@Cs, HCFCs and halons: professional and practical guidance on ___substances that deplete the ozone layer =—=CIBSE Guidance Note GN1: 2000CFCs, HCFCs, HFCs and halons: professional and practical guidance on substances which deplete the ozone layer CIBSE Guidance Note GN1: 2000 RS ‘The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers 222 Balham High Road, London SW12 9BS‘The rights of publication or translation are reserved, No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means without the prior permission ofthe Institution, Glanuary, 2000 The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers London Registered charity number 278104 ISBN 0 900953 993 This document is based on the best knowledge available at the time of publication. However no responsibility of any kind for any injury, death, loss, damage or delay however caused resulting from the use of these recommendations can be accepted by the Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers, the authors or others involved in its publication. in ‘adopting these recommendations for use each adopter by doing so agrees to accept full responsiblity for any personal injury, death, loss, damage or delay arising out of or in connection with their use by or on behalf of such adopter itrespective of the cause or reason thereof and agrees to defend, indemnify and hold harmless the Chartered Institution ‘of Building Services Engineers, the authors and others: involved in their publication from any and all iability arising ‘out of or in connection with such use as aforesaid and, inrespective of any negligence on the part of those indemnified. Note from the publisher: This publication is primarily intended to provide guidance to those responsible for the design, installation, commissioning, ‘operation and maintenance of building services. Its not intended to be exhaustive or definitive and it will be necessary for users of the guidance given to exercise their own professional judgement when deciding whether to abide by or depart from it. Printed in Great Britain by Page Bros (Norwich) Lt.Foreword ‘The environmental damage that has been caused by the continuing use of chlorofluoro- carbons (cFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (1icFcs) and halons in terms of ozone depletion and global warming has led the Institution to promote guidance on their earliest possible replacement by less damaging alternatives. This advice should be followed by all design- ers but particularly by CIBSE members, who are bound by their code of professional conduct to consider the ethical consequences of their actions. The universal adoption of this guidance will lead to the reduction and eventual elimination of the building services contribution of these gases to the atmosphere. Since the publication of the first version of this Guidance Note further scientific evidence has confirmed the damaging environmental effects of cFcs, HCFCs and halons, as well as, some of their replacements. This has prompted major revisions to the Montreal Protocol, and EC regulation on ozone depicting substances, and agreement on the Kyoto Protocol to limit the emission of greenhouse gases. The Guidance Note has been revised to take into account these changes, including advances in the availability and application of alter- native refrigerants. The guidance is intended to provide practising engineers with information on which to make an informed choice by outlining the advantages and disad- vantages of particular alternatives. DJG Butler (contract author) Steering Panel: B Franklin (Chairman) H Davies (CIBSE Research Manager) RJ Oughton, DrH Sutcliffe (DETR)Contents Policy Summarised design guidelines Background Ozone depletion and global warming Montreal Protocol and EC regulations Alternatives to CFCs, HCFCs and halons Refrigerants Halons Foam plastic insulants Design guidance Refrigeration system design Specification of new systems Refurbishment of existing systems Health and safety issues Refrigerant containment and leak detection Testing and commissioning Thermal insulation Fire protection systems ing halon systems Means of escape and fire compartmentalisation Avoidance of unwanted discharge Fire suppression media Bibliography ReferencesCFCs, HCFCs, HFCs and halons: professional and practical guidance on substances that deplete the ozone layer Policy CIBSE has the following aims and objectives: @) @) © @) © oO ®) (a) @ Summarised design guidelines @ (b) © To consult with manufacturers, designers, contractors, clients, and kindred institutions to ensure that we have common goals in improving the use of refrigerants and gas fire-control systems. ‘To provide and disseminate design guidance for refrigerating and gs fire-control systems (see Summarised design guidelines below). To formulate best practice for minimising the Total Equivalent ‘Warming Impact (TEW1) of building refrigeration systems. To press government to create a legislative and fiscal climate to encourage conservation, reclamation and, where appropriate, the correct disposal of all refrigerants. To share any experience gained from ‘ozone friendly designs’ both nationally and internationally. To encourage and participate in research into alternatives to current refrigerants, insulating materials and fire-control systems that are harmful to the environment, and into design strategies which use these alternatives. To consider the economics and practicality of refrigerating plant containment to limit escape of leaking gases to the atmosphere. To encourage the specification of alternatives to CFCS, HCFCs and halons that minimise environmental impact. To make advice and guidance available to building users and speci- fiers. ‘Where a requirement for air conditioning has been established speci- fy plant using non-ozone depleting refrigerants e.g. HFCs, hydrocarbons (Hs), ammonia, alternative refrigeration cycles such as absorption or alternative technologies such as desiccant cooling. icKCs should not be used in new systems. However, HcFcs such as R22 and R123 may be used for maintaining existing systems where it is not practicable or economical to convert such systems to an alter- native refrigerant. Similarly R123 (acrc123) may be used to replace R11 (crcl) in existing centrifugal chillers to prolong their life and facilitate the removal of cFcs. Caution is advised when considering the use of new refrigerants where provisional toxicity data may be the subject of the later Programme for Alternative Fluorocarbon Toxicity Testing (Part). Such data are subject to review and revision by manufacturers and PAFT without warning.@ © @ ® (ay @ @ (k) ® (m) (a) FCs, HCFCS, HFcs and halons ‘The Heath and Safety Executive (HSE) has not yet published occu- ational exposure standards (05s) for some new refrigerants but Provisional values are available from refrigerant producers who are members of PAFT. Until the final Parr information for particular refrigerants is known, Keep exposure to a minimum and follow the guidelines in BS4434” and the new refrigerant safety standard prEN378” (in press). The Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations” require that exposure to all refriger- ants is minimised, Ensure that access for maintenance of reftigeration plant is generous to allow for ease of leak checking and the recovery of refrigerant and compressor lubricant. Note that a proposed new European Community (EC) regulation is likely to make annual leak checks ‘mandatory for all systems containing more than 3 kg of refrigerant. Use leak detection alarms for centralised indoor plant and distribut- ed refrigerant systems. Installation of leak detectors should be in accordance with the recommendations of BS4434, For plant installed ‘outdoors use other leakage monitoring arrangements, Make provision in refrigeration systems for the collection of refriger- ants in a receiver or other vessel of suitable size and pressure rating 1 facilitate maintenance of the refrigerating system without refriger- ant loss. Recommend clients to engage competent contractors, using person- nel holding current Refrigerant Handling Certificates to: + stop leaks and retain the refrigerant within the plant; maintain and replace refrigeration plant; monitor its performance and the quality of refrigerant used for topping- ups * record reasons for top-up and remedial action taken; keep formal audit trail ofall refrigerant used in the system + prevent the use of disposable refrigerant containers. All of the refrigerants in a refurbished or decommissioned plant should be recovered and reclaimed, recycled or destroyed. Do not specify insulation materials foamed with c¥cs; these include some forms of phenolic, polyisocyanurates, extruded expanded polystyrene, polyurethane and polyethylene foams. Insulation mate- tials foamed with HCFCs should only be used only as an interim solution where there is no suitable alternative. ‘When specifying foamed