and dissolved oxygen concentrations are regulated to a lange extent by phytoplankton abundance. Feed applied for axuiaculrure species results in pollution of pond waters by ie and inorganic metabolic wastes. Unearen feed also slecomposes, releasing nuttients inte water WATER Consequently, phytoplankton abundance and problems with low dissolved feeding rate (figure 12). These data suggest chat feeding rates above 40 or 50 kilograms per hectare per day will result in unacceptably low dissolved oxygen. Higher feecling rates may oxygen increase as a fiction of increasing be used in ponds if mechanical aeration is applied, Tilapia are more tolerant 10 low dissolved oxygen than most other aquaculture species, ancl somewhat higher feeding rates are posible without mechanical aeration, The feed conversion ratio is determined as the quan tity of feed applied divided by che net production (creatures harvested minus initial stocking weight). For example, sup pose that a one-hectare pond hal a net production of 5,000 Kilograms of fish and 9,000 kilograms of feed had been applied. The feed conversion ratio is: 9.000 kg feed _ 5,000 kg fish A low feed conversion ratio indicates greater efficiency than L890. a high value does, With good management practices, feed conversion ratios of 1.5 t0 2.0 may be achieved with most species of fish and crustaceans. Commercial aquaculture feeds do not usually cone tain more than 5 or 10% moisture, but most aguittic crea- tures are about 75% water. Dry matter feed conversion raties are much larger than the feed conversion ratios computed by dividing live net production weight inte amount of feed. [n channel catfish cubure, 1,00 kilograms of feed! might pro: dace a net of 1,000 kilograms of live fish. The feed 92% cry matter, so the input of dry matter is 1,656 kilograms. The fish are about 25% dey matter, so they contain about 250 kilograms of cry marcer. The dry marter feed conversion ratio is 6.62. Thus, 5.62 kilograms of dry weight equivalent of metakolic wastes and uneaten feed reach the pond during the production of 1,000 kilograms of live fish. This dry mat- ter contains nutrients that ate released to the pond water by about {ish respiration and excretion and by microbial decomposi tion of uncaten feed andl fish feces, These nutrients stimulate phytoplankton productivity, and additional organic matter is formed within the pond ecosystem by algae. Thus, as feesing rates inctease, the loasl of wastes and nutrients to the pond water ineteases, In other words, the pond becomes more eutrophic or polluted as feeding rates increase. If feeding rates become too high, fish will be stressed by imp quality. The first water quality problem to clevelop usually is low dissolved oxygen concentration an the early morning. This problem can be solved by mechanical aeration, bur if feeding rates are increased! enough, amnmomia concentrations POND AQUACULTURE 15toxicity. Athough tis example is for channel catfish, the principles illustrated apply equally well to other pond culture species. ‘One of the effects of overfeeding in fish end crus may become high enough r0 « tacean ponds is to increase che feed conversion ratio. As feeding tate increases, dissolved oxygen concentrations dur ing the night decline. Chronically low dissolved oxygen con- n adverse effect on the apy ad centrations have metabolism of fish and crustaceans, and feed conversion val- tues tend to increase drastically if feeding rates are increased to a level where dissolved oxygen concentrations fall below two or three milligrams per liter each night NITROGEN The nitrogen cycle is presented in figure 13. Nitrogen may enter ponds for the atmosphere in molecu lar form (N}), and some molecular nitrogen ean be fixed in organic compounds by hlne-green algae and bacteria, Rain falling into ponds contains nitrate, and various forms of nitrogen may enter ponds via the water supply. Inorgonte nitrogen may be added in fertilizer and organic niet manure ot feed. In the pond, nitrogen undergoes many trans- formations through biological activiry. These activities will be discussed below. Plant Uptake All plants can use nitrate and ammonium nitrogen and as mentioned above, blue-green algae can fix elemental nitrogen. Phytoplankton can absorls larg nium, and they are a dominant factor contzalling the can- centration of ammonia nitrogen in pond waters In the plant, amounts of ammo- the nitrogen is reduced to ammonia and combined with, ‘organic carbon to form amino acids. These amino acids are then combined « foom protein, Plants may be consumed by creatures and they may die and become detritus, Use hy Creatures: Creatures eat plants, detritus, other creatures, or tures need their nitrogen in the form of amino acids of protein, When aquatic creatures some combination of these. C take in food, part of the organic nitzogen in the food isassim- ilated and converted to animal protein, The rem expelled as organic nitrogen in feces or excreted as a When aquatic creatures are harvested, che nitrogen th: they contain is removed from the pond. Fate of