UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STUDIES NUMBER 4S APRIL 1928, SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HISTORY NO. 13 PRICE $500, Pula Se User of Wasnt ao, Whe aaerie tions SET TO kG eiateh b a ceo ans Wei de et aes a TA (Mo. 1. The nal eiies of New York City, by Robert Francs Sxbolt, 4p. $050. 1No. 2. ‘The restoration ofthe wouther allecas, by Cal Rusell Fis, 2p, $0.50 No. 3. ‘The mlseproeniation of Locke a8 a formalist in educational piloophy, by ‘Vivian row Thayer. 2p. $050. No. 4, Scenic determination of the content of elementary schol course in reading by ‘Wills Lemon UBL 152. $10. No. 5. Cycles of propesity and depression in the United States, Grest Britain and (Geroaay, by Alvin Harvey Hansa, 112p. $1.00. >No. 6, Alege stat fn Bayt inthe tel centary LCA stay la emis History by Michiel Resovtae. 208). $200. No, 7. The Disichs of Coto—Transated fom the Latin with introductory sketchy by ‘Wayland Jobasoa Chase. tp. $00. [No. 8, Standard texts a lds in choo super on, by Frank Laie Clapp. S6p. $050. 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In reorganiz- ing Armenia, Heraclius appointed no civil administrator so that the system ofthe themes was nothing but the application to other prov- nces of the régime instituted by Heraclius in Armenia.® ‘The problem of the origin of the organization of the themes ‘cannot be considered as solved at present, and much work remains to be done inthis direction We know definitely that for the defense against the oncoming menace there were established in the seventh century the following large military distrits, later called themes: Armeniaci (Armeni- in the northeast of Asia Minor bordering on Armenia; Ana- tolict (Anatoikei, from the Greek word Anatoli, ayarad4 “the east”); these two districts, occupying the entire middle portion of ‘Asia Minor {rom the borders of Cilicia inthe east to the shores of the Aegean Sea in the west, were intended to serve as a protection for the Empire against the Arabs; “the imperial, God-guarded ‘Opsikion” (Greek flair, Latin obsequium), in Asia Minor near the Sea of Marmora, shielding the capital from external enemies. In the Balkan peninsula there was the district of Thrace, created ‘against the Bulgarians and Slavs. The maritime Cibyraiot (Cibyr- rbacot) district (named thus perhaps in the eighth century), on the southern shore of Asia Minor and the neighboring islands, was in- ‘tended as a defense against the attacks of the Atabian flet. Later, perhaps at the end of the seventh century, there was formed the Groek military district of Hellas or Helladici (Helladikol), against the Slavonic eruptions into Greece, and, probably, the district of Sicily against the maritime attacks of the Arabs, who were begin- ning to threaten the western part of the Mediterranean Sea. Or narily, with very few exceptions, these distrits—themes—were governed by strategi(strategoi). The ruler ofthe Cibyraiot (Cibyr~ haeot) theme was called the drungarius (vice-admiral), and the ‘governor of Opsikion bore the title of comes. In the large military formations listed previously and in both cexarchates the civil authorities didnot immediately give way to the ey of Byam, p. 878. Cn Rasa) eee eh, a J dr MISTORY OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE 29 nilltary rulers, The civil administration, the civil provinces (ep- archies), continued to exist under the new order in the majority of districts. The military authorities, however, invested with full pow- cr in view of external dangers, were making themselves felt more and more strongly in the civil administration. Gradually, at various times in different provinces, the civil authorities gave way to the riltary rulers, and finally the strategus (strategos), ie, the mili- tary governor, became the exclusive bearer of supreime military and civil power. This concluded the formation ofa theme in the admin- istrative sense of the term. Most ofthe final transformations took. place, as we said, in the eighth century. Anarchy during the period 711-17-—The three accidental rulers, Vardan or Philippicus, Anastasius T[, and Theodosius TI, ‘who occupied the throne after Justinian IT, were deposed in rapid succession, Anarchy and mutiny prevailed throughout the Empire. By favoring Monotheletism, Vardan broke off the peaceful relations with Rome. Anastasius, however, succeeded in restoring the former ‘agreement