plastic insulation materials take account of any possible decrease in insulation performance and the potential effect of ageing and operating temperature. Ensure that optimum primary energy efficiency is maintained when implementing these guidelines. For refrigeration plant the TEWI over the plant lifetime should be minimised. Tew! includes the global ‘warming impacts of refrigerant emissions and the energy consumed by the refrigerating plant. Minimise the size of refrigeration plant by matching load demands and taking into account load diversity, and by considering the use of thermal storage where this contributes to minimising energy con- sumption. ‘Minimise the quantity of refrigerant contained in refrigeration plant by avoiding the use of large liquid receivers, by minimising the length of refrigerant pipe runs and by specifying, wherever possible, plate heat exchangers,‘Summarised design guidelines Background (©) Do not specify halon gas fire-control systems. For existing systems specify test methods which do not require the discharge of halon gases. Specify that halon gas in refurbished, or decommissioned plant be recovered and sent for recycling or destruction. Note that a proposed new EC regulation may make it 2 legal requirement to decommission existing ‘non-critical’ halon systems before 31 December 2003. Ozone depletion and global warming ‘Table 1 Definitions. Icis now accepted that cFcs, HFCs and halons (see Table 1 for definitions of these and related abbreviations) are contributing to the depletion of the ozone layer.” The available evidence suggests that such man-made chlorine compounds are responsible for the so-called ‘ozone holes’—areas of reduced ozone concentration over the polar regions. Ozone levels dur- ing springtime over Antarctica are now 60% depleted. Recent scientific findings have shown that significant ozone depletion is also apparent over large areas of the northern and southern hemispheres, particularly during the spring and summer months. opr (ozone depletion potential) ‘ew (global warming potential) FCs (chlorofluorocarbons) 1HCFCS (hydrochlorofluorocarbons) HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons) cs (hydrocarbons) Ammonia (NH, or R717) prs are compared with that of CCI (R11), which is taken to have an opr of 10 ‘GwPs are compared with that of CO,, which is taken to have a Gwr of 1.0. Gwrs are normally measured on a 100 year time basis Contain chlorine and have high oprs Contain chlorine but have low ops. They have shorter atmospheric lifetimes than the crcs (because they contain hydrogen), and are thought to be much less damaging to stratospheric ozone Contain no chlorine and have zero oDPs, but are greenhouse gases. They are being developed as refrigerants to replace CFCs and HCFCS ‘Do not damage the ozone layer and have negligible Gwrs ‘Does not damage the ozone layer and has a negligible GwP Although these chlorine compounds are also potent greenhouse gases, because they absorb infra-red radiation from the earth’s surface, itis now thought that ozone depletion causes an overall cooling of the stratosphere. This effect may have offset as much as 30% of the global warming effect that is due to increases in other greenhouse gases, such as CO,,” ‘Many alternatives to CFCs, HCFCs and halons are based on hydrofluorocar- bons (HFCs). Although HFCs do not contain chlorine and, therefore, cannot cause ozone depletion they are potent greenhouse gases. Concern about their possible contribution to global warming has led to their inclusion in the Kyoto agreement on reducing emissions of greenhouse gases, In 1995 the Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Industry Board (ACRIB)” made a declaration of intent to minimise emissions of HFCs and to avoid the use of rcs where emissions are unavoidable if safe, practical and more environ mentally acceptable alternatives are available. The overall global warming impact of the use of HFCs depends not only on ‘direct’ refrigerant emissions, caused by leaks or losses during servicing or decommissioning refrigerating systems, but also on the ‘indirect’ green- house gas emissions from the fossil fuel consumed to generate energy (usually electricity) to operate the system. In general, as long as refrigerant usage is managed stringently, the dominant global warming effect is from the fuel consumed to drive the system. Current knowledge on the ozone depletion and greenhouse potentials of ccrcs, HCFCS, halons, and their alternatives is given in Table 2, Figure 1 and Figure 2. Further research may lead to future changes in the values indicated.ccs, HeFcs, HEcs and halons ia 8 10U Brep “WN ‘TepUDiod BupurEM eqors ‘aixo Sfenuaiod wonqdap 2u0z0 “sao w ww Ww 009 wor ZoreH w os9 095 oor wore Tost ww WN WN 00 worRH Ut 100 cd € 0 (guadosd) 9/z19H = woquesospAqy OLzTe Guema/auedord) (os are) pusyq 100 > € oo OLIOH/O679H —-oqnEDoxpAy OLTWO6TH 0 I> € 000 (@ueingost) e9999H ——_woqre>0xp A} PO0TH 100 I> £ 000 (aueimg) 9990H —oqres0xpAqy 09H 100 > € 00 (auedoad) 96zoH © wogzeoospsyy ose 00 > 0 ovo ‘eruommy rr 0s : 0s oro 9 08 0 - BepLOsH/Sz IOs adomoaze oH 10a Zs: 88 adonoaze sro ong oot ts 0 = suiosojezoaon 949/240 09 792! 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The Ninth Meeting of the parties to the ‘Montreal Protocol took place in Montreal during 15-17 September 1997; this resulted in further adjustments to and amendments of the 1987 Montreal Protocol. ” Gh= oos |. - | 0.05 0.03 ovr | Bs) 002 +} 4a 001 0.00 001 Figure 1 Ozone depletion potential, global warming potential and atmospheric lifetime of selected refrigerants Globalwarmingpotent owe HHH oor gg: 8 i Figure 2 Global warming potentials (100 year time horizon) of selected refrigerants and halon 1301 O 8 Ria ° 8 mE anes wu] son 130 Following the Fourth Meeting of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol in Copenhagen during 23-25 November 1992, the EC implemented EC Regulation 3093/94,” which replaced an earlier regulation (No 3952/92). 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Non-compliance could, therefore, result in prosecution in a UK Court of Law. ‘The provisions of the Montreal Protocol, together with the existing EC and proposed EC regulations are listed in Table 3. Article 14 of EC Regulation No 3093/94 makes it a legal requirement for all cF¢s, ucFos and halons contained in commercial and industrial refrig- eration equipment, air conditioning equipment and fire protection systems to be recovered where practicable, for destruction, recycling or reclamation during the servicing and maintenance of equipment or before ismantling or disposal of equipment. Article 15 requires that all practicable precautionary measures are taken 10 prevent leakages of CFCs, HCFCs and halons from commercial and indus- tial air conditioning and refrigeration equipment and fire protection systems. In most cases when refrigerant is removed from equipment— during servicing, maintenance or decommissioning—it becomes con- trolled waste. Section 34 of the Environment Protection Act 1990" places a duty of care on all those who handle controlled wastes. Section 33 of the ‘Act makes it illegal to “treat, keep or dispose of controlled wastes in a ‘manner likely to cause pollution to the environment or harm to human health’ A proposed new BC regulation (following amendment on 21 December 1998) includes provisions to make annual leak checks mandatory for all refrigeration and air conditioning systems containing more than 3 kg of a FC or HCFC refrigerant. Because of the adverse impact of these gases on the environment, building services engineers should, wherever possible, avoid using and specifying CFCs, HoKCs and halons. The current Montreal Protocol and EC Regulation on ozone depleting substances are phasing-out the supply of HCFCs. It is expected that the Protocol and the EC regulation will continue to be amended formally which may accelerate the phasing-out of these substances. A new EC regulation has already been proposed to accelerate the HCFC phase-out and ban the use of crcs and halons (including recycled products) for maintaining existing refrigeration and fire-control systems, and ban the use of tcrcs in new refrigeration systems. Consequently, any plant containing crcs, HCFCs and halons would need to be maintained and operated with extreme care to minimise loss of cFcs, HCFCS or the emis- sion of halons, Such a plant could, therefore, become redundant before the end of its economic life. Alternatives to crcs, Hcrcs and halons Refrigerants ‘There are three main classes of replacement refrigerant and cooling tech- nology: (@)_Hcs are chemically similar to cFcs and HicFcs but contain no chlo- rine and therefore cannot damage the ozone layer. In general, they have similar low levels of toxicity and flammability to the crcs and HerCs. HFCs have similar refrigeration properties to the CFCs and nercs, although none is an exact match for any