Nitrogen in Organic Matter Some of the dead organic matter (detritus or small- et particles of morerial in soil and water) is consuined direct ates, Ultimately, most dead organic matter becomes substrate (food) ty tay ies Oxidation by ‘Atmospheric Ny Death and decay Nin Reduction by Facteris for miccobial orga bacteria (bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi). F ing the rate of organic matter decomposition are temperature, pH, oxygen Zz es availability, and the nanue the organic matter Microorganisms capable of degrading matter are present in all of organic ponds, and their abun- dance will increase when Oxidation by bacteria Reduction by bacteria organic matter i increased. — Microbial decomposition increases with temperature up 0 Zz & f animals Tour] Nin plants about 40°C, and within this temperature range, a 10°C increase in tempera- Plane uptake Figure 13. Nitrogen cycle «in fish pond. 16 ture will cause the rate of skecomposition to roughly QUALITY For Powp AQUACULTUREdouble. Degradation of organic matter proceeds: most rapidly at pH 7 t 8. Therefore, in acide ponds, organic matter (ends to accumulate unless lime is applied to improve pH. Organic matter that has a concentration of carbon (low of nitrogen relative £0 CIN ratio) will decompose faster than a material with a high C/N ratio. Additionally, more nitrogen will be released to the environment as ammonia by microorgan- isms of decay when a substance with a low C/N ratio decomposes. [fan or there will nor be enough nitrogen in it to effecr complete nic material is very low in nitrogen, decomposition by microorganisms. Ia this eve and other microorganisms of decay will remove nitrate and ammonia fom pond water for use in decomposition of organic matter. Removal of nitrogen from the environ. ment by microorganisms degrading nitrogen-deficient organic matter is called immobilisation of nitrogen, itrification The ammonia released to the pond water by decom position may be used again by plants, or it may be nitrified 10 nitrate by chemoautrophie bacteria, Oxidation of ammoni- Lunn to nitrite by bacteria of the genus Nierasomenas is che first step in nitrification: NH, + Lf2 Q) > NOx + 2H" + HO. In the second step, nitvite is oxidized to nitrate by hacteria of the genus Nitrohacter: NOs + 12.0, + NO, These bacteria use the energy released in the oxidation of ammonium and nitrite to reduce carbon dioside to organic carbon, In other words, these onganisms ean produce organ ie matter by a non-photosynuhetic pathway: Of course, the nioune of organic matter produced by nitsfication in ponds is minute compared to the amount produced by photosyn- thesis. Nitrification is important in reducing the concent tion of ammonia in. pond wateis, andl his is beneficial 10 aquaculture because ammonia is porentiilly caxic. However, nitrification also has adverse effeers on water quality. Iris a significant source of acidity in ponds because hydrogen ions (117) are released, and it exerts an oxygen demand because ‘oxygen is required to oxidize ammonia, Denitrification In the absence of oxygen, pany microorganisms can use nitrate or ather oxidized nitrogen compounds as sources of oxygen and as electron and hyelmgen ac eprors in respira: tion. Thus, orginie matter decomposition can continue in the absence of disselved oxygen. This heterotrophic process is termed denitrification because gaseous forms of nitcogen are released as metabolites and lost from the pond. For exam- ple, nitrate can be reduced to nitrite, nitrite can then be reduced to nitrous oxide, and, finally, nitrous oxide can be reduced to nitrogen gas. Physiologically, the process can est be defined as nitrate respiration, Denitrification occues in pond soils where dissolved oxygen concentrations are low. Denitrification is the major loss of nitrogen from ponds, ancl the summary equation is: 6NO, + SCHjOH + SCO, + 3N, + 7H, + 6OH In the above summary equation for denitrification, methanol has been used as an organic carbon source, Of course, many other omganic carbon compounds can be used by denitilying bacteria, Ammonia Volatilization Some animonia is lost from pond water directly to the air when the pressure of ammonia gas in warer exceeds the pressure of animonia in the air. This process is most iraportane at pH19 and above. The importance of ammonia volatilization in the nitregen balance of pords is poorly uundetsteod, but it s net thought to be a significant factor in most ponds because pH is not great enough co favor rapid oss of ammonia to the Summary Because of the k in pond ecosystems and the fixation of nitzogen by rate of internal nitrogen recy dh blue-green algae and bacteria, it usually is nor necessary to apply lange amounts of nitrogen 19 ponds in fertilizers. In ponds, lange amounts of nitrogen enter ponds in feeds, and substantial quantities of ammonia enter water in metabolic of the culture species and fi uneaten feed and feces. Therefore, ecomposition of najor concer in inten sive aquaculture is the accumulation of excessive concentra tions of ammonia in pond water. PHOSPHORUS