RIC network in a bandwidth, At 1s given v2 (4.103) en kT vig(t) = 248 = TAF der matched d to the load un where V,9(t) is the output noise voltage delivers lodd condition. «/4.14. EFFECTIVE NOISE TEMPERATURE kT twork is ——(see The available power density of any two terminal RLC ne z true for networks containing sources of noise other than thermal noise.Nevertheless, it is possible Ce available noise power density from any two terminal network w 4.109) b thermal and other form of noise in the form given by equation (4. y introducing the effective noise temperature Ty If the available noise power spectral density from any two terminal RLC network is Sy (f ), then we may write “equation 4.102).This is not however, s,(f)= S (4.104a) that is, Tye Sul (4.1040) If S,,(f) is a constant over the frequency range of interest, then the effective noise temperature is also constant-given by equation (4.104b).If S,,(f) is a function of frequency, the effective noise temperature Ty also becomes a function of frequency. The available noise power from the two terminal network in the bandwidth Af can be written as Vio (t) = KT AF (4.105) “ For RLC network the effective noise temperature is same as that of ambient temperature, T.This is because in R-L-C networks the source of noise is only thermal which is given by equation (4102). 4.15 NOISE FIGURE IN TERMS OF AVAILABLE GAIN In section 4.10 we have defined the spectral noise figure as the ratio of the _ Signal-to-noise power spectral density at the input divided by that at the outputNOISE 195 (sce equation 4.89).It is however, possi (: n » Possible to express the s i i terms of available power densities and available power en ~—_ Consider the arrangement shown in Fig, 4.23.Let S,(f) and S,(f) represent, the power spectral density (normalised) of th signal and th respeotively.Let the source impedance 2 signal and the noise voltages Zs =Rs + jXs (4.106) Since a noise source S,(f) has been considered in Fig, 4.18, the source impedance Zs can be considered as noiseless. The ratio of signal-to-noise power spectral density across the terminals is given by S) S.(f) | =f 4.107) (G w Sal) eaten Let us now calculate the available power density spectra at the terminals ab. The available signal power density and noise power density can be calculated using equation (4.98) as (Ss(f)),, = sO) (4.108a) aoe (Susi(f)) = st (4.108b) where, the available signal power density, and the noise power density are calculated considering the power density due to each by assuming the other to be zero.This is justified because s(t) and n(t) are independent. Zs) (0) S,(0) Fig. 4.24 Illustrating noise figure in term of available gain. Thus, the available signal-to-noise power density ratio at the terminals ab isCHAPTER 7 PULSE ANALOG MODULATIO! T continuous. time (analog signal) can be converted into a corresponding, sequence of samples that may or may not be uniformly spaced in time.The converted signal is called a discrete-time signal. In practice however, the samples are taken to be uniformly spaced in time.This is called uniform sampling Uniform sampling offers two advantages.lt leads to simpler system designs and simpler algorithms for discrete-time signal processing. The importance of sampling can be understood from the following discussion.{t is customary to represent the experimental data and mathematical functions in the form of continuous curves. These curves are usually obtained by using a finite number of discrete points (called samples).If the samples points are sufficiently close, it is possible to draw a smooth curve and the intermediate values can be interpolated to any degree of accuracy.This means that a continuous curve can be adequately discribed by sampling points.In a similar manner, an electrical signal satisfying certain requirements (depending on the nature of the signal) can be reproduced entirely from an appropriate set of sample values.Since a signal can be determined from the sampled values, we can transmit only the sample values as they occur instead of sending the signal continuously.This is the essence of sampling that is used in pulse modulation. ‘The key distinction between pulse modulation and continuous modulation is that in continuous modulation (CW), some parameter of a sinusoidal carrier wave is varied continuously in accordance with the message signal.On the other hand, in pulse modulation, some parameter of each pulse is modulated by @ particular sample value of