IGCSE O - LEVEL Chemistry Paper 6 Dr. Mohamad Habib 01020550220 aad aaa i is eA Ue nas 5 at \ y ayBalance Mass gram Time Stop watch Gas volume Gas Syringe A Inverted measuring cylinder over water Liquid volume Measuring Burette cylinder Pipette very accurate only measures specific volumes doesn't measure fraction 4 V Burette ‘very accurate not accurate maximum volume 50 cm? ‘Fast (quick, fast, approximate ) measure fractions doesn't measure fraction(A) Solid Liquia (A) Insoluble Solid a. Filtration Using filter paper and a filter funnel The solid residue is left in the filter paper and the liquid (filtrate) passes through 2) Soluble Solid Evaporating /— econ en Dish aN Water Evoperaing anes a. Evaporation ‘alt solution In case of flammable liquid like alcohol, we should use indirect fire use water bath ) fea Crystals obtained - solvent evaporate 1- Half evaporation until the point of crystallization ((the solution becomes saturated)) 2- Cooling (crystals will form) 3- Filter 4-Dry — using filter paperSimple distillation Solid solute and solvent are obtained '® Precautions The condenser Thermometer inclined to allow the condensed feanderaey liguid to fall in the collecting beaker 4 / or flask wegen | issaion task) | adjusted at temperature above the Bp ei? A of the liquid to prevent its se, \ y condensation in the distillation flat ees mi ong to increase the time of condensing \ distitate thus allow maximum condensetion ‘water in from the bottom to completely fill the condenser, so allow proper cooling & condense : = Dd The thermometer is Evaporation then Condensation placed at the top Liquid - Liquid ® Immiscible liquids Separating Funnel ( Tap Funnel ) Funnel ( Depend on to separate immiscible Density Water liquids with different densities acre @Miscible liquids Fractional distillation l=> it is used to separate any solution containing {hermnte liquids with different boiling points ex$>The liquid with the lowest boiling point will > The fractionation column is filled with glass beads ! toincrease the suface are upon which the ‘vapor of the liquid with higher Bp condenses & It's preferable to use electric heater instead of Bunsen burner to contol the temperature at cestain temperature for flammable substances or to prevent fire | © How would you knoww when all the first liquid is aii collected compen the temperature of the thermometer strts to riseIt'sa separation technique Used to separate two or more dissolved solid in solution Different substances have different solubility in different solvents ok Steps 1 Draw a base line using a pencil on the chromatography paper 2. Put a drop of the sample on the base line 3. Dip the chromatography paper in the solvent, where the base line above the solvent level ean Aleave for several hours until the spats stop moving up 2 The substance with higher solubility in the solvent will travel the longest distance 2 2. spots or more = 2 substances or more a» Mixture (impure ) % One spot = = 1 substance ny Compound (pure ) Precautions => The base line is drawn in pencil not ink !! The graphite in pencil is insoluble in solvents, while the ink is soluble in solvents => The base line must be kept above the solvent level! ‘So the sample would not diffuse in the solvent rather than separated by the chromatogram [=> For insoluble mixture !! Change the solvent: ifit was water use organic solvent ( propanone ) => For invisible substances !! ose rasa Ras ‘Use locating agent Resorcina) Saas becky echo 2 Ry is specific for each compound 2& Re always less than one 2 Chromatography is used to identify and separate : ‘Mixture of (Sugars - amino-acids - dyes - food coloring ) Steps fr extracting colors from a fruit or a leaf 1- Put the fruits in a mortar 2+ Add solvent (water or ethanol ), sand then grind with a pestle 3- filter to get the filtrate 4- Draw a base line using a pencil on the chromatography paper 5- Put a drop of the filtrate on the base line 6- Dip the chromatography paper in the solvent, where the base line above the solvent level 7-leave for several hours until the spots stop moving up .Green ppt insoluble in excess| Reddish brown ppt Drown PPF favo inexcess Blue ppt insoluble in excess NaOH + Heat —» Effervescent