Chapter 1

Database System concept & Data Modeling

Database concepts
A data is a piece of information A database is a set of interrelated and meaningful data related to an enterprise. A database Management system (DBMS) is a collection of interrelated data and a set of programs to access those data. The primary goal of a DBMS is to provide an efficient way to store & retrieve data to or from a database.

Database System Applications /Applications of DBMS

Databases are widely used. Here are some representative applications: 1. Banking: To maintain customer information, accounts, loans, and banking transactions. 2. Airlines: For flight reservations and schedule information. Airlines were among the first to use databases 3. Universities: For student information, course registrations, and grades. 4. Credit card transactions: For purchases on credit cards and generation of monthly statements. 5. Telecommunication: For keeping records of phone calls made, generating monthly phone bills, maintaining balances on prepaid calling cards, and storing information about the communication networks. 6. Finance: For storing information about holdings, sales, and purchases of financial instrument such as stocks and bonds. 7. Sales: For customer, product, and purchase information.

8. Manufacturing: For management of supply chain and for keeping track of production of items in factories, inventories of items in warehouses/stores, and orders for items. 9. Human resources: For information about employees, salaries, payroll taxes and benefits, and for generation of paychecks.

Disadvantage of File processing System:

File processing system has a number of disadvantages. They are as follows: 1) Data redundancy and inconsistency: programmers create files and application programs. Various files have Moreover, the same different formats and the programs may be written in several programming languages. information may be duplicated in several places (files). For example, the address and telephone number of a particular student may be stored in office file while taking admissions and in department file also. This storing of same data more than once is called as data redundancy. leads to higher storage and access cost. Data redundancy may have leads to data inconsistency; which means multiple copies of a data This redundancy Since different

different values for a particular field. For example, a students changed address may be updated in the department file but not in the Office file. Thus this leads to incorrect data. 2) Difficulty in accessing data: Suppose that a bank officers needs to find out the names of all customers who live in kothrud.

 The officer asks the data-processing department to generate such a list. Because the designers of the original system did not anticipate this request, there is no application program on hand to meet it. There is, however, an application program to generate the list of all customers. The bank officer has now two choices: either obtain the list of all customers and extract the needed information manually or ask a system programmer to write the necessary application program. Both alternatives are obviously unsatisfactory. Suppose that such a program is written, and that, several days later, the same officer needs to trim that list to include only those customers who have an account balance of $10,000 or more. As expected, a program to generate such a list does not exist. Again, the officer has the preceding two options, neither of which is satisfactory. The point here is that conventional file-processing environments do not allow needed data to be retrieved in a convenient and efficient manner. More responsive data-retrieval systems are required for general use. 3) Data isolation. Because data are scattered in various files, and files were in different formats, writing was difficult. 4) Integrity problems The data values stored in the database must satisfy certain types of For example, the balance of a bank account may never fall below a Developers enforce these constraints in the system by adding appropriate However, when new constraints are added, it is difficult to change the consistency constraints. prescribed amount (say, $25). code in the various application programs. programs to enforce them. new application programs to access the appropriate data

The problem is compounded when constraints involve several data items

from different files. 5) Atomicity problems. A computer system, like any other mechanical or electrical device, is subject to failure. In many applications, it is crucial that, if a failure occurs, the data be restored to the consistent state that existed prior to the failure. Consider a program to transfer $50 from account A to account B. If a system failure occurs during the execution of the program, it is possible that the $50 was removed from account a but was not credited to account B, resulting in an inconsistent database state. Clearly, it is essential to database consistency that either both the credit and debit occur, or that neither occur. That is, the funds transfer must be atomicit must happen in its entirety or not at all. It is difficult to ensure atomicity in a conventional file-processing system. 6) Concurrent-access anomalies For the sake of overall performance of the system and faster response, many systems allow multiple users to update the data simultaneously. In such an environment, interaction of concurrent updates may result in inconsistent data. Consider bank account a, containing $500. If two customers withdraw funds (say $50 and $100 respectively) from account A at about the same time, the result of the concurrent executions may leave the account in an incorrect (or inconsistent) state. Suppose that the programs executing on behalf of each withdrawal read the old balance, reduce that value by the amount being withdrawn, and write the result back. If the two programs run concurrently, they may both read the value $500, and write back $450 and $400, respectively.