of the commonly used Crc and 1icrc reftigerants. In some cases two or more HFCS are blended to produce a mixture which has similar temperature and pressure properties to an existing CFC or HCFC. HFCs are powerful greenhouse gases (similar to CFCs and HCFCS). (b) Natural refrigerants include various Hes and ammonia, They have low environmental impact [negligible or zero global warming poten-Cfcs, HcFcs, urcs and halons tial (GwP)]s however, cs are highly flammable and ammonia is highly toxic, so their application is restricted to certain types of equipment and locations. (©) Alternative refrigeration and cooling technologies include the absorption cycle and air cycle refrigeration, and ground water, evap- orative and desiccant cooling Prior to the Montreal Protocol the principal refrigerants used in air condi- tioning plant were R11 (c#cI1), R12 (cFc12) and R22 (Hcrc22). RII and R12 were used mainly in centrifugal chillers, whereas most other systems used R22. Certain other crcs, mainly R113, R114, R500 and R502, were also used in a small number of systems. Table 4 summarises the principal commercially available alternatives. ‘Table 4 Alternatives to CFCs and HcKCs used in building services. Drop-in (D) Retrofit (RY Refrigerant Replaces New systems only(N) __ Notes R123 RU R An interim replacement for R11 in centrifugal chillers RI34a Ri2and R500 R. Used mainly in centrifugal or screw chillers. ‘Requires larger compressor and pipes than R22 (for a given cooling duty) R4O7C R22 A common alternative to R22 in new systems, or for retrofitting existing R22 systems RAIOA R22 Operates at higher pressures than R22 and thus requires new equipment with stronger components and high quality brazing. Isceon 59 R22 D A replacement for R22 in existing systems— claimed to be soluble in conventional lubricants because it contains a small quantity of butane (R600) R290 (propane) R22 DR Highly flammable—it is essential that the requirements of BS4434 are complied with CareS0 (propane R22 DR Highly flammable—itis essential that the and ethane) juirements of BS4434 are complied with R717 (ammonia) R22 N Highly toxic—it is essential that the requirements of BS4434 are complied with "Drop-in replacements—these may be used in existing plant with no or minor changes to the plant, such as the adjustment of a thermostatic expansion valve superheat setting and the replacement of the filter/drier. “Retrofit replacements—these may be used in existing plant, or existing designs, only after a number of modifications have been made. These may range from the relatively simple replacement of seals and gaskets and the compressor lubri- ‘cant, to major component changes or modifications, such as a compressor gearbox or impeller replacement. Absorption cycle chillers are available as alternatives to vapour compres- sion chillers using HCFC or HFC refrigerants. Absorption chillers use either water and lithium bromide (water is the refrigerant and lithium bromide is the absorber), or ammonia and water (ammonia is the refrigerant and water is the absorber). Although absorption chillers have relatively low coetficients of performance they are driven by heat and can be powered by ‘waste heat from combined heat and power plant or other sources. Ground water cooling is available in many parts of the UK but to date has not been exploited fully. The costs of well drilling, pumping and well maintenance may be quite high and will need careful evaluation. Evaporative cooling, in the form of cooling towers, is commonly used to improve the efficiency of heat rejection from conventional mechanical refrigeration systems. Evaporative cooling can be used to replace or supplement conventional chillers for much of the year. Air cycle cooling is widely used for aircraft cabin air conditioning but to date its low energy efficiency has prevented its use in buildings. However, recent research” has shown that air cycle plant could be economic inBackground Halons Design guidance Refrigeration system design buildings that require simultaneous heating and cooling because air cycle systems can provide high temperature heat recovery without the energy efficiency penalty experienced by vapour compression systems. Air cycle systems are also potentially more robust and reliable than vapour com- pression systems. Research is still being carried out into possible replacements for halons and some chemical companies have already released replacement prod- ucts. Some of these replacements may require some re-engineering for currently installed extinguishant pipework. Specifiers and installers must ensure that they have received appropriate information from the extin- guishant manufacturer. Even where a replacement system for halons is obtained, it does not pre- clude the necessity for any removed halon to be recovered and recycled or disposed of in a legal and environmentally acceptable manner. Before the Montreal Protocol crc11 and crcl2 were widely used for blow- ing foam plastic insulation material. In response to the Protocol the foam manufacturers switched to HCECS and sometimes CO, or pentane. The phasing-out of HCFCs means that the industry now has to find other alter- natives. The latest proposal for a new EC regulation wall ban the use of 1HcFcs for foam blowing from the year 2004, Table 5 summarises the main alternatives. Designers should optimise the use of refrigeration plant for air condition- ing and comfort cooling by fully exploiting design opportunities for free cooling, recovery of cooling from exhaust air systems, independent exhaust of high heat loads and use of the cooling effects of fresh air, when appropriate. Figure 3 shows a simple decision chart that should help designers and clients to establish their cooling requirements. The use of ice and other cool storage systems, evaporative cooling and enthalpy con- trol may also be adopted where this reduces the requirement for ‘mechanical refrigeration and minimises primary energy consumption. Further opportunities include the optimisation of building shape and form and the use of the building to provide an overnight cooling sink for re-use during the following day. ‘Where multiple refrigeration machines are installed, machine sizing should be related to the cooling demand profiles in preference to installing a number of equal-sized machines. Good control provisions in such cases are essential. Design techniques for mixed mode buildings can be developed with cool- ing provided selectively to specific areas at the times required. The concept requires careful assessment of both the magnitude and duration of the component cooling loads and due consideration of future require- ments and flexibility for change of use. Although the Gwe of most cc reftigerants is thousands of times higher than that of CO, on a weight-for-weight basis, this becomes relevant only where the gas is released to the atmosphere. It is important, therefore, to consider the effect on operational energy consumption of the use of the various HFC and HCFC alternatives. The overall global warming impact of a refrigerant plant should be minimised by:10 Fes, HoFcs, HFCs and halons Table 5 Alternatives to HCFCs for foam blowing, Original foam Interim Long-term Foam blowing agent replacement replacement ___ Notes Polyurethane foam (hot crell arcI4Ib ECs Pentane has 10% poorer ‘water cylinders, pipe-in-pipe (Hec245fa)or insulation and fire insulation, pipe insulation, pentane cold rooms, building boards, cavity insulation) Phenolic foam crell urcl4lb Hes Pentane has 10% poorer (pipe insulation) (HiRC245fa) or insulation and fire risk pentane Extruded polystyrene foam _cF12 scrcl42b/ HrCL348, CO, can result in poor (rigid insulating boards and 1HCFC22 mix HECIS2a of insulation properties; HFCs sandwich panels) Co, are better but are more expensive and have high owrs Polyethylene foam (pipe and crcl2 HCRC22/142b FCS or ‘vessel insulation) iso-butane + ensuring good refrigeration efficiency; + minimising refrigerant emissions; * avoiding unnecessary plant operation; + selecting a refrigerant with the lowest practicable GwPs + minimising the refrigerant charge. ‘The overall global warming impact of alternative plant and refrigerants ‘may be assessed by estimating the TEWT of the system. TEW is a measure of the total cumulative global warming impact of a cooling system over its lifetime: it includes direct effects from refrigerant released from the sys- tem due to leaks or losses during servicing, and indirect effects from the fossil fuel consumed to generate the energy (usually electricity) required to operate the system. The British Refrigeration Association has pub- lished guidelines"” for estimating TewI for various types of refrigeration plant. ‘The energy efficiency of alternative electrically powered systems may be compared by assessing the kW electrical input for each kW of cooling capacity at representative operating temperatures and