the message tlere, we should distinguish between two types of pulse modulation eg. Pulse Analog Modulation and Pulse Digital Modulation which is more popularly known as Pulse-Code-Modulation (PCM).A comparison of the two types of pulse modulation reveals that pulse analog modulation (which we will discuss in details in this chapter) is discrete in time because of sampling but some characteristic feature of cach pulse (amplitude, duration or position) is varied in a continuous manner in accordance with the partinent value of the message.This is in contrast to pulse code modulation in which a discrete-time, discrete- ampliude representation is used for the signal.This is achieved through sampling, quantizing and coding of an analog signal-The details of PCM system can be found in books dealing with digital communication, 1¢ basis of a pulse modulation system is the Sampling: Process whercby a 349| 350 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS arc usually very short in duration compared to the time between them, so a pulse modulated wave is off most of the time.Because of this property, pulse modulation offers two potential advantages.First, the transmitted power can be concentrated in short duration pulses rather than being delivered continuously. This has 2 greet significance from practical design point of view.Most of the high-power microwave tubes and lasers usually operate in the pulse mode.These systems can find useful applications as sources for pulse modulation.Second, the time interval between pulses (which are usually very large compared to the duration of each pulse) can Qe filled with sample values from other messages. This permits the transmission of a number of messages using a single channel on time sharing basis.Such multiplexing in time domain is known as Time-Division-Multiplexing (TDM) Jt should be understood that pulse modulation, as it is called is essentially a message processing technique rather than modulation in the usual sense.Pulsed signals contain appreciable amount of d.c. and low frequency components.Efficient transmission of these pulsed signals needs a second operation, usually CW modulation to provide complete frequency translation.One should thus consider pulse modulation as a scheme for processing of the message signal to make it suitable for TDM. ‘As discussed already, the basic operation behind all pulse modulation systems is the sampling process Further, a signal ean be reconstructed from the sampled values only if the samples are taken at a specified rate.This means that it is necessary to choose the sampling rate properly, so that the sequence of sampled values can uniquely determine the signal.This is the essence of sampling theorem.Readers are already introduced to this theorem in chapter 2. In this chapter we shall discuss some practical aspects of sampling. In pulse modulation, pulses 7.1 PRACTICAL SAMPLING Ideal sampling can not be achieved in practice.Practical sampling differs from ideal sampling in the following respects. ~ (i) The sampled signal in practice contains pulses of finite amplitude and duration rather than impulses. @ Practical reconstruction filters are never ideal filters. ‘ii)The message to be sampled is time-lintited (limited in the time domain) signal so it can not be bandlimited. ef. ftrmisa sa There are two' types of sampling e. 7 - , .g. Natural sampling and Flat-toP. sampling.In natural sampling, the sampling waveform connie: of a tain of pulses having duration T and seperated by the sampling time T, -The samp! signal consists of a sequence of pulses of varying amplitude whose tops are Nt flat but follow the waveform g(t) to be sampled.Flat-top sampling is similar ® natural sampling except for the fact that the pulses of the sampled signal Be constant am inudes.This constant value of the amplitude is established bY © ple value of the signal at some point within the intervalPULSE ANALOG MODULATION 351 7.1.1 Natural sampling Let us consider an arbitrary analog signal g(t) sampled by a sampling function i) consisting of a train of pulses of amplitude A and duration T.Let T, be the period of the pulse train.The original signal g(t), the sampling signal {t) and the sampled signal g,(1)=g(t)s1) are shown in Fig7.ta, b and ¢ respectively.It can be scen that the sampled signal consists of a sequence of pulses of varying amplitude whose tops are not flat but follow the analog signal g(t). a(t) @ s(t) ake t 0 —Ath— (b) Beall t 0 () Sampled signal versus time, ring sig! (©) ‘The s2mP Fig.7.1 (a)The signal. (0)352 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS With natural sampling, as with instantaneous sampling, a signal samp, at he Nyquist raie may be reconstructed exactly by passing the samples througy an ideal low-pass filter with cut-off frequency at W, where W is the highe frequency present in the signal g(t) This can be understood from the following analysis. The natural sampled signal g,,(t) is given by Bua(') = B(Y)9(t) (uy The suffix n has been used to signify natural sampling. The sampling signal is a periodic signal and can be expressed in theform of a complex Fourier series as st) = = > sin ™) oxo 2) (7) Putting the value of s(t) from equation (7.2) in equation (7.1) we get wt Eal tal HI) 5s nee T, Taking Fourier transform on both sides we get ATS (nT n 04-2 $ sn e-2) : Om Br J where G,.(f) = F[g,,(t)] and G(#) = F[e(*)]. Fig.7.2 Effect of using finite duration sampling pulses (Natural sampling). The relationship between G,,(f) and G(f) has been illustrated in Fig.7.2 in which G(f) has been assumed to be a band-limited signal extendiné from -W to W.In this illustration the sampling rate + has been assumed © spate than Nyquist rate 2W, 50 that there is no aliasing-The natural samp multiplication of the nth lobe of the spectrum of the SP"DULSK ANALOG MODULATION 3 R Ar ul signal by a factor sine | tv ean be clearly seen that the signal g(t) can ass filter be recovered thom g,,(t) by passing gyo(t) through an ideal low, W.Thus we may conclude that the finite duration of the ‘vefivet an the sampling process, with cut-of? fhequer sampling pulses has 7.2 Flattop Ina flat-top sc mt aver the duration T.Th sampling.Consider the mpling pling, the amplitude of each pulse in the sampled signal is kept sampling, understood from ation in which the signal g(t) is sampled Fig.7.3 Flat-top sampling. ‘ 1 instantencously by ideal sampling at 9 rate Tr but the duration of each sample is lengthened for a time.T.This is illustrated in Fig.7.3,Since the bandwidth of transmission is inversely proportional to pulse duration, this type of sampling will reduce the bandwidth requirement for transmission. The flat-top sampled signal g,y(t) can be written as su(t)= Yoa(nT, h(n) (73) where h(t) is a rectangular pulse of unit amplitude, given by W(t)=1, O0 foralln The sampling rate 2 must be equal 10 or greater than (wis the highest T, frequency component present in the message signal.360 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS i The signal to be conv It is very easy to generate PAM signa - converted ; PAM is ‘pelted to ‘one input of an AND gate-Pulses at the sampling frequeng, are applied to the other input of the ‘AND gate to open it during the desired tine stput of the gate then consists of pulses at sampling rate, equa} 7 intervals. The 0 s amplitude to the signal voltage at each instant.The pulses are then pa through a pulse shaping network to convert them into flat-top pulses.As alread, mentioned, frequency modulation is then employed, so that the system becomes PAM-FM. : ° 1 can be demodulated easily by a /ow-pass filter with The PAM signal P cut-off frequency just large enough to accomodate the highest frequency component of the message signal e,,(t) Care must be taken that the cut-off frequency of the filter is low enough to remove the sampling frequency ripple.The reconstructed signal exhibits some ‘amplitude distortion caused by ‘aperture effect Which may be removed by using equalizer as already discussed. It may be pointed out that transmission of PAM imposes stringent condition on the amplitude and phase responses of the channel.Morcover, noise performance of PAM is no better than baseband signal transmission (one which see not involve any modulation).The usefulness of PAM is mainly confined in ‘ the message processing for TDM and in the study of sophisticated pulse modulation techniques. 7.2.3 Pulse-Time Modulation (PTM) Tn PTM, the signal is sampled as before, but the pulses indicating sample F amplitudes themselves all have a constant amplitude.However, one of the timing characteristics of the pulses is varied in accordance with the sampled sign! amplitude at that instant.This characteristic may be either width or position of the pulses.Accordingly, there are two types of pulse-time modulation.We stall \ discuss these two types of PTM in details. 