Ambient phosphorus concentrations in pond water ae usually quite low. Phosphorus is introduced into ponds in fertilizers to stimulate phytoplankton blooms, enhance the shurxlance of narural fcod organisms, and promote grea oquuacultural production. In ponds with feeding, a partion of nilated by the culture species and enters ponds to stimulate phytoplankton productivity tee the feed phosphorus is not ass WAreR QUALITY FOR POND AQUACULTUREFate of Phosphorus in Ponds The phosphorus cyele in a pond is illustrated in figs ture 14. When phosphate is askded in a cherical fereiizer, a high concentration of phosphate will remain in the water lor only a few hours or days. However, the concentration will quickly decline to the pre-treatment level. Some phos- phonis loss from the water may he attributed to uptake by plants and bactetia, Heavy phytoplankton blooms can absorb lasge amounts of phosphors, Much phosphorus will, however, be adsorbed by the pond soil. Even that phosphorus initially absozbed by the phytoplankton will eventually be mineralized from organic matter and enter the pond soil The atnount of phosphorus entering ponds from natural sources, including release from the soil, is usually rather small even in I Haly productive ponds. Phosphorus must be applied in fertilizers phosphate first reacts with aluminum, but the existence of iron phosphates in macl suggests that some aluminum phos phate is transformed to iron phosphate. When tuds become anacrobie, iron phosphates dissolve, and anaerobic water at the pond bottom may be high in phosphate Nevertheless, when the water becomes aerobic again, iron phosphate seprecipitates. As pond soil pH increases, the ‘concentration of aluminum ion deceeases so that less phos phate precipitates as aluminum phosphate. Somewhere ewer pH 6 and 7, the precipitation of aluminum phos- pphate ceases ta be the dominant factor removing phosphate from the water. As pond soil inereases in pH, the concen- tration of ealeium increases ane! phosphorus precipitates as calcium phosphate. Over time, calcium phos formed to a highly insoluble mineral apatite (rock phos phate). Where pH and calcium concentration are high, phate is uans- to maintain productivity Pond Phosphorus in nvanures. is released degraded by bacteria when manure is The a7 Devs amount of phosphorus har- Input cae \ vested in aquatic creatures organic usually represents less than | Runoff Phosphorus 2 pgp Cigar Aainal astivit inflow ish harvest onecthird of the phosphovus | Atmosphere Plant debs adkdes to ponds, Nevertheless, animal biomass harvested froin ponds is the greatest loss of phosphorus from an aqua- ' Le Piytnifion Phosphate <——— es SF Macrophytes culture ecosystem. Mast added phosphorus remains in the pond as insoluble phos- phate compounds in the soil Permanent ia to sediment activity Unfortunately, the soil phos- phonus is nor highly availa to non-rooted plants in the pond, ic phosphorus in soils or muds occurs as eal- cium, icon, and aluminum phosphates. In acisie soils, alu- minum ion occurs at fairly high concentiation and reaces with phosphate to form highly insoluble aluminum phos- phate according to the gencral reaction ALS+ + HPO, = ALPO, + 2H* Atthe same pH, there are several orders of magnitude more aluminum ion chan ferric iron in aerobic mad. Therefore, Figtee 14. The phosphorus eyele in a fish pond. Mud also contain organic phosphorus, Micrcbial decomposition of ‘organic matter will release phosphate which will participate inv reactions with iron, slminum, snc calcium, Phytoplankton can quickly absorb phosphate from 80.4 large proportion of the phosphorus applied to apatite may precipitate directly from the water, the wa a pond may enter phytoplankton cells and promote growth, Physoplankton cells may be consumed by aquatic creatures, but most die and setcle to the bottom, Studies have shown shat about 70% of the phosphorus added to ponds in fertil ‘2ers or feeds eventually finds its way into the mud. Pond bottom soil phosphorus isin equilibrium with phospho in Water QUALITY FoR POND AQUACULTURE 18pond waters, but in spite of this, the phosphorus concentra tions in water are low. Thus, pond sediment tends 10 he a sink rather than a source for phosphorus (13) mm Phosphate must be supplied at frequent intervals to fertilized ponds in order to maintain a destrable abundance of phytoplankton, In ponds with feeding, decomposition of POND SOIL ils play several important roles in aquaculture ponds. The bottom soils and earth-ill embankments of ponds serve as the basin in which pond water stands, Bottorn soils store and release both nutrients and organic matter, and they provide a medium for growth of benthic creatures and plants and associated hacteria. These organisms may provide food for other organismsffsh, and they also recyele aurrients and degrade organic matter. Some culture species feed on the pond bottom, and some build nests and lay egys on the bot Pond soils are derived from terrestrial soils However, conditions in pond bottoms are different from conditions in surface, werestrial