loads, The ratio of KW cooling capecity to KW input power is known as coefficient of perfor- mance (cop) and should be as high as practically and economically possible. cor is determined not only by the efficiency of the refrigeration system and choice of refrigerant, but also by the operating temperature range which should be minimised by keeping the condensing temperature (heat rejection temperature) as low as possible, and the evaporating tem- perature (process cooling temperature) as high as possible: as a general rule, each 1°C decrease in condensing temperature or 1°C increase in evaporating temperature reduces energy use by approximately 3% (for fur- ther details see CIBSE Guide: Energy Efficiency in Buildings) ‘As well as having a direct environmental impact, refrigerant emissions caused by leakage may also result in a reduction in refrigeration efficiency where the cause of leakage is not remedied and the loss made good promptly. Research by the Building Research Estat in critically charged systems (systems without additional refrigerant charge stored in system liquid receivers) a 15% loss of refrigerant caused @ 45% reduction in CoP. Designers should follow the good practice guidance on minimising refrigerant leakage that is available from the Institute of Refrigeration” and the Energy Technology Support Unit, Harwell (ETSU).* ‘Minimising the environmental impact of building cooling systems is often linked inextricably to life cycle costs. For example, systems with the east whole-life cost are likely to be those with the lowest energy con- sumption and therefore have the least impact on global warming.Design guidance 1 Bes equa i coven | == ‘acne oes namiy nae ot renin ten | “cewod bet ay pa ir aeccag pee out ce n cchamatesinn| a beer) sate andorpoasn? [P] < rwadh sng Figure 3 Dette dette seiner LS | cn str | 0 Baer ~ y Wie a ce nceratb on [| cn webatana din [M2 tanbewtsnpororae| | bene oer oth jx! Tree “rir oenera! Lae) stage cotesjere umpuenmareate | | monet? ¥ | y y Mechanical Standard air Close control ai Natural ventilation ventigton Comortcoofing conditioning ‘conditioning Figure 3 Decision flow chart. ‘The need for air conditioning or mechanical ventilation can often be reduced (area of building treated, size of cooling plant or frequency ‘of operation) even if its not avoided altogether. This approach is often called a mixed mode system. (A) Close control of temperature and humidity is not normally necessary for human occupation, but may be required for some industrial or medical activities, oF for storage of certain types of product or artifact; (@) Although many buildings inthe UK operate successfully without humidity control, humidification may be required in winter; () ingress of external noise and pollution can sometimes be avoided by reorientating the building, avoiding opening windows on certain ‘aspects, oF using special acoustic louvres on opening windows; (©) Heat gains may be reduced by solar shading, revised orientation, use of thermal mass, night cooling, more efficient lighting and IT ‘equipment etc. The acceptability of high temperatures needs to be related to their frequency, taking into account possible relaxed comfort requirements in hot weather. CIBSE Guide AB suggests that a dry resultant temperature of 27°C should not be exceeded for more than. 2.5% days of each month.2 ation of new systems (ccs, HeFCS, HFCs and halons ‘Minimising the environmental impact of cooling systems depends not only on the choice of refrigerant but on a whole range of interrelated fac- tors. Table 6 lists some of these factors in a checklist format. ‘New works specifications should avoid refrigerants with an opr, includ- ing all crcs and Hcrcs. Refrigerants with the lowest possible GwP and atmospheric lifetime should be chosen (see Table 2) Although some new equipment still uses R22 (HicrC22, ODP 0.05), HCFCs should be restricted to applications for which the use of more environ- ‘mentally acceptable alternatives is not possible. New plant is now widely available with zero op» refrigerants, including in particular R134a, R407C, ammonia and Hcs. Other environmentally ‘safe’ alternatives such as absorption chillers, using either ammonia/water ot water/lithium bromide or desiccant cooling should also be considered. Ammonia or CS as refrigerant in vapour compression equipment may be appropriate for certain applications but safety issues need careful consid- ration. (See BS4434, HSE guidance and Institute of Refrigeration Safety Codes.) Where ground level or rooftop-mounted packaged ammonia/water chillers are considered, careful evaluation of the building design is neces- sary to avoid the potential for entry of inadvertent discharges of ammonia into the accommodation. Account needs to be taken of the location of equipment and its proximity to fresh air intakes, ventilation discharges, opening windows and entrances. ‘Table 6 Checklist for minimising the environmental impact and whole-life costs of building cooling systems. 1 Specify a refrigerant with a low environmental impact Consider the use of absorption chillers at sites where waste heat is available Consider ammonia for ct ers Consider hydrocarbon refrigerant for small DX systems or small chillers Consider 1 2 Avoid unnecessary plant operation cs where costs or hazards of using ammonia or hydrocarbons are unacceptable ‘Maximise use of fresh air only in cool weather Consider a mixed mode building design Avoid unnecessarily tight temperature control Consider free cooling (dry air or evaporative) chillers and thermosyphon chillers 3 Ensure good refrigeration efficiency Select efficient cooling equipment and do not oversize Ensure that condensing temperatures are as low as pos Ensure that evaporating temperatures are as high as possible Consider raising building temperature set-point in hot weather Consider separate plant for high and low temperature loads Select high efficiency electric motors for compressors, fans and pumps Consider inverter speed control for variable load systems Relate plant size to load profile in multiple refrigeration plant installations ‘Minimise refrigerant emissions Consider compact packaged systems instead of distributed refrigeration systems ‘Minimise pipe run lengths and connections in distributed refrigeration systems Choose plant with low refrigerant charge (minimise kg per kW cooling capacity) Specify appropriate leak detection system or procedure Design system to have sufficient access for leak detection and maintenance Specify system to allow easy refrigerant removal or pump down, Provide written maintenance and decommissioning instructions iinimise TEWI Choose cooling system with lowest practicable and economic lifetime TEW1 rating Select a refrigerant with a low wr Ensure system has good energy efficiencyDesign guidance 13 Data collected for a UNEP report™” indicate the typical ranges of reftiger- ant charge for various types of proprietary packaged equipment (see Table 6). Specifiers should take account of charge requirements, particularly ‘when considering the continued interim use of HCFCs, the use of HFCs, and the use of flammable or toxic refrigerants such as HCs and ammonia. Plants that use plate evaporators generally have a lower refrigerant charge than systems with flooded or shell and tube evaporators. ‘Table 7 Typical ranges of refrigerant charge for various types of proprietary packaged equipment. Equipment type Small unit air conditioners Split system air conditioners Large unit air conditioners Reciprocating water chiller Centrifugal/screw water chillers Refrigerant type and charge range (kg/kW) ) R22 (ucrC) R123 (t RI34a (HEC) 0.24 7 - 0.26 = = 031 = - 0.21-0.24 = 0.28-037 017-037 0.14-0.31 0.28-0.37 Refurbishment of existing systems Distributed refrigeration systems, such as variable refrigerant flow rate (vRe) systems, can have substantially higher refrigerant charges than those given in Table 7, depending on the length of interconnecting refrigerant pipework. Such systems therefore pose a much greater potential environ- mental hazard than systems with smaller specific refrigerant charges. Distributed systems therefore require much greater attention to the ‘quality of pipe jointing techniques and leak checking procedures. For certain installations itis possible to convert existing cFc equipment to operate with HFC or HCFC refrigerants. However, in many cases conversion is likely to be impracticable or uneconomical. Where conversion is considered the manufucturer should be consulted to assess the practicality, capital and operating costs and the CoP of the modi fied system. Conversion is currently possible for certain centrifugal chillers originally designed for RL1, R12, R500 or R502. In some instances recently installed centrifugal chillers may already be compatible with the new HFC or HCFC refrigerants. Conversion is less likely to be viable for older equipment. In such cases the optimum