of pangent gas tune damp zed litmns paperbhie (indict paper10 ) Any Acid HCI or H,S0, co, Effervescence (bubbles), ‘which tus lime water from colorless to milky. HCI or H,S0, fiom orange to green. Condensation on top of test tube on heating solids means that the solid is hydrated (contains water) Effervescence (bubbles), which decolorize KMNO, cr change the color of K,Cs,0> ! soluble inexcess ‘White ppt Green ppt Josoltble in exceng Green ppt Green ppt} Green ppt Ensoluble in excess| Reddish Reddish brown ppt j brown ppt PPO bnsotie in excess Darl i solution soluble in excess ne Blue ppt 2 ACI Bach S04 uno, /Baqvo,) ‘White ppt Effervescent of pungent ges tums damp red itmus paper ‘blue (indkctor paper 10)Damp red litmus paper Damp pH indicator paper Lighted splint bubbled in clear lime water Passed through KMnQ, or K2Cr.07 Anhydrous copper sulfate Anhydrous cobalt chloride turns from red to blue 10 bums, with a pop sound relights the splint Tums lime water from clear to milky (turbid) bleaches Change the color of KMnOy from purple to colorless tums from orange to colorless Result tums from white to blue tums from blue to pink juin from orange to™ Change from purple to colorless catches fire with a sooty flame tums red turns blue sk Ethanol #52 ¢2hes fire when touched with lighted splint with a blue yellow flamePut the wire in acid (HCI), then put the solid salt on, Fl a me test the wire & introduce it into a nonluminous flame Ton Flame color Lit red Nat yellow Ke lilac Car brick red cur blue Dr. Mohamad Habib Collection of gases ‘Yk If the gases were insoluble in wate: shelf it can be collected over water . like { Oxygen O, Hydrogen Hy Ethene C,H, } If the gas is soluble in water { acidic gases CO, SO, NO, } Or { basic gases NH; } They can NOT be collected over water, so to collect them we need to count on another property (Density ) less dense more dense than air than air co, So, downward delivery ‘upward del jupward displacement (dovmvard dgpacement ofan ofaDrying gases Removing water vapor _ Dr. Mohamad Habib|, Acidic Gases ic Gases Passed through Concentrated Passed through anhydrous sulfuric acid calcium oxide as it will not react with acidic gas as it will not react with basic gas 2 Passing acidic gases through base, or passing basic gas through acid it would react Passing acidic or basic gases through water will make them dissolve. Soluble Compounds Insoluble Compounds - All Carbonate (CO Al group I compounds } bil Sulfite GOS” All Ammonium (NH,J compounds: All Phosphate PO,} All Oxides (OY All Hydroxide (OH) Cav Bar Pb CaSO, BaSO, PbsO, All Halides compound Ag - Agcl PCL, clo Br oI AgBr PbBry Agl POL; > Group II oxides & Hydroxides are soluble in excess water {Ampiioteric’, oxideMaking Salts aD preparing insoluble salts 1) Divide the salt into the anion & the cation Pol, 2) Put the cation witha different anion NO, ——. to form an aqueous (soluble) salts, Phe I & put the anion with a different cation group I to form an aqueous (soluble) salts PRO) + Kl 3) Add the two salts to each other POMNO3)i49 + 2 KIyy —SO— 2 KN + Phy, 4) Filter to get the insoluble salt 5) Wash with distilled water to remove any soluble impurities 6) Dry in oven Weutrahzation) ptepating soluble salts NOT from group T 1) Put the cation with carbonate or oxide CuSO. ta (excess insoluble base) to react (consume) with all the acid Go ————, 2) Bring the anion as an aad 2 Og dd) Cuco. “ cere , H,SO! 3) Add the the base to the acid until excess” ue ‘no more effervescence or until the insoluble base is seen at ‘o+ the bottom of the beaker FSO, + CUCO; see CuSOgFEhO 5 +5) Evaporate till dryness (to geta powder) or Half eveporation until the point of crystallization - cooling - filter - dry with filter paper (to get crystals ) reparing soluble salts from group I ‘Titration KChe 1) Put the cation with hydroxide ion is) ———” Pot theanionasanacié el k ul, 2) Put an indicator in the conical flask ‘wath either the acid or the base, and KOH, KOH} HC} pnp KCI, + 120 4) Repeat the experiment without the indicator using the volume you recordedFle ctroh Ess itisthe splitting up of ionic compounds into their elements by electricity. bus battery Electrolyte must be liquid (molten