soils, Organic matter added to or produced in ponds, suspended solids entering ponds in nd particles re-suspended from the pond bottom by sited on the pond bottom runoff, Water currents are continually deps to forma layer of sediment, Dissolved oxygen concentrations are usually low in pore water of botromt seciment, and orga ic matter decomposition progresses at a slower rate than in terrestrial sail. Also, carbonates, fertic hydeovie, and phos phate commonly precipitate from pond water into sediment. Pond bottoms tend to be the final recipient of residues of substances that are added to or produced in the pond. A detailed discussion of pond soils can be found in Boyd (3). TEXTURE The texture of a soil refers ro the proportion of grav el, san, silt, and clay particles in the soil. Particle size anally sis of an agricultural soil provides the percentages of sand, sile, and clay from which a soil texture vame-for example, sandy learn, clayey loam, ete-may be assigned with the aid War QUALITY FoR Pe Uuneaten feed ancl feces continuously supplies phosphorus to the water, Uptake by the soil is a desirable phenomenon in ponds with feeding keeause it controls the phosphorus con- centration in water and is 2 major factor in the prevention of excessive phytoplankton abundance, Of course, if feed ing rates are high enough, residual phosphorus concentra tions in water may become great enough to eause trouble- some phytoplankton blocms in spite of soil uptake. of a soil triangle (see any general soil text), In studies of pond soils, however, the agricultural sol classification scheme has licele value. On the other hand, itis good to know how much clay s ina pond sol, for the clay isthe reactive fraction. Soil also contains erganie macter, and organic matter, like cla, is highly reactive. There is a common misconception that pond soils should have a high clay content to prevent seepage. Soils for insking pond bottoms and levees should contain some clay baat 10 to 20% clay content usually is enough provided the tains particles of several size fractions, Soils contain ing 25% or more of clay particles often are very sticky and difficult to spread and to compact during construction. Levees made from such macerials may have a rendency 10 slip. Ako, drying and other treatments of heavy clay bottom soils between crops often are difficult, Cation EXCHANGE G als in pond soil have negative charges and attract swarms of loisal particles oforganic matter and clay miner- cations (positively-changed. ions). An equilibrium, exists between concentrations of cations in water surrounding soil particles and amounts of cations adsorbed on soil particles (figure 15). Ifa large amount of potassium ton is added to the water of the equilibrinm system illustrated in figure 15, the increased potassium ion concentration in the waver will dis- upt the equilibrium. In orler to re-establish, equilibrium conditions, potassium ion will replace some of the ions acksorbed on the soil particles, and che concentrations of all fons in the water will increase Cations on soil colloids and in surrounding water are known as exchangeable cations and the sites of adsorption on colloids are called exchange sites, Some cations are hel more tightly than others ta colloids, In genera, the order af > AQUACULTURE IoABt Colloid ABY Catt Figure 15. Exchange of cations becwven soil funticles and water. attraction between cations and colloids increases with increasing valence of the cation. That is, aluminam ion (+3 valence) ts held tighter than caleium ion (+2 valence), and calcium ion is attracted mote stronely than potassium ion (+1 valence) The quantity of cations which can be adsorbed on soilsis called the cation exchange capacity (CEC). The CEC is measured in millicguivalents of cations per 100 grams dry soil (meq/100 g). Clearly, the larger the CEC of a soil, the greater is the ability of the soil to exchange and hold ions. less than I meq/100 gto The CEC of pond muds ranges from mote than 100 meq/f00 g, The CEC increases as the per- centage of clay, organic matter, or hoth increase. Some types of clays have greater exchange enpacities than others. Bottom soils with CEC values of 10 to 49 meq/l00 g seem t be best for aquaculture. The CEC is a natural property of soil that cannot normally be altered by pond treatments. AcIDITY The cations adsorbed on exchange sites in soils are acidic (aluminum ion, feric ion, and hydrogen om) ar basic (calcium ion, magnesium ion, potassium ion, sodium ion, and ammonium ion}. The fraction of the total exchange capacity occupied by acidic ions is called the base unsatura- tion. In mest soils there will be small amounts of hydrogen fons or ferric ions on exchange sites. The primary acidic ion is aluminum ion, The acidic reaction of aluminum may be visualized as follows: Al-Soi] = A1S* + 3H)0 = AWOH), + 3H. As the base unsaturation of a soil increases, the amomnt of aluminum ion available ro teact with water and form hydrogen ion increases. Therefore, soil pH decreases with increasing base unsaturation, The way in which lime neutralizes