solution may be either pre- ‘mature replacement, or to take even more care to minimise refrigerant losses. Past experience does suggest, however, that refrigerant losses become more likely towards the end of the equipment lifetime, and that the maintenance standards necessary to prevent this may not, in them- selves, be economically justified. ‘A proposed new EC regulation intends to ban the use of recycled or stock- piled crcs for maintaining existing systems from 1 January 2001. If this is implemented then existing CFC centrifugal chillers will need to be con- verted or replaced. In most instances the cost of conversion of purpose-designed compatible ‘equipment will be limited to: recovery of the existing CFC refrigerant, including thorough removal of all residues; purchase of the new refriger- ant; replacement of the lubricating oil; possible replacement of some gaskets, seals and other elastomeric materials and in some cases changes to the impeller or gear set (centrifugal compressors). For older equipment the cost of conversion will be as for compatible equipment plus the following: for conversion to R123 cost of replacing gaskets, seals, motor (hermetic units), and purge device; for conversion to R134a the cost of replacing certain elastomer seals, the lubrication system and, in certain cases, the hermetic motor. The use of R123 will also neces- sitate improved safety measures (see ‘Health and safety issues’ below). HFCs are not soluble in the traditional mineral or alkyl benzene compres- sor lubricants. Most refrigeration plants rely on the solubility of the refrigerant in the lubricant to return oil carried over from the compressor back to the compressor. HFCs are soluble in synthetic polyol ester lubri- cants and most refrigeration plants need to be converted to this lubricant14 Health and safety issues ccs, HCFCS, HFCs and halons before being compatible with an HFC refrigerant, HFCs and polyol esters ‘may cause dimensional changes in some elastomeric materials used in seals and gaskets and these may need to be replaced to minimise the risk of leaks or seizure of moving parts. The toxicity of any substitute refrigerant should be considered to estab- lish whether additional safety precautions are necessary. Because all refrigerants, (including CPCs), pose some risk to health there is a require- ment under the (COSHH) Regulations 1994” to assess the risks and to take measures to prevent or control exposure. The HSE defines occupa- tional exposure limits for most crcs and some alternative refrigerants." Where the HSE has not published an occupational exposure limit then the values given by the refrigerant manufacturers in their chemical data safety sheets should be used. Most of the world’s major refrigerant pro- ducers have co-operated under the PAFT to develop toxicology data for alternative fluorocarbons. Occupational exposure limits for the most com- mon refrigerants are given in Table 8. Under the COSHH Regulations(s) itis the responsibility of an employer to ensure that any exposure to these refrigerants is within the HSE occupational exposure standards. The HSE has also published detailed information and guidance on the safe use of refrigerants in an HSE Special Inspector Report.” It is recommended that all service and maintenance staff who deal with refrigeration plant are on the ACRIB Refrigerant Handling Register and have received the appropriate training, ‘Most alternative refrigerants, including HFCs and Hcs, have low toxicities similar to those of the cFcs and HcFcs that they replace. The exceptions are ammonia and R123 (a transitional alternative for R11). R123 is @ mild anaesthetic and during toxicity testing was shown to cause benign testicu- lar tumours in rats. As a result, refrigerant producers have set an occupational exposure limit for R123 of between 10 and 30 ppm. Improved safety measures should be considered for R123 including plant room mechanical ventilation, ducting of any purge device directly to atmosphere and provision of refrigerant detectors linked to alarms set at the long-term occupational exposure limit, BS4434” includes a mandatory requirement for gas detectors for all refrigerants to be set to the appropri- ate occupational exposure standard and linked to an alarm system. Ic is recommended that the requirements of BS4434: 1995" (Safety and Environmental Aspects in the Design, Construction and Installation of Refrigerating Appliances and Systems) are always complied with when- ever a new system is installed or when an existing system is extended, ‘modified or converted to another reftigerant. BS4434 will eventually be replaced by a European Standard prEN378. Although compliance with 'BS4434 (or any other relevant code, standard or even unwritten ‘good practice’) is not a legal requirement, non-compliance could be taken by a ‘Table 8 Occupational exposure standards for refrigerants”. Refrigerant Long-term exposure Short-term exposure limit (8-h period) limit (15-min period) (ppm) (pm) RIL, R12 1000 1250 R22 1000 NA Ri3a 1000 NA R123 30" NA R407C 1000' NA R410A, 100° NA R717 (ammonia) 25 35 " Latest refrigerant manufacturers’ estimates, based on PAF toxicity testing data. Na, value not listed or not yet available.Design guidance 15 Court as failure to take reasonable care and precautions; this could lead to criminal prosecution and to subsequent civil action in the case of death or serious injury. BS4434 limits the hazards from refrigerants by stipulating how and where they may be used and, for each case, the maximum charge of refrigerant. Table 9 summarises these requirements for residential and commercial occupancy categories. For safety reasons HCs and ammonia must be used either in very small direct DX systems, or in chillers where the plant is located outside, or installed in a plant room with special safety features. 'BS4434 links the maximum allowable refrigerant charge for DX. systems to the volume of the smallest occupied space served by the system, such that the maximum allowable concentration (‘practical limit’) cannot be exceeded if the entire charge leaked into that space. For Hc and ammonia systems there is usually an additional maximum safe-charge limit. For ‘most CFCS, HCFCs and HFCs the ‘practical limit’ is related to the maximum concentration to avoid any toxic effect following short-term exposure. (This is different to the HSE’s occupational exposure limit, which is meant to provide protection for long-term exposure.) For Hcs the ‘practi- cal limit is one-fifth of the lower flammability limit, which is far below the short-term toxicity level. Table 9 gives the ‘practical limits’ for a range of refrigerants and shows the implication this has on the allowable maxi- mum charge for a DX system serving a 100 m’ room. It also clearly shows the more stringent charge restrictions necessary for the H1cs and ammonia. ‘Table 10 shows the problems that can arise with distributed refrigeration systems, such as VRF systems. Adherence to the concept of the maximum refrigerant charge being linked to the practical limit and the volume of the smallest room served by the system is important in minimising poten- tial hazards from VRF-type systems serving small residential rooms, such as hotel bedrooms. In addition to complying with BS4434 those responsible for the design, installation, commissioning, operation and maintenance of refrigerating systems must also comply with all relevant health and safety legislation, including the following: (a) Pressure Systems and Transportable Gas Containers Regulations 1989 require that all refrigeration systems with an input power of more than 25 kW are maintained properly and subject toa written scheme for regular safety inspections. (b) Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1992 require ‘employers to assess the risks to the health and safety of their employ- ces, and to take appropriate measures to prevent or control those risks. (©) COSHH Regulations 1994 require employers to ensure that exposure of their employees to substances hazardous to health is either pre- vented or, where this is not reasonably practicable, adequately controlled. COSHH would normally cover exposure to refrigerants in plant rooms. (a) Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 1994 require designers to prepare a health and safety file for the client on how to manage the safety risks when the plant is maintained, repaired, reno- vated or decommissioned. (© Pressure Equipment Directive concerns the design and manufacture of ‘equipment. It comes into force on 29 November 1999 with a transi- tional period until 28 May 2002. It covers all pressure equipment including refrigeration compressors, pipework, heat exchangers and safety devices. Essentially the requirements are that equipment meets certain requirements and is subject to conformity assessment procedures.ccs, HCFCs, HFCs and halons 16 Jo ruawraxinbas pensn o 61 *PEPYSH 998) ‘woos yes ur pony axe (OHA DION 2>UEpIND ASH 298) s40 ASH By 3 “aye pouonrpu "ye wado wi 40 wioos Asaunypear peqoads ut 9q 1snyy aur oN, somo, auewaseq & ur aq 100 ISN onoead iauTaIMbad AAazes |e 10 SuIpyom Aq papeas axe iwexoStajar SurUIMUOD sized [Te Yoryas UI waIsKs w SwI2IsAs papeas 120MM SUMTETE 01 payur] sroLooLap wees Lar J} uM peanvesd x Z 01 paxwjas aq Aur ‘yp yutas oe U0 2814j>1 pus wonenuas wourMLEd jou aunssoxd adooxa) Burzexq oR “FOMO] 91 SI OAD, ‘waisks ‘s101991 red “t00s Krourypeus jeroads 31g.) wonenusou0D afqeaorye une yWesaSLayaN YESS Np Ul aze wrois4s otf jo sized Suyuper ste uado ut 10 woor Axourypeur persads ut aq isnyy 84 00s sel ID aupmraseg & UT 9q 101 ISN ‘uraisAs payeos e oq snp “3084 0 xa woisés payeas ® aq isn BI SZ Xa euowmy se uado ur 10 woos {He uado ur 20 woo - Azourypeur fersads ut 9q 1snyy 3401 spn Asouryoeur jepoads uw] aq isn BH S sr eat e jo 1u9A9 yeaq # Joana 2q2 ut ayeyntunaoe ome aq uy areqnuunsoe tou uBsaS [yar 2124 pores0] ues9BuyoX 279444 P9TEDO| ara ue sisenu09 feoen294 eonseud /pue sisei09 jeoE32}9 payeas peonzead Yuta uraisss poyeas e 508457 xa ua urarsés popeas © aq isn 084 ST xa son ‘syoyoo1ap ywesaS1ijar oary ‘sto1sorap 1wera81aja3 94q 7 pus parejnuas od SUOADIS ‘aaieqo ada urnurey iss unmey arsis (aia sdoys jews ‘201y50) g Ar0Ba189 Aouedns9Q (ore sreyremadns fenuaprses) y AroBo1e Aouedn299 x9P IT} 10} parrnsuod aq rsnUH CEG FEPESA ‘ATuO 2oUNpms 10}) siuouIazINbax Ayes pue aBseyD UNUTTKEW Jo ATBUIUING “C66T FEPYSH 6 TGELDesign guidance 7 Table 10 Refrigerant practical limits (BS4434, 1995).” Maximum refrigerant charge (kg) for a DX Practical limit system serving a Refrigerant kg/m’) 100 m’ room RU 03 30 Ri2 0s 50 R22 od 4 Rida 0.25 25 R123 R4O7C 0.35 35 RSIOA 044 4 R717 (ammonia) 0.00035 0.035 'R290 (propane) 0.008 08 ‘R600a (isobutane) 0.008 08 ‘The Institute of Refrigeration Safety Codes" (gradually being replaced by a new series of safety codes”) give practical guidance on the inspection and maintenance of refrigeration systems. It is recommended that the requirements of these codes are complied with, in addition to the requirements of BS4434. Refrigerant containment and leak detection The refrigeration industry's system design standards already include appropriate techniques for retaining refrigerant under normal operation, including leak detection. These standards should be enhanced to ensure that, whatever the circumstances, complete and effective containment arrangements are provided at all times." ‘The particular features reinforcing traditional standards include: (@) improved standards of jointing and joint testing of refrigerant pipework, fusion being preferable to mechanical joints; (b) greater care and attention to the design of pipework to avoid adverse effects of vibration; (©) provision of sectional isolation arrangements throughout the system; (d)_ provision of a full refrigerant charge capacity pump down receiver not forming part of the operating circuit; (© provision of connections for abstracting the refrigerant from the system} (use of automatic leak detection techniques; (g) consideration of limiting the volume of refrigerant gas contained ‘within the system by specifying equipment using closely packaged compressorievaporator units Automatic refrigerant leak detection systems are usually based on refriger- ant detectors linked to alarms. Such systems are suitable for plant room installations but are less suitable for outdoor situated plant because air movement can prevent leaked refrigerant from reaching fixed detectors or air sample points. Ultraviolet fluorescent dye oil additives can aid leak detection for outdoor systems but compatibility of these proprietary dyes the refrigerant, oil and other materials of construction must be ascer- tained before their introduction into a system. Various handheld refrigerant detectors are available but their use as a routine method of checking for leaks can be time consuming and laborious.18 Testing and commis Thermal Insulation ‘ccs, HeFcs, Hecs and halons Traditional refrigeration system commissioning and repair practice has undergone a fundamental change of attitude. Established industry stan- dards of system evacuation, soundness testing, purging and charging have ‘been based on the low insurance rating of cFCs and HCFCs, their low cost and low toxicity in terms of personnel safety. In the past the CFC refriger- ant was used as a trace gas to locate leakage sources and as a purging agent to discharge other gases from the system. These practices must be discon- tinued. Completed refrigeration systems must be leak-tested before commission- ing and charging. The tests may comprise pressurisation by dry nitrogen to system operating pressure, plus a test margin and checking for leaks. If necessary, a trace of refrigerant may be used to locate small leaks with a suitable detector. A refrigerant charging log should be kept, showing ini- tial and subsequent refrigerant charges together with an audit trail for the refrigerant concerned. Reasons for topping-up or recharging and any asso- ciated remedial action taken should also be recorded. Final commissioning should be carried out by competent persons and all controls and safety devices checked under operating conditions. Safety devices should be sealed against unauthorised interference. Removed refrigerants should be pumped down into a receiver or cylinder and returned to the manufacturer/supplier for reprocessing (in line with appropriate safety guidelines). On existing installations, where appropriate, additional valves should be installed to enable isolation of the system components for maintenance purposes. It must be ensured that the user has accurate and clear operat- ing and maintenance instructions with particular emphasis on the refrigerant within the circuit and the consequences of possible leakages. ‘These instructions should include emergency procedures enabling the operator to make the plant safe in the event of any refrigerant leakage. Decommissioning should be carried out only by qualified personnel included on the ACRIB Refrigerant Handling Register or holding other recognised certification in safe handling of refrigerants. Contaminated refrigerants should be returned to the manufacturer or specialist disposal company for reuse or reprocessing. Insulation standards for buildings, services components and distribution systems are expected to continue to improve as energy costs and other environmental considerations influence their viability. Expanded plastic insulants using zero-opr blowing agents provide a range of materials with high thermal resistivity and low moisture permeability properties relative to their thickness and weight. These products should be specified where the particular properties of plastic foam insulants are necessary. Alternatives to foamed insulants, such as mineral fibre, should be specified for other applications particularly where non-combustibility is important, taking due note of the potential difficulties in ensuring a sound vapour seal. ‘Materials which contain crcs should not be permitted in insulation speci- fications. Prior to the CFC phase-out rigid urethane foams (polyisocyanurates and polyurethanes), extruded expanded polystyrene, phenolics and polyethylene foam were blown using ccs, These materials are generally used cither because of their excellent thermal resistance or because they have a ‘closed cell’ structure with a high resistance to vapour transmission and good mechanical properties. They can be produced without crcs although the alternative production process generally leads to a reduction in thermal re . Some of the materials may be pro- duced with HcFcs, with little change in thermal conductivity as compared to those produced with a crc. However, the use of any material producedDesign guidance Fire protection systems 19 with an HCFC should be avoided unless there is no acceptable alternative, In addition, itis important to ascertain from manufacturers reliable data on the ageing of expanded plastic insulants, particularly where these are used in hot applications (above 100°C) Care must be taken as the use of less efficient insulating materials will result in increased energy consumption and thus an additional contribution to global warming. Data for economic thicknesses of insulation are available for materials with a wide range of thermal conductivities. The presentation of data takes account of the commercial range of thicknesses produced. Using this information as a basis, optimum insulation arrangements can be deter- mined for expanded plastic insulants according to their particular thermal conductivities. It should be noted that installation costs for multi-thickness insulation applications could incur a greatly increased labour element and specifiers should take account of this. Any increase in the overall wall construction thickness as the result of inferior