with the Pope. In external affairs the Empire was par- ticularly unsuccessful. The Bulgarians, determined to take revenge for the murder of Justinian, who had been friendly toward them, moved southward as far as Constantinople. The Arabs, advancing. persistently by land through Asia Mitir and by water in the Aegean Sea and the Propontis also menaced the capital. The Empire was going through a very critical period, similar to the one which had preceded the revolution of the year 610, and once more it was in need of an able, energetic man who could save it {rom inevitable ruin, Such a man appeared in the person of the strategus of the theme of Anatoli, Leo, a man with a very wide following. The ‘weak Theodosius IIT, realizing his complete impotence against the approaching menace, renounced his imperial rank, and in the year 177 Leo entered Constantinople in triumphant procession and was ‘crowned emperor by the Patriarch in the temple of St. Sophia. Leo spared the life of Theodosius TIT. We see, then, that one of the nilitary rulers who were intrusted with wide power in the theme ‘organization rose to the rank of emperor. Literature, earning, and art in the epoch of the Heraclian dy- ‘nasty-—With regard to letters and art, the period from 610 to 717CHAPTER V ‘THE ICONOCLASTIC EPOCH (717-867) 1, TH PERIOD OF THE ISAURIAN OR SYRIAN DYNASTY (717-802) "he arin Sion sy ey ie Emperor Lot (fre) ov nat of now ST, ws {ale an tra nal Hoa wens abd Nb deve tere ly aed oa he ia may. Hone the Choeot te uinteenth ony he opion ma rnd tht Ls ws oan ny uta by Beth? Tab vw prose dy eh The confson ca is pos acto ct teu ean sour on a ri, “Tpit cri oteay ninth emtary, wen "Le the Turn avant of Geared a elt frm “ura The Lata wen of Pn thapal Toran, Amasya he ted al of the ane ith) em tof fng at aad statin at La cae om the pon of Germain and was Sra by Sth gore Spa)? Th fot Sige tn Youngest sae Spiny it (@ cvpoyerts)*, Germanicea was situated within the northern bound- Seve! Sites of ic An Aran sore erst Lao 88 Crtsn cn of Slash ay Cartes, wo ead oe enters bts the Arie andthe Ran ans ses fo meta he one In sgposng hat Tho the conf te San Geman wit Goomanoply + ofthe Taran prove" The yin in of Lan ite poh a Cem D9 “ina mm sb 9, Seca Soe ncn iS ae me [MISTORY OF TIE BYZANTINE EAE 287 able, but some scholars, J. A. Kulakovsky, for instance, consider the claims for the Syrian origin of Leo erroneou ‘The son of Leo TIT, Constantine V Cépronymus (741~75) was ‘married the frst time to Irene, the daughter of the Khagan of the ‘Khazars (Chazars), and had a son by hér, Leo IV, often called the Khazar (Chazat), who reigned from 775 until 780, He matried a Greek girl of Athens, Irene, who became the ruler of-the Empire after his death because of the minority of her s6n, Constantine VI, who was proclaimed emperor (780-97). When,he becarié the sole ruler of the Eripire a strugele for power ensued bétwees him and his ambitious mother, Irene was victorious, andafter dethroning and blinding her son she became the sole rule of the Empire (797-802). ‘Her name became closely connected with the problem of whether ar ‘notin the Byzantine Empire women could exercise sovereign power ‘on the throne, i. be the rulers of tho Empire inthe full meaning of ‘the term. Since the time ofthe founding of the Empire the wives of ‘emperors bore the title of “Augusta,” and, incase of the minority of their sons, fulfilled the functions of imperial power, but always in the naime of their sons. In the fifth century, Pulchera, the sister of ‘Theodosius, was, as we know, atthe bead of the regency while her brother was a minor. ‘The person whe occupied an exceptional post tion with regard to influence upon political affairs was Theodora, the wife of Justinian the Great, But all these were instances of feminine rule in the name of a son or @ brother, while Theodora’s Political intluence depended entirely upon the will of her husband. ‘The first instance in Byzantine history of a woman who ruled with full authority of supreme power was Irene, the mother of the un- fortunate Constantine VI. She wasa true autocrator. In Byzantine life this phenomenon was an innovation which contradicted the sec- ular traditions of the Empire. In this connection itis interesting to ote the fact that in oficial documents and decrees Irene was not called “empress,” but “Irene, the faithful emperor (asieus).”” According tothe conception of that