aciclity in mud is illustrated in figure 16. The caleium carbonate reacts with hydro concentration of hydee tons and neutralizes them, This lowers the 1 ions in solution and more alu minum ions are released from the soil, Aluminum ions released from the soil are replaced by calciura ions result from the neutral bonate. The end results are as follows: removed from the soil and precipitated as aluminum, hydroxides calcium replaces the aluminum on the soil; the jon of hydrogen ions by calcium ear sluntinum is base unsaturation of the soil decreases; the pH of the soil Ponds sometimes are constructed in areas once covered by brackishwsater tidal swamps and marshes. When rivers with a heavy sesliment load emptied into the sea, se iment was deposited near the shore. After the depesits se above mean low water level, vegetation became estab, lished. As depasition continued, the coast slowly accreted, and a swamp forest developed. In the swamp forest, tree roots trapped organic and inorganic debris, and decomposi tion of dense masses of organic debris resulted in anaerobic conditions. As a result, sulfurreducing bacteria became abundant, and sulfide prextuced by the bacteria accutmulat- 1 sediment as hydrogen sulfide or com- ed in pore spaces bined with iron te form precipitates of iron sulfides. [ron sulfides underwent further chemical reaction to fotm iron disulfides that crystallized to form inon pyrite POND AQUACULTURE Wark QUALITY FOR P 20Al Mud = A+ + 3H30 = AL (OH3), + we + 11/2 COz + 11/2 H20 Figure 16, Neuraization of soil acidity by caletum carbonate. As long as sediments containing pyrites are sub- merged and anaerobic, they remain reduced and change lit te. However, if they are drained and exposed to the air, oxidation results, and sulfuric acid is formed, The summary reaction for sulfuric acid formation from icon pyrite is FeS) + 5.75 0, + 3.5 H)O > Fe(OH); + 2SOP> + 4H. asa reddish brown mater: The ferric hydroxide crysall ial io the sediment, After draining, a sedimene containing pyrite is called a porenial acid-sulfate soil or a “cars clay.” ic, acid-sulfate soil will have a pH below 4.0. The pH of acid-sulfare soils often wi as much as three units upon drying. Field identification of acid-sulfare soils can sometimes he made by the smell of When aerc decrease hydrogen sulfide from distudbed soil, but the positive testis to measure pH before and after dryin In ponds, the problem with acid-sulface soils usual- lye es on the levees. Pond bottoms are usually Hood ad and anaerobic, s sulfuric acid does nor form. However, levees dry and sulfuric acid formed during dry periods enters ponds in runoff after rains. Acidicy on levees can be con urolled by resistant species af grass. Fortunately, acid-sulface soils are ning and establishing good cover with an acid seldom a problem in freshwater ponds ORGANIC MATTER AND) OXIDATION-REDUCTION Organte marter accumulates at the soil water inter- activity is very intense in this surface face, and micta layer: Because water does not move freely within sediment, microbial activity quickly reduces the oxygen concentza- tion in the water within the sediment to H. CO) to CH, (methane. Under certain conditions these reductions may occur spon- rancously in the absence of oxygen, but they usually are mediated by microorganisms. Under anaerobic conditio the elections and hydrogen ions formed as microorganistis degrade 0 Therefore, the electrons and hydrogen ions are disposed of J inorganic substances. Of eaurse, by reaction with ovis in the process the inorganic substance becomes reduced. The degradation of organic matter in the m causes the low dissolved oxygen condition, and the contin ued degradation of the organic matter results in the reduce tion of the inorganie substances. Thus, organic matter is high the source of the reducing power that often leads t concentrations of nitrite, ammonia, ferrous iron (Fi UACHETOREdivalent manganese ion, hydrogen sulfide, and methane in pond muds. The absence of oxygen in sediment may slow rer decomposition, bur tt down the rate of organic ma not halt decomposition. In fact, anaetobic conditions are nonnal in pond sediment, and aquaculture pond soils do hot normally accumulate Jarge amounts of organie matter unless inputs of organic matter are excessive. For example, in ponds with large input of manures, bottom soils may accumulate large amounts of organic matter, Nevertheless, i€ organic matter inputs to pond bottoms are so great that acrabie conditions cannot be maintained at the soil-woter interface, culture creatures may be exposed to reduced and potentially toxic substances The iron resetion in water provides a means of naerobic, In determining if the surface layer of a mud is the absence of oxygen, ferric iron (Fe*) is converted to fer tous iron (Fe2"), Ferrous iron is black or dark gray in color. Therefore, when the surface of the mud is black, anaerehic conditions exist. When the surface is brown ot the natural soil color, it suggests that oxygen is present. Of course, if you break through the aerabie surface layer of a