7.2.3.1 Pulse-Width-Modulation (PWM) This form of pulse-time-modulation is also, known as Pulse Duration-Modulation (PDM) or Pulse-Length-Molulation (PLM).In pulse vith Fig.7.8 Pulse width modulation.PULSE ANALOG MODULATION 361 modulation, the samples of : the m i the individual pulse riea8® signal are i te uivetios oF e ate Pulse width may be wee vary the duration of accordance with the saryias jt "Sling edge or bot eae oe tne time of width modulation in which the ue of the Modulating wave.A typical pulse. 7 he traili accordance with the message signal ilusratesin ges flee, 15, varied sn en(0) @ ec(t) Em(t) + ect) Slicer output 7 @ for PWM generation (2) Message. (b) Sav-tooth. Fig.7.9 Illustrating the procedure N i (©) Combined message and sawv-tooth () Slicer output362 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS A simple procedure for generating PWM wave is illustrated in Fig.7,9 ; Which the trailing edge of the pulses are modulated, The message signal and. saw-tooth wave are added and the combination is applied to a slicer. : At ideal slicer has the property that its output is zero whenever the input is below the slicing level and is constant whenever the input exceeds this level, 9 that the duration of each pulse is dictated by the value of the message wave at the time of occurrence of the trailing edge.PWxy, can also be generated by using emitter coupled monostable multivibrator.4 typical arrangement is shown in Fig.7.10.The emitter follower monostable multivibrator is an excellent voltage-to-time converter, since its gate width is dependent on the voltage to which the capacitor is charged.If this voltage can be varied in accordance with a signal voltage, a series of rectangular pulses can be obtained, with width varying as required. The circuit shown in Fig.7.10 does both the jobs of sampling the message signal and converting the samples to PWM. Fixed] | Variable Rp Rp ) Monostable multivibrator for PWM.PULSE ANALOG MODULATION 363 The demodulation of PWM is quite simple.PWM is passed through a. low-pass filter for this purpose. The feonstruction is however, associated with a cerain emount of distortion caused by the cross modulation products that fall in the signal band, 7.2.3.2 Pulse-Position Modulation (PPM) PPM may be considered as a moditied version of PDM.In PDM, long pulses expend considerable amount of Power during the pulse while bearing no gdditional information. If an arrangement is made so that the unused power could be subtracted from the PDM, we get a more ef modulation. en(t) 0 t (a) Unmodulated pulses +" Position of unmodulated pulses @ WM. (cl) Differentiated clipped PPS Differentiated P' Fig.7.11 (a) Signal, (b) PWM. (©)364 COMMUNICATION 977° iti i pPM the positio i se Position Modulation (pPM).1n P tt n of isis acl 600 ee ue Of ee vied in accordance ie on modulation May be obtained from PWM of the leading edges 2 pe te jgnal.Pulse position with the message SIENA s ney wow in rig. TLln the PWM shown here oontions of the ona of the pulses are kept fixed whereas thos of the tral ine a are mal (0 vary in accordance with the message signal-The, position of the tai mg cages thus depend on the pulse width which is determined by the signal nik jitude at that instant, In other words it may be said that the position of the tailing edges of on modulated. The rethod of obtaining PPM from edges and bodies of the PWM pulses are, in fact, post Y plished by getting rid of the leading PWM is thus accomy PWM pulses. TFig.7.L1a shows the message signal and Fig.7.11b shows the PWM Soe 11b is differentiated, the pulse train shown going narrow pulses signal, If the PWM signal show? in Fig,7.Lle is obtained.It consists of posilive and negative corresponding to the leading and trailing edges of the pulses respectively If the position corresponding to the trailing edge ofan unmodulated pulse is counted as revo displacement then the other railing edges will arrive earlier or later. Thus these pulses will have time displacement proportional to the instanteneous value of the signal voltage. The differentiated pulses corresponding to the leading edges y gan be removed by diode clipper oF veetifier, The remaining pulses, a shown in Fig.7.1 1d are position modulated. ‘The simplest method of generating PPM wave from PWM wave is (0 0 a monostable multivibrator which has one stable-state and one quasi-stable state. The monostable multivibrator can be triggered from stable to quasi-stable state by externally applied pulses. The period ich the monostable srultivibrator