or aqueous) ionic compound, to allow the movement of ions. sve electrode ve electrode Anode Cathode ‘When choosing a material as electrode, it should be good conductor of electricity ~has high melting point - inert Opposite charges attract each other, Cations (+ve ions) move toward the Cathode ‘Anions (-ve ions) move toward the Anode 1) Molten ionic compound ( Molten electrolyte a NaCl, —-—~ Observation bubbles of greenish yellow gas metallic silvery deposit 2) aqueous ionic compound ( Aqueous electrolyte ) Aqueous ionic compound Anode Cathode o oO Anions (-ve ions) . Cations (+ve ions) cep nonmetal icr amp CI” will be oxiNaCl, ap concentrated (brine) mc“. Oo aan = Concent ated a 30H ee To, volte wore a na reaction cl, H, (Observation ) a | bubbles of greenish yellow gas ( Observation : 3 bubbles of colorless gas 2 indicator solution turns blue at the cathode NaCl, dilute ————.. mS (Observation : | Dubbles of colorless gas, bubbles of colorless gas + Elements of group 1, 2, and 3 can't be extracted from aqueous solutions { only from molten liquid } as H+ will be extracted (reduced) instead + Gas is produced at the two electrodes in case of electrolysis of aqueous solution with metal above carbon, ex: NaCl or KBr or MgSO, + Electrolyte is used up in two cases a. molten liquid b. concentrated aqueous solution of transition metal halide, ex CuCl, 2 Using concentrated solution instead of dilute will caus many changes - increase the number of bubbles - the bulb will be brighter2) Electroplatir Plating a metallic object with chromium Chromium”. "cathode Anode . inode gets thicker gets thinner O fs (e l a> The object must be clean : for the metal (silver) to stick on it t> The object must be rotated : for even distribution to the metal (silver) on the object c2> Frequent use of the object “leads to peeling off (flakes) the metal wp The object must be totally immersed in water - for complete electroplating of the object (whole parts) a> The object must metallic : to conduct electricity ux The electrolyte used must contain the same metallic tons as the metal anode (metal that we want to plate with) Do the best you can, | ANvwavs. with what you con, | SPEND Tr CREATING while you can, THE LIFE YOU WANT and success is inevitable) feurevouwon WANT. THE CHOICE IS YOURS.Rate of Reaction Is how fast the reaction happens : ji (Dr. Mohamad Habib) * Factors affecting the reaction rate a speed of the chemical reaction t As the number of particles increase so the frequency of collisions between reactants molecules increases 1) Concentration concentration t 2) Surface area surface area {} speed of the chemical reaction q ‘As the number of reactants molecules exposed to the chemical reaction increases so the frequency of col ns between reactants molecules increases the surface area increases by crushing (powders have bigger S.A than lu 5 thon pieces ) 3) Pressure Pressure {} speed of the chemical reaction {} As the volume decreases the frequency of collisions between reactants molecule: reases 4) Temperature Temperature {} speed of the chemical reaction As the frequency of collisions between reactants molecules increases due to higher kinetic energy of the molecules & faster icles will have sufficient energy to make successful collisions 5) Catalyst Chemical thot speed up the chemical reac being changed or used up Sanco Enzymes decrease the activation energy of the Renate reaction by finding alternative pathway to the reaction so more p i to make successful collisions without Loss in mass (rams) as the concentration of the reactants decreases with time a) curve is steepest the reaction is fastest b) curve is less steep the reaction is slower ©) curve is flat 6 7 Time thereaction finished.The Rate can be measured by changing the mass/ time changing the volume/ time changing the precipitation height/ time changing the temperature/ time appearance of products/ time disappearance of reactants/ time 2k In case the reaction produces a gas : the mass decreases with time as the gas escapes > Temperature 2 Mass h oe change Surface area change if limiting the rate the rate | >* Volume & the * Catalyst only | if Gmiting volume or the ** Concentration ** Concentration mass