period only an emperor, a man, could be the oficial lawgiver, hence it becamenecessary to adopt the fiction that Trene was an emperor. The revolution of the year 802, {3A Klan, itor f Sgn, I, 39 Remi. "Se Zak oe Lingala prscroame 3.288 [UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSH STUDIES Ipitiated and led by one of the highest civil officals, Nicephorus, ended in the dethronement of Irene, who later died in exile. Niceph- frus ascended the throne, and thus, with Irene's deposition, end- (the Isturian or Syrian dynasty. In the period from 717 to 802 the Byzantine Empire was ruled by a dynasty of easter origi from ‘Asia Minor or northern Syria, intermixed with Khazarian blood through the marriage of Constantine V. The attitude toward the Arabs, Bulgarians, ond Slavs —At the time of Leo's accession to the throne the Byzantine Empire was ex- periencing one of the most critical periodsin its history. In addition to the frightful internal anarchy caused by the Emperors strugsle ‘with the representatives of the Byzantine aristocracy, which had be- come particularly aggressive since the time ofthe first deposition of [Jostnian TT, there was also the Arabian menace in the east, which ‘was coming nearer to the capital. The petiod resembled the seven ties ofthe seventh century under Constantine IV, and seemed even more critical in many respects. "The Arabian force on land passed through ll of Asia Minor to ‘the west, even during the reign ofthe two predecessors of Leo, and ‘ccupied Sardis and Pergamus, near the shores of the Aegean Sea. At the head of the Arabian troops stood a distinguished general ‘Maslamah. Only a few months after Leo's entry to Constantinople in the year 727, the Arabs moved on northward from Pergamus, reaching Abydos on the Hellespont, and, upon crossing to the Euro ‘pean shore, soon found themselves under the walls of the capital. ‘At the same time a strong Arabian fleet consisting of 1,800 vessels of different types, a is recorded in the Byzantine chronicles sailed thtough the Hellespont and the Propontis and surrounded the cap- ital by sea. A real siege of Constantinople ensued. However, Leo demonstrated his brilliant military ability by preparing the capital for the siege in an excellent manner. Once more the skilful use of ‘Greek fire” caused much destruction in the Arabian fleet, while hhunger and the extremely severe winter of the year 717-18 con pleted the final defeat of the Muslim army. By force of an agree- ‘ment with Leo TI as well as in self-defense, the Bulgarians were also fighting against the Arabs on Thracian territory and caused HISTORY OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE 289 heavy losses in their army, Slightly over a year after the beginning , of the siege, the Arabs departed from the capital, which was thus saved by the genius and energy of Leo III. We might note in pass- ‘ng that in connection with this siege we find the frst reference to the chain which barred the way into the Golden Hora to the en- emy’s ships. History attaches very great significance to this failure of the ‘Mustims to occupy Constantinople. Iti justly claimed that by his successful resistance Leo saved, not only the Byzantine Empire and the eastern Christian world, but also all of Western European civli- zation. The English scholar Bury calls the year 718 “an ecumenical ate.” ‘The Greek historian Lambros compares these events to the Persian wars of ancient Greece and calls Leo Miliades of me- dieval Hellenism. If Constantine IV halted the Arabs under Con- stantinople, Leo TIT definitely foreed them back. This was the last attack of the Arabs upon the “God-guarded” city. Viewed from this standpoint, Leo's victory assumes universal historical sig- nificance, ‘The expedition of the Arabs against Constantinople, as well as the name of Maslamah, have let a considerable trace in the later ‘Mubammedan legendary tradition; it connects his name also with a ‘mosque which, as this tradition says, he constructed at Constan- tingle ‘And yet this was one ofthe most brilliant epochs inthe history ‘of the early caliphate. ‘The powerful Calif Walid I (705-5), con- temporary ofthe period of anarchy in the Byzantine Empire, could Vie with the emperors in his constructive activities. In Damascus there was erected 2 mosque which, like St Sophia forthe Christians, remained for a long time the most magnificent structure of the Muslim