thermal insulation could adversely affect floor areas available to let as well as increasing installation costs. Where alternatives to expanded plastic insulants are under consideration, possible design risks associated with the non-closed cell structure of the alternative material must be borne in mind. Possible design risks for non- foam insulants and non-closed cell foams include vapour transmission; this would be important where vapour scealing of the insulant is required or where there is a risk of moisture penetration to the insulation whether from the surroundings or from leakage from the service pipe. New halon fire suppression systems should not be specified. The EC is currently considering new regulation that may ban the use of halons for maintaining existing systems from I January 2003, and require all non- critical halon systems to be decommissioned before 21 December 2003. Guidelines have been issued by the Loss Prevention Council™ and the Fire Industry Council” regarding the use and replacement of halon fire suppression systems. Consideration should also be given to the following: (@) For existing halon installations and systems which have already been specified, discharge testing should not be carried out at any stage. Fan pressurisation tests (see below) should be used to establish leakage characteristics of the enclosure and to ensure that leakage is minimised. Halon storage should be fully isolated before automatic discharge arrangements are verified. (b) All redundant halons should be returned to a reputable agent capa- ble of arranging for their safe destruction and disposal or for recycling, (©) The use of halons should be discontinued in new installations of all types. Fire protection design and installation standards appropriate to the select- ed extinguishing media should be specified. Adequate personnel safety considerations are of paramount importance as well as protection of goods and equipment. Where halon remains in use pending replacement, review all detection and control systems and personnel procedures to eliminate, as far as possible, spurious or unintended release of the gas. Where possi- ble, consideration should be given to modifying total flooding systems to offer the same level of protection to limited vulnerable areas only (€.g. equipment cabinets). Computer room and electronic data processing (EDP) areas vary widely in size, sophistication and importance to the organisation concerned. All of20 Testing existing halon systems cs, HcFCS, Hecs and halons these factors should be taken into account in an overall risk assessment and in consideration of the fire suppression medium and fire protection system to be used. Fundamental considerations concern the fire compartmentalisation of the EDP area and its location with respect to other accommodation. The ini- tial system design approach should be to consider the fire risks within the area to be protected and to assess the scope for segregation. Protecting ceiling and floor voids (where electrical distribution arrange- ‘ments are concentrated) and equipment cabinets only, rather than the accommodation as a whole, can also be considered as part of the overall design strategy. The designer should also advise the user on the importance of good housekeeping and well-considered operational procedures for the EDP area. Such principles include: + keeping combustible materials out of the area; ‘+ storing tapes and disks in an adjacent, separately compartmentalised room or fire-proof cabinet; + keeping all equipment cabinet doors closed during normal opera- tion; + ensuring that fire procedures are well-understood and instituting practice drills. For cables that serve EDP rooms and similar critical areas, linear protec- tion should be provided for the complete extent of all cable routes. It is important for the fire suppression medium to be capable of preventing smouldering of cable sheathing and to have a good temperature knock- down capability. Discharge testing should no longer be carried out. Fan pressurisation tests using portable equipment should be used to establish leakage characteris- tics of the enclosure and to ensure that leakage is minimised. A fan with a performance appropriate to the size and anticipated leakage characteristics of the space being tested is arranged to discharge air into the space, for instance, through a door frame temporarily blanked-off to receive the fan outlet. Most test arrangements use a variable-speed fan motor drive to provide a range of pressures in the test space. The volume flow rate related to each space pressure is measured, typically in the fan inlet duct, and from the data obtained a leakage characteristic for the space can be plot- ted. As stated above, the object of the test is to minimise rather than to eliminate loss of pressure and the test will readily draw attention to the ‘major sources of leakage. Where necessary, these can be remedied and retesting repeated until a satisfactory result is achieved, Leakage rates will be influenced by the type of construction and accept- able limits will depend on: ‘+ the size of the space being provided with fire protection, particularly the surface areas of the enclosure exposed to atmosphere; + ‘partial pressure’ generated by the discharge of the suppression ‘medium; + the limiting pressure-related decay rate required to ensure that the design concentration of the medium is maintained for the necessary suppression period. Acceptable leakage limits can be determined using the standard ventila- tion decay rate formulae, the measured leakage rate, the initial (over-)Design guidance 24 Consultation Means of escape and fire compartmentalisation Avoidance of unwanted discharge Fire suppression media concentration of the suppression medium, the limiting concentration and the related time to ensure effective fire suppression. For many applications, the common design solution over recent years has been halon systems. Now that these systems are no longer available it is necessary to consider other solutions. ‘The following notes aim to provide outline guidance to the designer in such considerations. They are intended only to offer a number of pointers and some associated introductory guidance and it is imperative that designers seck more detailed information from appropriate specialised sources. (See also CIBSE Guide Section BS” and CIBSE TMI6.”") Designers of fire protection systems for new work or for the replacement of existing halon systems should, in the first instance, consult carefully with the customer or user, with suppliers of equipment to be protected and, in particular, with the customer's insurers. The interaction of fire, buildings and people gives rise to a large number of possible scenarios. Before attempting to carry out a detailed study and recommend a fire protection scheme, the significant fire hazards and their locations should be identified. Fundamental considerations include means of escape and the fire com- partmentalisation or segregation of areas requiring fire protection including floor and ceiling voids. It may also be necessary to provide alternative escape routes. ‘Where the discharge of the suppression medium is likely to interfere with the safe escape of occupants, automatic arrangements may be made for deferred discharge (sec HSE GS16)"* and BS7273."" It is essential to avoid the spurious discharge of any fire suppression sys- tem, Even where the suppression medium may be completely benign and cause no damage whatever to the building or its contents, unwanted dis- charge generally causes inconvenience, will always incur unnecessary costs and results in an unprotected installation until the system is, recharged. The most common cause of unwanted discharge is false detection by the sensors provided as part of the system. The approach to minimising false detection should, therefore, seek some form of confirmation of the initial signal. This confirmation can be arranged in a number of ways, one of which is referred to as ‘double knock’ detection, i.e. the same detector should be in ‘alarm’ when polled on two consecutive occasions by the fire alarm panel. ‘A more effective confirmation is provided by coincidence detection using independent detection inputs, possibly from different types of sensor; this may require two detectors to respond, or two different types of detec- tor to respond, or two detectors, on different circuits to respond. See 'BS7273, Part 1. ‘The following systems can be employed for those applications which have ‘become typically associated with halons.22 ‘Automatic sprinkler systems Foam systems Water mist systems cs, Heres, MCS and halons This long-standing means of suppression by using water can meet a wide range of applications and hazards. Standards of installation are well established and clearly defined; design requirements for a wide range of applications are covered in BS 5306 Part Aqueous filming forming foam (AFFF) is a water-based system using high-expansion foam or other foaming agents for fire suppression purposes. Various systems are available; the designs are appropriate to the charac- teristics of the particular foam concerned. The design of the distribution pipework is an important consideration as foams can break down in transportation through the system. It may be necessary to limit distribution lengths. ‘Typical design requirements are covered in BS$306 Part 6.