if excess if limiting % The rate of the reaction decreases with time, as the concentration of the reactants decreases with time. So the frequency of collisions decrease with time. Rate decreases: as [A] & [B] drop % The anomalous results on graph is due to: 1- error recording ae 2- error measurement a 3- gas escape (depends) 4- missed the end point2 How would you know if the reaction is finished or not ? mp It depends on the reaction 4. Reactions that produces gas no more bubbles produced/ gas volume collected is constant ex: metal (metal carbonate ) + acid —_.]7 a _- Solid disappear Solid still appear in ~Acid was in excess the bottom of the beaker “Solid was in excess Endothermic Exothermic temperature fall then start temperature rise then start to rise again to fall again ¢. Reactions that produces a precipitate when the height of the precipitate won't increase (becomes constant) white precipitate of ox Silver nitrate + Sodium chloride —«_«se— siiver chlonde is formed adding the AgNOsta the NeCl one cm? after one cm? until the hight of the precipitate is constant which means that the NoCI is useed up d. Reactions than produces a solid from a solid heat and reweigh until constant mass mass decreases as the gas escape ex Thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate / or buming calcium in air CaCO; => CaO + CO, 2Ca + 0,552 Ca0 @. Reactions of acids and bases (neutralization) when the indicator changes its color Are you made 34 copper and Tewurium 2% Volume of gas increases with time % Mass loss of reactants increases with time 5 A. astraight line parallel to Zn + 2 HCl emmpZncl +H, ip aaeight ne paral the reaction has finished (Ap The steeper the curve 2 closer to the (¥) axis the faster the rate fe @ fastest rate - increasing the temperature Surface area concentration (excess) adding catalyst (© slowest rate (A) faster rate and bigger volume of gas produced increasing the mass of solid volume of acid concentration of acid only if limiting agent time from stat of reaction E é z $ @®) slower rate and smaller volume of Tine gas produced ‘* Mass of reactants decreases with time Mass A) faster rate ce rate and wo = bigger mass of solid decreased fastest ra i increasing the mass of solid increasing the Temperatre volume of acid or concentration of concentration (excess) acid only if limiting agent adding catalyst (slowest rate (B) slower rate and smaller mass2 Exothermic Reaction 2k Endothermic Reaction the reaction that produces energy the reaction that takes in energy _Temperature increases Temperature decreases Temperature (0) Time (minutes) Temperature / time curve The reaction finished so the solution The reaction finished so the solution. lose heat to surroundings } gains heat from surroundings + Measure the temperature before the reaction (initial temperature) and after the reaction (final temperature) + Measure the temperature using a thermometer (ee ae °® Stirring helps distribute the heat sk Using a polystyrene cup instead of beaker would be more accurate as it minimize the heat loss °F After one hour the temperature goes back to the room temperature reaction finished (heat loss/gain to surrounding ) 2 Taking the reading of the thermometer reading every 20 sec instead of 40 makes the results more accurate (more point on the graph) + Using double the volume of the experiment the temperature change will decrease to half + Using half the volume of the experiment | the temperature ch: increase to double Endothermic 7 Riding aibaaies WF te 100 em? waterwil increase | 1100 eméwater will decrease! the temperature of water by 6*C { the temperature of water by 6*C | Raaiig SRE TY 200 em? water will increase | | 200 cm?