hud, deep- er Tavers will be anaerobic and black. Ir is highly desirable % maintain dissolved oxygen in the upper layer of seit ment, Fish food organisms that live in mud require oxygen, and the presence of oxygen in the mud prevents formation of noxious reduced substances, There is considerable interest in the amount of organic matter in pond sediment. However, evaluation of pe data on organic matter concentrations in pond soil is diffi cult, Because organic matter settles onto the bottom and is then decomposed and gradually mixed with deeper layers by physical and biological processes, the organic matter concentrations quickly decrease with sediment depth. The upper flocculent layer of recently-«leposited sediment may ganic have an orgnic content of 50% or greater, but the content of the entire upper one to two ein bayer seldom will exceed 10% except where ponds are b concentrations of native omanic matter (organic ‘When organic matter decomposes, the posable snaterial is degraded first and the more resistant Icon soils with high nls) nost readily decom- W TER QUALITY FOR POND J ‘material accumulates. Therefore, much of che organic fesidue in pond soils consists af material resistant 10 decay The problem of excessive oxygen demand in bottom sedi- ment is related to the rate of input of fiesh, labile onganic idual matter rather than to the amount of resistant, re: organic matter that has accumulated over time. At present we do not have reliable methods for reaclily distinguishin, between these two eypes of organic matter Pop SoIL AND AQUACULTURAL PRODUCTION Although relatively litle is known about relation- ships between bottom soil properties and the production of nlture species, one study suggested soil. properties agp have an important ole in production (see table 8). In spite of the correlations between soil properties and fish proxue tion, good production of fish cannot be sustained without applications of manures, fertilizers, feeds, or some combina tion of these Tasir S. THE ErrEcTS oF Boro Son Proresmis on Fist PRopucticny! Varuble Range Fach Fodcrion pH less than 4.5 low 55-65 average 65-75 optima 75-85 average Available phosphorus less than 3 ppm low 3-6 ppm average ‘more than 6 ppm prin Organic nitrogen less than 25 ppm Tow 25-30 ppm aver ‘more than 73 ppm optinium Ouganic carton less than 0.5 % low 05-15% average 15-25% optimum snore than 2.5 declining, "Adapted from Banerjea (2 + Monures were being sckled to these pordsWATER QUALITY MANAGEMEN FERTILIZATION, Chemical Inorganic fertl 8 are substances which contain nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium either alone ar in eom- bination. Examples of common fertilizer compounds are lise- Isare blend- ed in table 9, When ewo or more of these mat cd, the resulting mixture is called a mised fertilizer, Fertilizers ate classified by plant nutrient content; nitrogen is expressed. a8 N, phosphorus as POs, and porassium as K,O. Nitrogen is present in fertilizers as nitrate (NO3-), ammoniura (NY), or urea [(NH,),CO}; phosphorus is presents phos- phate (HPO? Use of N, P30, and KO is traditional instead of descriptive; do not contain N, PyO5, 0 KO as such, ); potassium occurs as potassium ion (K™). that is fort A mised fertilizer with a g 5% N, 20% P,O,, and 5% essarily the best for ponds, illustration.) A 100-kilogram quantity of mixed superphosphate (TS ae tilizer can be made of ure potassium chloride (KCI). In 100 kilograms of there will be 5 kg N, 20 kg POs, and 5 ke KO. Necessary amounts of fertilizer compounds ate: 5 ky N+ O45 ky Nykg urea = UA kgurea 20 ky P,O, + 046 kg POsfky TSP = 43.5 kg TSP. 5 ky K,0 + 0.60 kg K,Oyke KCL S3 kg KC] ‘Toral fertilizer compounds O29 kg, Filler (agricultural limestone} = 37.1 kg Total = 1000 kg Fertilizer compounds must be dilated to 100 kilograms with filler so that the mixed fertilizer will have the proper N- P05 stone © percentages. A material like agricultural lime- is addled to che mixcure of fertilizer compounds to dilute a feru c In the example above, 37.1 kilogeams of agricultural limestone would be added as filler. When granular fertilizers are broadcast over pond surtaces, they seitle to the Fotrom hefore dissolving com: pletely. Phosphate in fertl adsorbed strongly by mu, settling to the bottom is id much of wt never reaches the water: Liguid fertilizers are much more efficient than granu. lar fertilizers, because they will not settle 10 the borrom. A ood liquid fertilizer for use in ponds is ammonium polyphos phate (10-340 to 15-37-0), bur other liquid fer equally suitable. If a liquid fertilizer cannot be purchased TER QUALITY FSi 23 locally, a useful alremarive is 10 dissolve a granular fertiliser cs shouki be diluted ices, Never pour liq, in a container of water. Liquid fer nel splashed over pond su uid fertilizers directly into pond water, because they are heav- with wate ier than water and will setde to the bottom. Recently, finely pulverized, instantly soluble fertilizers have been used as anv alternative to liquid fettilier. This finely pulverized material «can be broadeast over pond