will be in the quasi-stable stale 's “ietermined by the timing circ | of the device which can te chosen by the designer.Consider a monostable muhtivibrator to be designed in such a way that it (riggers at the trailing edges of 5 7 PWM signal (obtained by varying the occurrence of trailing edge bY the message signal).If a PWM signal is applied at the input, the outpul will be obviously a pulse position modulated signal 4 obviate Use f hil 1 whose duration will be determine y the timing circuit of the mmultivibrator,The arrangement is shown in Fig.7.12 For demodulation of PPM, itis ‘i first converted int ith the hel? of a flip-flop or bistable multivibrator. fed into PM i ei 4 tee One input of the multivibrator recelv ‘ tigger pulses ba a local gencrator which is synchroniced by trigeeT pu 4 seeces of the flips 4 smite These triggers are used to switch OFF one © stages of the Mip-flop-Th a PM pulses are fed to the other base of the fip-Me? OPN deechdc'on be 1 ¢ period of time during which this particular stage resulting pulse has a ime difference between the two triggers, S° at resaling allie o. with tet Gepends on the time displacement eth discussed The resulting PWM signal is then emouulated as @ The major advantage of ine n ulse i ise nce yes oan anion ‘This ean only be achieved when t Obiain an improvement yh en the message signal is us¢ he use poisePULSE ANALOG MODULATION 365 Monostable PPM Multivibrator Fig.7.12 Device for converting PDM into PPM, Some Property of the pulse other than amplitude,Thus, PTM is much more superior, from this angle (0 PAM.The generation of PIM signals has become fairemely simplified with the availability of linear integrated circuit (LIC). Fig.7.13 shows an arrangement using 565 PLL linear integrated circuit for Seneration of PWM and PPM signals.The VCO output is actually PPM signal which has been converted to PWM signal by applying it and the input pulses to an exclusive-OR gate. Signal Ri PWM | PPM »M using PLL. ¥ig.7.13 Generation of PWM and PP! —366 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS 7.3 TIME-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (TDM) Time-division-multiplexing (TDM) is a technique for transmitting sever) messages on a single transmission channel by dividing the time-domain ing Slots, one slot for each message.The concept of TDM comes from sampling theorem which enables us to transmit the complete information contained in a : band-limited signal by using samples of the signal taken uniformly at a rate slightly higher than the Nyquist rate.The transmission of message samples engages the transmission channel for only a portion of the sampling interval on a periodic basis.Thus some of the time intervals between adjacent samples is cleared for use by other independent message signals on a time-shared basis.This is the essence of time division multiplexing.TDM enables the joint utilization of a common transmission channel by a number of independent message sources without mutual interference. Message Message inputs outputs —L| LPF Synchronised _2_,[LPF ‘Transmission ‘Channel Timing pulses Timing pulsés Fig.7.14 Block diagram of a TDM system. ‘The essentials of TDM are simple and illustrated in Fig.7.14:The seve! input message signals, all band-limited in W Hz by the input low-pass filters, 5 sequentially sampled at the transmitter by a rotary switch or a commutator. 1 switch makes one complete revolution in T, <=, extracting one sample foe cach inputHence the commutator output is a PAM waveform containing individual message samples periodically interlaced in time.If there are Nu" of inputs, the pulse-to-pulse spacing will be 2 = aa white the spi between successive samples from any one input remains T,.A set of pul consisting of one sample from each input is called a frame. ibutol At the receiver a similar rotary switch, the decommutator ot aistribe ip separates the samples and distributes them to a bank of low-pass filters, Wwww PULSE ANALOG MODULATION 367 turn reconstruct the original messages, The switching action is usually electronic and synchronizing signals are provided to keep the distributor in step with the commutator. A number of varieties of TDM system is possible under this basic frame work.The interlaced samples can be directly converted to PDM, PPM or PCM (Pulse code modulation, a technique used in digital communication) and transmitted with or without carrier modulation, We may recall the concept of frequency