5.

Detection and Prediction

of Natural Fracture Occurrence
and Intensity
Fractures are Fractal in Nature
 Methods for Detection and Prediction of
Natural Fracture Occurrence and Intensity
 Core Analysis for Direct Observation of Fractures in a
Wellbore
 Well Logging Tools for Indirect Detection of Fractures in a
Wellbore
 Seismic Methods for Indirect Detection of Fracture Systems
 Prediction of Subsurface Fracture Spacing from Lithologic –
Mechanical Rock Properties, Bed Thickness, Structural
Position, and Bed Curvature
 Surface Outcrop Analogs and Geologic Models for
Estimation of Fracture Spacing and Interconnectivity
 Well Testing and Production Analysis to Assess Fracture
Contribution to Reservoir Permeability and Productivity
 Analysis of Fractures in Cores
Mineralized-Partially-Filled Regional Extension Fracture
in Oriented Sandstone Core from a Vertical Well
 Fracture Characteristics from Cores
Fracture Type Fracture Classification
Natural Extension
Drilling-Induced Shear
Fracture Distribution Fracture Morphology
Depth Open
Lithology Partially-Open
Density Closed
Fracture Orientation Cemented
Strike Fracture Surface Description
Dip and Fill Mineralogy
Fracture Geometry Fracture Termination
Length in core None
Aperture Lithology - bedding plane
Fracture Interconnectivity
Schematic Diagram Showing Fracture Analysis
Approach on Oriented Core
Coring--Induced Petal-
Coring Petal-Centerline Fracture
Plan View of Coring-
Coring-Induced
Petal--Centerline Fracture
Petal
Stress Trajectories Emanating from Core Bit which are
Responsible for Petal-
Petal-Centerline Fractures
Schematic of Coring-
Coring-Induced Disc Fractures Showing
Direction of Greatest In Situ Horizontal Stress During
Fracture Initiation and Growth

.
Coring--Induced Disc Fractures in Core
Coring
 Coring-Induced Disc Fracture and Corresponding
Coring-
Sketch of Hackle Plume Showing Fracture Front Lines
Advantage of Deviated Well for
Fracture Intersection
Comparison of Fracture Distribution in
Cores from Vertical and Lateral Wells
Geophysical Fracture Detection Is Divided into
Three Distinct Scales

1. Large scales associated with surface soundings

2. Intermediate scales associated with surface to
borehole and borehole to borehole soundings
3. Small scales associated with measurements made
on rocks immediately adjacent to the borehole
 Geophysical Fracture Detection
• Fractures in the subsurface are zones of anomalous physical
properties that can be detected remotely by various means,
ranging from simple extrapolation to sophisticated seismic and
electromagnetic sounds.
• In general, methods that probe deeply into the subsurface have
a poor ability to spatially resolve the locations of fractures and
those with a shorter ranges have correspondingly better
resolutions.
• Fracture detection methods rely on the fact that fractures are
thin compared to their lengths and heights, that is, they are
essentially 2D anomalies.
• Fractures are commonly organized into one or more sets, each
of which has a preferred spatial orientation.
• Fractures commonly impose some anisotropy in physical
properties on the rock mass, which has an important
characteristic for fracture detection.
 Geophysical Methods Detect Fractures Indirectly
• The reduced data from each detection method (e.g., seismic
travel times) must be inverted to yield estimates of the local
rock properties (e.g., seismic velocities).
• Rock properties are not fracture properties (e.g., fracture
density).
• Fracture properties must be indirectly deduced from the rock
properties based on the physics of the rock property theory,
which may unavoidably rely on strong idealizations of fracture
geometry.
• Fracture properties are not always the properties of direct
interest (e.g., fracture permeability), and must be interpreted
from the deduced fracture properties.
• This interpretation requires higher levels of subjectivity than
the first (inversion) or the second (deduction) steps.
Schematic of Natural Fractures Intersecting a Borehole
and the Geophysical Volume of Investigation
 Advantages of Well Logs

1. Provide a consistent one-dimensional profile of rock

properties expressed in a consistent length scale.
2. Provide measurements of rock properties in situ.
3. Provide multiple independent measurements of rock
properties that can be used to solve for multiple independent
variables.
 Disadvantages of Well Logs

• Measure properties that may not be of direct interest and that

are not uniquely related to the properties that are of direct
interest.
• Represent measurements on rocks that are disturbed by
drilling.
• May average rock properties with those of the borehole fluid.
• Have directional bias because of they sample along the
direction of the wellbore rather than in three dimensions.
Borehole Televiewer (BHTV) Logs and
Comparison to Core
 Three-Dimensional Side View of Borehole
Three- Borehole--Fracture
Intersection Generated by Digital Processing of BHTV Data
FMS Image Logs
Unfolded FMS Image of the Borehole Wall
 Fracture Characteristics from Image Logs

Fracture Type Fracture Morphology

Natural Open
Drilling-Induced Partially-Open
Fracture Distribution Closed
Depth Cemented
Lithology Fracture Classification
Density Extension
Fracture Orientation Shear
Strike Fracture Termination
Dip None in wellbore
Fracture Geometry Lithology - bedding plane
Length in wellbore Fracture Interconnectivity
Aperture
Classification Of Natural and Drilling-Induced Fractures
3D-Borehole View Unrolled Borehole Image View

90O N S N

90O Borehole
Natural Breakout
Fracture
90O 90O
Recognition and correct
classification of fractures
are critical steps in the
Drilling-Induced characterization and
Petal Fractures
interpretation of natural
fracture systems.