surfaces, and because of its fine particle size, it will dissolve completely without seteling to the bortom. Controlled-release fertilizers are made by coati fectilizer particles with a polymer shell. Water enters the shell and dissolves the fertilizer, and the nuttients gradu- ally seep out of the shell. These fertilizers are used mostly for horticulture applications, but there is evidence that they can be used in aquaculture. The only problem is rhat they are expensive as compared to other fertilisers used in aquaculture. An alternative means of applying granular fer to prevent it from contacting the soil is to pour ie on an underwater platiorm so thar warer currents move the nutri ‘ents throughout the pond after chey dissolve, Some also put fertilizer in porous bags and suspend these bags in ponds so that nutrients are released into the water as ferviliz- em dissolve. Either procedure prevents fertilizer granules from dissolving while i contact with pond bottom soils Nevertheless, regardless of the type of fet nuirients will not er used or the technique used for applying it, the fertil remain in the pond water. A portion of the nutrients will be absorbed by plants and enter the culture species via the food chain. However, most of the planes will die and become organic matter in pond seslimene and their nutrients will he TABLE 9. Ann Coxon Commerc ATE GRATES OF AL FesciLizers Substance Fervent T Ko Oe Caleiuan nitrate G ° 0 Sou niteate le 0 ° Ammonium nitrate 3 0 0 Ammonium suliare 2L Q Q Superphosphare ° 16 0 Triple superphosphate ° 46 0 Monoaramonium phosphate LL 48 0 Diammeniam phosphate 18 48 ° Ammonium polyphosphate 1-13. 3437 a Murrate of potash 0 ° 6 POND AQUACULTURErecycled. The majority of the phosphorus adked in fect will be adsorbed by sediment and some of the fertilizer nitro- gen will be denitrified. Nutrients also will be contained ity water lost from ponds by seepage, overflow, and draining and in harvested fish or other aquatic creatures Extensive research has been conducted on freshwa- tet pond fertilization. Application rates usually consist of ‘Wo to eight kilograms per hectare af PLO. cations of two to eight kilograms per hectate of both N and, P05, One of the best for ponds consists of periodic applications of eight to 16 liters one, of appli ization programas for freshwater per hectare of a 10-34-0 liquid fertilizer. This dosage rate amounts to four to eight kilograms per hectare of P,Q and ‘one to two kilograms per hectare of N. A good gr tilizatiom program is 10 to 20 kilograms per hectare per application of diammonium phosphate (18-48-0). Fertilizer applications normally are made at two- to four-week inter lar fer- vals. Through the proper use of chemical fertlizers, aqua: cultural production can be increased two to 10 times above that possible in unfertilized ponds. Care must be taken not mounts of chemical fertilizers, for the to apply excessive resulting oversbunda ‘oxygen dep we of phytoplankton can cause an Less research has been done on fertilization of brackishwarer ponds, but nitrogen appears to be more important in brackishwater than in freshwater. Therefore for brackishwater should contain more nitrogen than those for freshwater. Using more nitrogen does not mean that phosphorus is less important in brackishwater than in freshwater. A good fentilizer for brackishwacer ponds might contain a 2:1 ratio of N:P. A 20-20.0 fertilizer hhas roughly this N:P ratio. Fertilizers should be applied at 20 10 40 kilograms per hectare per application at tor to. w Some shrimp farmers like a high proportion of sliatoms in the phytoplankton community. Research has shown that 9 20:1 ratio of N:P can enbance the proportion of diatoms in the phytoplankton. Nitrate seems to encour- four-week interva age diatoms more than ammonium, and sodium nitrate fer tilzer at 10 1 20 kilograms per hectare per application can be effective in encouraging diatoms. If waters have silicare concentrations below one mgfliter as silicon (Si), applica. tions of sodium silicate at 50 to 100 kilograms per hectare also can bolster the proportion of diatoms. Some evidence shows that iron additions to ponds, and especially to brackishisater ponds, can stimulate phy: toplankton, Chelated iron would be the best source of non in a fertilizer, because it would be more soluble than simple iron compounds, Little is known about the benefits of trace nutrient fertilization other than iron. Many times, fertiliers are used in combination with feeds at the beginning of production cycles. When ponds are initially filled with water, there is little plank: ton and benthos, and small fish or erustace into such ponds cannot uti feed efficiently be used to initiate the plankton bloom and stimulate benthos to provide supplemental, hatural food ongamisms. Turbidity by the pla discourages underwater weeds. Fertilization should begin fone of two weeks before stocking fish or crustaceans to s stocked kro also produce green water, After a few weeks, fer be sropped because nutrients fron feed will m plankton bloom. ntain the Animal manures