world. Mubammed’s grave at Medipa was surrounded by the same splendor as the Holy Sepulcher at Jerusalem. It is inter- ‘sting to note that among the Muslims these buildings were asso- ‘lated not only with legends relating to Mubammed, but also with sn, BS: Hiro te Later Roman py. lar ere BO, a nT he et nn elle ae ne at de he, er pn erent Comte" Jarl ania, CCE (Sp to son Clean Raunt sri a th tsa 8 wee ‘5 Gmina Mom Bea apo ag. Base Bb. 10-0290 “UNVERSITY OF WISCONSIN STUDIES those concerning Christ, The ist call of Jeus when he returns arth, decares Musi tradition, wil ome from one of the minarets af the mesque of Damascus, and the free space next to Muhammed arave at Medina wil serve forthe gave of Jesus when he des ater Ns second advent ‘Gradually the struggle between the Enpice snd the caliphate assumed the character ofa sacred war. The results ofthis struggle in the early eighth century did not satisfy the Greeks nor the Arabs, because the Greeks did not get Jerusalem and the Arabs did not succeed in occupying Constantinople. V. Barthld has some exceed ingly interesting lines in this connection: “Under the influence of this outcome, among the Christians a well as among the Muslin, the idea ofthe triumphant state changed tothe fea of repentance, and both were expecting the end ofthe world. Tt seemed to both Sides that only before the end ofthe world will the final ain of their states be attained, Inthe Latinas well as in the Greek, world legend became current to the effect that before the end ofthe ui- verse the Christan ruler (the Frankish king or the Byzantine em- peror) will enter Jerusalem and hand over his earthy own to the Savor, wile the Mustins expected the end of the world tobe pe- ceded by the fall of Constantinople Tt snot accidental thatthe reign ofthe ‘ole pious’ Umayyad calf, Oar Tk (717%), came bout the year 200 of the hepra (about the year 720), when the dof the Muslim stat, and atthe same time the end ofthe word, ‘wete expected after the unsuccessful siege of Constantinople in the time ofthe preceding Calif Suleiman." Fourteen years after the seg, i the year 752, Cares Martel the allpoweriul majordomo or mayor ofthe palace of the weak Frankish king, performed an equally great ser for Western Et ‘rope by defeating the Spanish Arabs at Poitiers, The Arabian ad- wance into Wester Burope in the eighth centary was sucesally arrested. After their defeat inthe year 728 the Arabs did not undertake de Zp tg attr Se ae nersig dt Bath 1s do Bet "see Tams, ns lee ele Onsyte Mori Pai 1+ "SV, mal ly wo 47-7 in Rea). MISTORY OF Tis BYZANTINE FACIE: 201 4 more eros mit action agin the Emit inthe time of zo II, especialy since they were apparently; menaced in the orth by the Khas Weta that an had ange te ma "age of hs son and sucrssor, Constanta, wilh te daughter of the Khugan ofthe Khazars and began fo support ht new oes Thus in hi strugale wih the Araby Leo found to alee te Bulgin and later the Khaars. The Aran did not howerey ee ‘main quiet, but continued their attacks upon Asia wr and pene- tated frequently far into the wes eaching een Nice Le oe ‘ost oicing the shores ofthe Proponts A the end i ig eo succeded in routing the Arab under Acrolaon in Pare (present-day. Afun-Quaitr onthe rand to Rona) Tee defeat forced the Arabs to clear the western par of As Migor nt recreate ast With the batt at Acrofnon the Muslims conexted the legend othe Tat aoa by Said Bata Cha te os ‘san, whos raves own even tity in nef the village south of skither (medieval Dorlau, The hare ne posaa ‘yng this hero was the chanpon of Muhammed, bala ‘Datta who fl inthe bate of Acrolnon" The poke at oe Arabian struglewas brillant solved by Leo I Ta the mil of the eighth entry serio inter! toubles azo the Arab aliphate in connection with the cig of yee tes, when the Uaayyads (Onayyas) were deponed ty tie A basis, The latter transfered the capital and the ere of his ‘government from Damascus to Bagdad on the Trigis, far removed from the Byzantine bode. This mate it poasbl fe he sees 640 IU, Constantin V, to shove the inpeial borer asthe at slog the etre boundary of Aaa Mino by means af aero ‘vce expedition % Butin the tine of rene under the Caliph l Mabe, Arab ‘tain nated a sue afesivemovenent into Aaa Mises ‘and in the year 782-83 the Empress was forced to beg for peace, cmt Sony" a een tte sehr." ae ee t,t Baits seen SEE oe ot ‘enrof the Roe dle Scity (ug, pt; Me Cast, oy seh.