Centerline Fracture

Borehole
Breakout

Borehole
Breakout

Drilling induced petal fractures are centered between drilling-induced centerline

fractures and are aligned with in situ stress state, while natural fractures can take
any orientation.
 In-Situ Stress Analysis, Borehole breakouts
form as a result of
Borehole Deformation, and differential horizontal
stresses around the
Drilling-Induced Fractures borehole (shown in a
laboratory test photo).

Illustration of the propagation direction of hydraulic-induced fractures

in the vicinity of a well based on the orientation of borehole breakouts
and/or drilling induced fractures observed on the formation image log.

Drilling-induced fractures form normal to borehole

breakouts and strike parallel to hydraulic fractures
induced during the well stimulation process.

Shmin

Borehole breakouts in form in the direction of the

minimum horizontal stress.
 Snapshot of Open Fracture
FMS Image Filtered FMS Image

Open fractures are characterized by low resistivity instrument responses. Resistivity type imaging
instruments provide reliable images of large open fractures. A cautious approach should be used
in the classification process to categorize discontinuous and faint resistivity fractures as open
fractures. Instead, most fractures with less pronounced resistivity response should be classified as
partially open fractures. In the above example the fracture appears to abut on a bedding plane.
 Snapshot of Partially-Open and Closed Fractures
FMS Image Filtered FMS Image

Bedding

Bedding

Bedding

Fractures with less pronounced resistivity response are classified as partially open fractures (purple sinusoids. In
presented example well developed bedding adds high confidence to the fracture identification. There are several
faint indications of sinusoids (red dashed lines), which likely represent closed fractures suggesting a much higher
fracture density over this interval. Closed fractures show hardly any contrast to the surrounding matrix. The most
important instrument for their recognition is often the acoustic imaging tool.
Fracture Density
Versus Depth for
Logged Interval in a
Carbonate Reservoir

Fracture Distribution is
Lithology Dependent.

Highest fracture intensity is

in low-porosity dolomite.

Fracture intensity is much

lower in higher-porosity
shaly limestone-dolomite
formation.
Distribution and Orientation of all Fractures
in Logged Interval of Carbonate Reservoir
Orientations and Characteristics of Fractures
in Shaly Limestone-Dolomite Formation

Lower fracture density than dolomite

Multiple fracture sets

Few fractures with steep high-angle dip

Most fractures are closed fractures with

few partially-open and open fractures.
Orientations and Characteristics of Fractures
in Dolomite Formation
High fracture intensity

Most dominant fractures are sets A and B

Strike of set A is 110o and set B is 135o

A These fractures dip relatively steep with

B 60 to 85 degree angle

Two fracture sets interpreted as conjugate

shear fractures with dihedral angle of 25o

Fractures are partially-open and closed

Fracture sets A and B are primarily

partially-open fractures
 Orientation of Fracture Morphology Types
Open and Partially Open Fractures Closed Fractures
 Fault Recognition from Formation Image Logs

High-Confidence
Bedding Dip

Fault Drag and

Dip Azimuth Rotation Increased
Fracture
Frequency
and
Change in Dip Brecciation
Magnitude

Direct
Fault
High-Confidence Observation
Bedding Dip
FMS Image / Core Comparison in Dolomitic Mylonite Zone

The degree of brecciation in dolomite visible in the core photos is not resolved by the sensors of the FMS
instrument in the detail visible on the core photos (white and UV light). The image log displays multiple
parallel steep sinusoids which could be interpreted as bedding or fractures.
 Comparison of Fractures in a Sandstone
Formation from Core, BHTV Log and FMS Log
 Fracture Image from
Digital Borehole Scanner
 Schematic showing Velocity Measurements
from Dipole Sonic Tool and Detection of Fractures
Use of Seismic Profiles to Detect Fractures Taken
from the Emeraude Field
Ekofisk Fault Model Development
 Fault Length - Frequency Plot from
3D Seismic of the Lisburne Field, Alaska
 Schematic Diagram of Shear-
Shear-Wave Propagation
in Homogeneous Medium with Aligned Fractures
Shear Wave Anistropy Map from Multicomponent 3-D
Seismic Survey Showing Fracture Zone on the Flank
of the Pinedale Anticline, Wyoming
 Shear-Wave Polarization Directions and Amount of Anisotropy
Correlate with the Orientation and Magnitude of Subsidence at
Valhall Field, North Sea and Are Very Sensitive to the Associated
Induced Changes in the Horizontal Stress Field