division multiplexing (FDM) for comparison purpose.It is clear that TDM and FDM accomplish the same goals, though in different manner.In TDM, the signals are separate in time domain but jumbled together in frequency, whereas in FDM the signals are separate in frequency domain but jumbled together in time.From theoretical Point of view it is very difficult to Judge the superiority of one to the other.From practical view point TDM is superior to FDM because the former needs simpler instrumentation and is invulnearable to the usual sources of FDM inter-channel cross- » talk. However, synchronisation is the most critical aspect of TDM and is more telephony, the co-existence of analog and digital facilities arc found. A provision for an interface between digital and. analog section of the telephone network is thus needed.7ransmultiplexer is the interface facility specifically designed for this purpose. Example 7.1 A TDM system isto be designed to multiplex four signals C(t) =cos(2nfyt), eao(t)= OScos(2nf,t), ©,4(t) = 2eos(2n2fyt) and One (t) = 2c0s(27 4f,t) (@) If each signal is sampled at the same rate, calculate the minimum Sampling rate f,. (b) What is the commutator speed in revolutions per second ? i hhich will allow each of the four signals 10 be (c) Design a commutator whic es : Sampled at a rate faster than is required to satisfy the Nyquist criterion for the individual signal. Solution. (a)The sampling rate must be greater than twice the highest frequency oF signals, : Thus, f, 22x 4f, = 8f, and minimum value off, is f, nin = Bf368 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS Ss aes | em Cn ! \ o—_____+, &m3 Cnt < Maximum’ Amplitude of _ | 0] . | a (b) Marker "intervals “== Off f] t (°c) Pies id @ Fig.7.16 Synchronisation of pulse modulated systyem. Ina PWM system the marker may be identified by omitting a pulse as shown in Fig.7.16c,Such marker pulses can be identified in the receiver by “tihsing the charging time of a simple RC-circuit to measure the duration of Mervals between duration modulated pulse.The time constant of the circuit is chosen so that, during a marker interval the voltage across the capacitor rises to a Value considerably higher than that during the normal charging interval between Uration, modulated pulses. Thus, by applying the output of this cireuit to a slicer “th an appropriate slicing level, the presence of a marker can be detected.0 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS In a PPM system, the marker pulse may be identified by making its ‘al times larger than that of message bearing pulse as illustrated in arker pulses may be separated from the message lar to that described for a PWM system. The only the capacitor is charged during the time of hharged during the intervening intervals, Guration sever Fig.7.16d,At the receiver the m: pulses by using a procedure simi difference is that in this case occurrence of cach pulse and disc PROBLEMS 7.1 The signal g(t)= cos(Snt) + 05cos{10nt) is instantaneously sampled.The interval between samples is ‘T, (a) Find the maximum allowable value for T, , (b) If the sampling signal is s(t) = °8(t- Ok) and the sampled signal is Kane g,(t)= 3'1,8(t- lk). im Find Ip, 1, and I, and show that I, =I, +k. (c) To construct the signal , g,(t) is passed through a rectangular low-pass filter Find the minimum filter bandwidth to reconstruct the signal without distortion. (Hint. Maximum T, at 10 and g,(t) = }*(cos{0Snk) + 05cos(nk)}6(t - 0.1k) ete] 7.2 Three signals €,(t), @qo(t) and €qa(t) having bandwidths of 5 kHz, 5 sae 10 kHz respectively are to be multiplexed.Design a commutator switchi 2 H 5 itchi system each is sampled at its Nyquist rate, : ee 7.3 The signals 8,(t) = 10cos(100nt) 82(t) = 10cos(SOnt)PULSE ANALOG MODULATION 371. - are both sampled at a rate of 75 ae mained are identical, samples per second.So that the two sequences of samples 74 IC E denotes th ‘ . energy of a strictly bandlimited signal g(t), so that the enerey E may be expressed in ferms of the sample values of g(t), taken atthe Nyquist rate, 35 where W is the highest frequency component of a(t). follows 2 7.5 Six independents message sources of bandwidths W, w, 2W, 2W, 3W and 3W Hz ‘a time division multiplexed basis using a common are to be transmitted on ‘communication channel (a) Setup a scheme for accomplishing the muiiplexing requirement, with each message signal sampled at ‘Nyquist rate. bandwidth of the channel (b) Determine the minimum transmission