-waterwill decrease | be temperance of water by 3°C | the temperature of water by 3°C | ‘Kidding wibance Wis" | 50 cm water will increase | the temperature of water by 12° C} “Rddiag wibatance Wy ts 50 cm water will decrease the temperature of water by 12¢cx> Both air and water are needed for the iron to rust, gxB> The rust formula is Fe,O3.2H;O { hydrated iron III oxide } 22% The rate of rusting is faster in salty water than tap water ex> The iron is oxidized (loses electrons ) to oxygen and form positive ion 1) Painting 2) Oiling or greasing aaa 3) Electroplating by non-reactive metal 4) Galvanisation : Coating the iron surface with zine 5) Sacrificial Protection only in single displacement reactions Chemical Reactivity Series (Redox reactions) repli "\ ge Group | metals react with cold belowit in the C.A.S in their salt solution | water producing metal hydroxide we hydr Fe,f CuSO, gpm FeSO Cty | hydrogen gas | te Hydrogen can reduce the elements ‘Fx Metals above carbon (more reactive than carbon) | delowit in the activity series their oxide can NOT bereduced by carbon «=| CuO +H, mp Cu+H,0 C+AL0; —+ no reaction i ‘Yr Metals below carbon (less reactive than carbon) | their oxide can be reduced by carbon i C+2ZnO mmm 2 Zn + CO. : ‘x Metals above hydrogen (can reduce hydrogen ion) | can react with acids and produce salt & hydrogen each te He He He a+ 2H + cot ‘x Metals below hydrogen (can't reduce hydrogen jon), can NOT react with acids Cut HCI reactiorTitration, : Determining the concentration of an acid or alkali (NaOH TACT ee NaCl F H0} (a) The acid in the burette 8 (B proportional to the volume so |B The larger the volume of acid taken from the burette to neutralize the base in the flask, the less the concentration of the aci a] is more concentrated then| If they were the same acids we say one of them is more concentrated * (b) The acid in the flask ©) is more concentrated then ( The larger the volume of alkali taken from the burette to neutralize the acid in the flask, the more the concentration of the acid Tf they were different acids we say one of them is stronger Other ways to measure the concentration of acids - add metal or metal carbonate and measure the volume of gas produced or the number of bubbles with time (the more concentrated will be faster) - add metal and measure the temperature change with time (the more concentrated will have bigger change in temperature) - acid base titration without indicator, just depending on the change in temperature (the acid is added 5 cm’ at a time )2k Sodium hydroxide has double the concentration of hydrochloric acid. as the volume of sodium hydroxide used is half the volume of hydrochloric acid > Doubling the volume of sodium hydroxide in the flask will double the volume of the hydrochloric acid needed for reaching {p the end point (neutralization) 1 2k This may cause a practical problem, as the burette maximum capacity is SO cm? ° So the burette needed to be used twice Som Pane Sodium thiosulfate & hydrochloric acid reaction Na,S,O; + 2 HC] _—<-2 NaCl + SO, +S + H,0 The experiment produces sulfur ry which is a yellow insoluble solid, Me \\ that will cause the mixture te be i an Ye) cloudy & the printed text ~ 2k we can change the rate of reaction — thiulie Acros drawn \ sohtion A \ fone: 1o be seen. sodin | a fA [ Chow much time it takes for the printed text to disappear) by RS\ 4 V 1- Changing the temperature IPR\ 7/3 4 2- Changing the concentration LER\ [2=4\ of sodium thiosufate That is done by diluting the sodium thiosulfate with water while keeping th total volume constant. Na,S,0; H;,0 Total Time hv long tas forte eros to disappear °K Factors that you should keep constant while changing the concentration of sodium thiosulfate - Temperature - Printed text - Concentration of hydrochloric acid ~ Total volume of the mixture - Depth & size of the flask 2 We must add sodium thiosulfate first then water and last hydrochloric acidPorcelain ches Alkene Bunsen valve fis neredidesred — Prowuectons a ( Hydrogen Figure 3.3 Aetion of steamon a metat 2 Mineral wool : to hold the liquid alkane inside We shoul remove the delivery tube as om the water Before stopping the feat to avoid the back suction of the water leading to the breaking of the glass tubeExperiment Hydrogen is passed over hot copper(II) oxide. The oxide glows red hot and continues glowing, even if you remove the Bunsen burner. Lots of heat is released during the reaction. Colourless liquid — water Pinky brown solid — copper Small flame at end — excess hydrogen being burned off ‘Yeast/ 370C Glucose soluticn __:9mm=— Ethanol + carbon dioxide x allow CO; to escape so the container would not uJ oo Beaker \ ms Xu cruaie =] ei — teh glass ‘Thistle funnel