Vector plot of fast shear-wave orientation (small lines) and amount of anisotropy length
Shear Wave Seismic Anisotropy Maps
Emillio Field in the Adriatic Sea
Schematic Configuration of Sources and Recievers for
Transmission Tomography Between Borholes
Comparison of a Conventional P-
P-Wave Reflection with
Acoustic Televiewer Image Logs
Strike Curvature Map Derived from 3D Seismic Horizon Attribute Map
of the Point Lookout Horizon of Mesaverde Group, San Juan Basin
High-Productivity Wells Aligned along Structural Feature Defined
by Strike Curvature in the Point Lookout Horizon

Well #2

Well #1

 2 Miles 
Rose Diagrams Derived from Lineations Mapped
on Horizon Attribute Maps
 Geomechanics Approach to Fracture Characterization
Improves Prediction of Fracture Distribution and Intensity
● Mechanical Stratigraphy
-- Fracture intensity is greater in brittle rock with higher elastic
modulus and lower fracture toughness

● Bed Thickness
-- Fracture intensity decreases with increasing bed thickness

● Bed Curvature on Folded Structures

-- Fracture intensity increases with increasing bed curvature
(higher strain)

● Fault Process Zones

-- Localized fracture intensity increases with decreasing
distance to fault plane
Influence of Mechanical Stratigraphy and
Bed Thickness on Fracture Spacing

SAND

SHALE
 Geologic Analog
Orientation and Distribution of Fractures in Outcrop Fracture
Network Map Relative to Well Locations in Mesaverde Pilot

MWX - 3

SHCT–1 Deviated Wellbore Azimuth

MWX - 1

0 feet 25

0 meters 8

MWX - 2
 Fracture Distribution of Mesaverde
Core and Outcrop Scanlines

Core, SHCT - 1
Natural Fractures

85o
0 10 20

feet
Scanline 1
Outcrop
Scanline 2

Scanline 3
Stochastic Discrete Fracture Network Models

• Fracture network geometry is characterized by

statistical descriptions of fracture orientation,
locations, and areal extent for each of the fracture
sets in the rock mass.

`
• From this statistical model it is possible to generate
multiple realizations of a fracture network.

• Each realization is one possible representation of

the fracture network.
 FRACGEN – DFN Model
 Uses statistical distributions to create
synthetic networks of fractures
 Length, orientation, aperture
 Termination types and frequencies
 Connectivity controls
 Clustering characteristics

 Generation capabilities
 Multiple fracture sets within a single realization
 Honors user-defined fractures
 Multi-layer reservoir
 FRACGEN Inputs
• Mean and std deviation of fracture orientation

• Min/Max or Mean/Std Dev of fracture length

• Mean and std dev of fracture aperture

• Fracture density

• Correlations:
– Length f(order), Orientation f(length), Width f(length)

• Termination frequencies (T1 and T2)

• Percent of fractures penetrating bounding layers

• User-supplied fractures
Fracture Termination Types Used by FRACGEN
Input Parameters for
Stochastic DFN Model
FRACGEN
Three-Layer Vertical Fracture Network
Comparison of Outcrop Fracture Map
to FRACGEN DFN Model
 From Outcrop Map to
Stochastic Fracture Network Generation

1
1 3
Comparison of Outcrop Fracture Map to FRACGEN Models
Fracture Intersection Types
Orientation

Fracture Set Mean Std. Dev. # Fracs 2T 1T 0T Connectivity

Set 1 13.1 4.4 226 32 109 85 0.167

Outcrop Set 2 91.4 21 225 217 4 4 0.683
Total 451 249 113 89 0.245

Case 1 Set 1 15 10 197 67 73 57 0.0858

Set 1 6.08 2.25 196 4 48 144 0.149

Case 2 Set 2 76.4 6.3 212 208 4 0 0.617
Total 408 212 52 144 0.233

Set 1 13.7 9.75 187 10 51 126 0.181

Case 3 Set 2 76.4 6.3 220 210 5 5 0.605
Total 407 220 56 131 0.264
FRACGEN Model of Fracture Network in a Tight-Gas
Sandstone Reservoir in Thrust-Fault Region
Set 1: Seismically Resolved Faults
Set 2: Subseismic Splay Faults on Major Faults
Set 3: Subseismic Tear Faults on
Leading Edge of Thrust Sheet
Set 4: 2nd Order Subseismic Thrust Faults
Set 5: 3rd Order Subseismic Thrusts in Fault Zone
Set 6: Axial Plane-Parallel Fold Axis Fractures
Set 7: Regional Shear Fractures
Set 8: Regional Extension Fractures, Master Set
Set 9: Regional Extension Fractures, Cross Fracture Set
 Results of NFFLOW Showing Distribution of
Pressure in Fracture Network after 630 Day
of Production in Tight-Gas Sandstone Reservoir
NFFLOW History Match Simulation
 Stochastic Fracture Network Modeling

• Preserves geologic complexity

• Fracture realizations can be adjusted to match field

well test results

• Flow simulators for discrete fracture networks still

immature compared to conventional tools