can be used as fertilizers. However, these materials have several disadvantages compared to chemical fercili rit quality, their nutrient content is low, they must be applied in large They are of incon amounts, an oxygen demand results from their use, they may contain antibioties, they often have high concentrations of heavy metals, chey encourage the growth of unwanted fila- rentous algae, they are unpleasant to handle, and some con- sumers might be offended by producrs from a manure-baseel production system. Ja rural areas where people eannot afford chemical fertilizers, animal manures ate often the only fertil- ‘pers available. However, where chemical fertilizers can be afforded, Application rates for manures often are as high as 250 to 500 they ate much superior to animal_manures. kilograms por hectare per week. Pond Preparation (Organic fertilizers serve as food for aooplankron, and in some types of aquaculture, use of organic fertilizers in pone preparation is desirable 10 encourage the rapid development of taceans. Plant or animal meals are better organic fet »plankton Blooms to serve as food for young fish or rus- than animal manures. Usually, applications of 25 to 50 kilo- stains per hectare of plant meale-for example, soybean meal, cor fish, rmeal-ac four- or five-day intervals ean quickly establish a zooplankton bloom, Usually, meals are applied in conjunc. tion with chemical fertilizers. alfalfa leat meal, cortonseed meal, rice bran, ete, Warrr Quaiiry Fox POND AQUACC 24 ‘URELIMING Liming materials are used to neutralize acidity and increase pH of aciele soils and waters. The three most com- mon lieing materials are agricultural limestone (pulverized calcium carbonate or dolomite), hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide), and quick lime (calcium oxide). The ovo sources of acidity in natural water are strong acids, usually sulfuric acid, and carbon dionide. Water with pH helow 4.5 contains strong acid, while at higher pH values, acidity results from carbon dioside. Liming materials reacr with bh rogen ion and carbon diowide as follows: Reaction with hydrogen ion CaCO, + 2H" = Ca? + 1,04 CO, CAH), + 2H" = CaO + 2H! = Ci Reaction with carbon dioxide CaCO, + CO, + H,0 = 2HCO,- Ca(OH), + 2CO, = Ca?* + 2HCO; CaO + 2CO, + H,O = Cat* + 2HCO, All three lining materials have the same reaction in water. However, calcium oxide and calcium hydroxide can cause pH to increase 10 a level toxic 10 fish or other aquatic organisms. Both materials are hazardous co humans because of their caustic properties. Thus, ageicultural limestone which is neither hazardous to aquatic organisms or humans, is the best liming material for aquaculture Liming is beneficial in ponds with pH less than 6 or in ponds with low total alkalinity. [nm most types of aquaculture, a total alkalinity of 20 milligrams per liter is adequate, but in tilapia, channel catfish, of crustacean ponds, a total alkalinity of 50 milligrams per liter or more is desirable, Liming materials are tot fertilizers, but they jon in acidic, low on water quality are will improve the response (0 fe alkalinity ponds. The effects of hi 1s follows: WATER QUALITY FoR PoND AQUACULTL Increase pH of soil. ‘Increase alkalinity and hardness of wacet. sFloceulare suspended soil particles Increase the buffering capacity of the water Increase the availability of carbon for photosynthesis. ‘Enhance bacterial activity in soil, availability of phosphorus incre: Acting in combination with fertilization, these improv nents in water quality can Tead to greater production of cufture species. Of caurse, if ponds are net acide, liming will not be beneficial Pillat and Bayd (15) presene a fairly simple labora tory procedure for determining the lime requirement of pond soils, This procedure will work on all sails excepe acid-sulfate soils. Boyl (2) providles a Time requirement procedure for acslsulfare soils. When the lime requitement cannot be measured, applying 1,000 kilograms per heeta of ageicultural limestone is recommended. [f the water is sill acidic after two or three weeks, additional inerements of 1,000 kilograms per hectare of agricultural limestone should be applied until the desired effect is achi ved. Some hors recommend applying small amounts of liming materials (100 0 200 kilograms per hectare}. Such small applications are unlikely to increase pH or alkalinity much, ‘When lime is applied to ponds, ix showld he spread uniformly over the entire bottom of an empty pone! or over the entire surface of a full pond. One good application of lime usually will suftce for thee to five years Liming is used extensively in brackishwater ponds bu most of these waters already have 60 to 120 milligrams pally per liter of total alkalinity. Liming materials will not dissolve in such waters, so aekding them to the water is probably not useful. Of course, application af agricultural limestone to the bettoms of empry brackishwater ponds between crops is a good way to maintain soil pH. Usually, 1.000 kilograms per hectare of limestone is adequate for pond bottom treatments,