°° ‘These systems typically involve lower water usage per minute per unit area and smaller mean drop diameters than automatic sprinkler systems} several sprinkler manufacturers have produced what they term ‘misting sprinklers’. ‘Water mist systems operate over a range of design pressures up to around 1000 kPa (100 bar). ‘One particular system relies on the use of twin fluid technology (typically water and air/N,). Depending on the technology used nozzles vary from a single orifice to a number of orifices. Presently installers and specifiers will need to discuss with individual manufacturers the exact design requirements for individual systems as there is currently no standard for such systems in buildings. Gaseous systems including halon replacements Halon replacements CO, and N, are well established as fire suppressants and, again, standards of installation and design requirements are available. ‘An essential consideration is the concentration of the gas necessary to suppress a fire. The density of the gas relative to air and its fluid perfor- ‘mance in the space to be protected are also influential. ‘The designer should also assess the rate of drop of ambient temperature ‘on discharge of stored CO, and ensure that this will not cause damage to the equipment under protection or to the building fabric. ‘Requirements for design and installation for CO, systems are covered in 'BS5306 Part 4). ‘There is continuous development of halon replacements. However a num- ber of systems are available commercially including, for example, noble {gases HFCs and perfluorocarbons (PFCs). Each commercially available sys- tem has individual guidelines regarding:Design guidance 23 Bibliography + design density (concentration of gas to extinguish fire); + nozzle characteristics; + pipework layouts + storage requirements; + woxicity concentrations. Currently such information may be obtained from individual manufactur- crs or from generic information available in BFPSA COP. Refrigerating Systems Commissioning Code R (London: Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers) (1991) Energy Efficiency in Buildings CIBSE Guide (London: Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers) (1998) BS4434: 1995. Specification for safety and environmental aspects inthe design, construction and installation of refrigerating appliances and systems (London: British Standards Institution) (1995) 1B95839: Fire detection and alarm systems for buildings. Part 1: 1988 Code of practice for system design, installation and servicing; Part 2: 1983 Specification {for manual call poinis; Part 3: 1988 Specification for automatic release mecha- nisms for certain fre protection equipment; Part 4: 1988 Specification for conarol ‘and indicating equipment; Part S: 1988 Specification for optical beam smoke deectors (London: British Standards Institution) (1983-1988) 1BS6266: 1992. Cade of practice for fire protection for electronic data processing installations (London: British Standards Institution) (1992) BS7273: Code of practice forthe operation of fire protection measures. Part I 1990 Elecrical actuation of gascous total flooding extinguishing systems; Part 2: 1992 Mechanical systems actuation of gaseous toral flooding and local applica~ tion extinguishing systems (London: British Standards Institution) (1990-1992) Reduction of chlorofluorocarbon emissions from refrigerating systems CECO- MAF GT1-001 (Frankfurt am Main; European Committee of ‘Manufacturers of Refrigeration Equipment) (1989) Osone depleting substances ASHRAE position statement (Atlanta GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers) (July 1992) Phase-out of crcs: guidance for owners and operators of air conditioning systems. BRE Information Paper 1P14/95 (Garston: Building Research Establishment) (September 1995) Safety and environmental requirements of new refrigerants, BRE Information Paper 1P16/95 (Garston: Building Research Establishment) (December 1995) Performance of air-conditioning systems with alternative refrigerants. BRE Information Paper 1P6/98 (Garston: Building Research Establishment) (March 1998) Safe disposal of crc refrigerants (London: Heating and Ventilating Contractors Association) (1989) Guideline Methods of Calculating rew1 (Carshalton: British Refrigeration Association) (Issue 1)24 References 1, 1 2 1B 1s, 16. 1. 18, 18. 21 2B. 2s. ‘cs, HeFCS, HECS and halons BSH434: 1995 Specification for safety and environmental aspects i the design, contruction and installation of refrigerating appliances and systems (London: British Standards Institution) (1995) Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations 1996 (London: HMSO) (1994) Stratospheric ozone 1996 (London: United Kingdom Stratospheric Ozone Review Group/HMS0) (1996) Declaration of intent om ues (Carshalton: Ait Conditioning and Refrigeration Industry Board; ACRIB) (1996) Montreal Protocol om substances that deplete the azone layer. Montreal, 16 September 1987 (presented to Parliament by the Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Alluirs by Command of Her Majesty, January 1988) (London: HMSO) (1988) ‘Montreal Procol, Ninth Meeting. Montteal 15-17 September 1997 (Montreal: United ‘Nations Environment Programme)(1997) Council Regulation (EEC) No.3093/94 of 15 December 1994 on substances that deplete the ozone layer. Oficial Journal ofthe European Communities (22 December 1984) Nos 1.333/-333/20 Common position (EC) No 19/1999 adopted by the Council on 23 February 1999 with 4 iew to adopting Council Regulation (EC) No . ./1999 of . . on substances that Seplete the ozone layer. Official Journal ofthe European Commune (4 May 1999) Nos c12siz8-ss. Eneivonmental Prowcion Act 1990 (London: HMSO) (1990) ‘Proposed cir cycle chilleiheat puanp sytem. CIBSE National Conference 1997, London (London: CIBSE) (October 1997) (Guideline methods of calculating ree (Bourne End: British Refrigeration Association) sue 1) Code of practice forthe minimisation of refrigerant emisions from refrigerating systems (Carshalton: Institute of Refrigeration (1995) Good Practice Guide 178. Cuting the cost of refigerant leakage (Dideot, Oxon: ETSU) ae7) Report ofthe Refigeation, it Conditioning and Heat Pumps Techical Options Commitee (Paris: International Institute of Refrigeration/United Nations Environment Programme) (December 1991) Health and Safety Executive EH40/98 Occupational exprure limite (London: Health and Safety Executive/HMSO) (1998) (Occupational hygiene aspect om the safe use and telecon of reftigerant fais, Specialist Inspcor Repors Number 48 (London: Health and Safety Executive) (1985) Institute of Refrigeration. Safety Code for Refrigerating Systems Utilizing Gilerftorcarbon. Pat I Design and Construction. Part 2 Gommioning, Inspection and -Mainienance. (Carshalton: Insite of Refrigeration) (1989) Institute of Reftigeration, Safety Cade for Refigeating Sitems Using Group Al and 2 Refrigerants, (Carshalton; Institate of Reftigeraton) (1999) FOC rues for automatic sprinkler nlltons inconporates BSS306 Pare 2 plus insurer's additional requirements) RLS6 (London: Loss Prevention Council) (1949) Halon into the future ~ the FIC policy on helon use (Kingston upon Thames: Fie Industry Council) (1993) Water service systems CIBSE Guide Section B4 (London: Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers) (1986) Fire precautions: sources of information on logal and other requirements. Technical ‘Memoranda TM16 (London: Chartered Institution of Building Services Engincers) (4980) Gas len ie exingishng stems, procatons or txichasords GS16 (London: Health and Safety Executive/HMSO) (1984) [BST273: Coe of practice for the operation offre protection measures. Par 1: 1980 Blecrzat actuation of gareoustoal flooding extinguishing systems (London: British Standards Institution) (1990-1992)References 2%, 25 1255306: Fire extinguishing installations and equipment on premises. Part 2: 1990 ‘Spoeication for srinler stems; Part 3: 1985 Code of practice selection, instalation and ‘maintnanca of portable ire extinguishes; Part 4: 1986 Speciation for carbon donde sy tons; Port . Halon rytems: Par $.1: 1982 Halon 1301 wal flooding systems; Part $2 1984 Halon 1211 tal long systems; Port 6: Foam stems: Par 6.1: 1988 Spcifction Jor low expansion foam ssi; Part 6.2: 1989 Specification for medium and hgh expansion foam stems; Part 7: 1988 Speciation for poroder ystems (London: British Standards Tnsticution) (1982-1990)