 Depending on which one writes the value last, the account may contain $450 or $400, rather than the correct value of $350. To guard against this possibility, the system must maintain some form of supervision. But supervision is difficult to provide because many different application programs that have not been coordinated previously may access data. 7) Security problems. Not every user of the database system should be able to access all the data. For example, in a banking system, payroll personnel need to see only that part of the database that has information about the various bank employees. They do not need access to information about customer accounts. But, since application programs are added to the system in an ad hoc manner, enforcing such security constraints is difficult.

Advantage of a DBMS over file processing System

1) Redundancy Can be controlled In traditional non-database system, each department maintains its own files for handling its data processing application. 2) Data can be shared 3) Standard can be enforced 4) Security measure can be applied 5) Integrity can be maintained 6) Conflicting requirements can be balanced

View of Data
A database system is a collection of interrelated files and a set of programs that allow users to access and modify these files. A major purpose of a database system is to provide users with an abstract view of the data. That is, the system hides certain details of how the data are stored and maintained 5

Data Abstraction
For the system to be usable, it must retrieve data efficiently. The need for efficiency has led designers to use complex data structures to represent data in the database. Since many database-systems users are not computer trained, developers hide the complexity from users through several levels of abstraction, to simplify users interactions with the system: Physical level. 1) The lowest level of abstraction describes how the data are actually stored. The physical level describes complex low-level data structures in detail. Logical level. 1) The next-higher level of abstraction describes what data are stored in the database, and what relationships exist among those data. 2) The logical level thus describes the entire database in terms of a small number of relatively simple structures. 3) It involves complex physical-level structures but its logical level structure is simple. The user of the logical level does not need to be aware of this complexity. 4) Database administrators, who must decide what information to keep in the database, use the logical level of abstraction. View level. 1) The highest level of abstraction describes only part of the entire database. 2) Even though the logical level uses simpler structures, complexity remains because of the variety of information stored in a large database. 3) Many users of the database system do not need all this information; instead, they need to access only a part of the database. 4) The view level of abstraction exists to simplify their interaction with the system. The system may provide many views for the same database. 5) Figure 1.1 shows the relationship among the three levels of abstraction.

Fig 1.1 the three level of data Abstraction Most high-level programming languages support the notion of a record type. For example, in a Pascal-like language, we may declare a record as follows: Type customer = record Customer-id: string; Customer-name: string; Customer-street: string; Customer-city: string; end; This code defines a new record type called customer with four fields. Each field has a name and a type associated with it. A banking enterprise may have several such record types, including Account, with fields account-number and balance Employee, with fields employee-name and salary At the physical level, a customer, account, or employee record can be described as a block of consecutive storage locations (for example, words or bytes). The language compiler hides this level of detail from programmers. Similarly, the database system hides many of the lowest-level storage details from database programmers. Database administrators, on the other hand, may be aware of certain details of the physical organization of the data.

At the logical level, each such record is described by a type definition, as in the previous code segment, and the interrelationship of these record types is defined as well. Programmers using a programming language work at this level of abstraction. Similarly, database administrators usually work at this level of abstraction. Finally, at the view level, computer users see a set of application programs that hide details of the data types. Similarly, at the view level, several views of the database are defined, and database users see these views. In addition to hiding details of the logical level of the database, the views also provide a security mechanism to prevent users from accessing certain parts of the database. For example, tellers in a bank see only that part of the database that has information on customer accounts; they cannot access information about salaries of employees. Database Languages: There are two types of languages as DDL and DML. A database system provides a data definition language to specify the database schema and a data manipulation language to express database queries and updates. In practice, the data definition and data manipulation languages are not two separate languages; instead they simply form parts of a single database language, such as the widely used SQL language.

1) Data Manipulation Language Data manipulation language (DML) is a language that enables users to access or manipulate data as organized by the appropriate data model. The types of access are The retrieval of information stored in the database The insertion of new information into the database The deletion of information from the database The modification of information stored in the database There are basically two types:

 Procedural DMLs require a user to specify what data are needed and how to get those data. Declarative DMLs (also referred to as nonprocedural DMLs) require a user to Specify what data are needed without specifying how to get those data. Declarative DMLs are usually easier to learn and use than are procedural DML s. since a user does not have to specify how to get the data, the database system has to figure out an efficient means of accessing data. The DML component of the SQL language is nonprocedural. A query is a statement requesting the retrieval of information. The portion of a DML that involves information retrieval is called a query language. This query in the SQL language finds the name of the customer whose customer-id Is 101: Select customer. Customer-name From customer Where customer. customer-id = 101 The query specifies that those rows from the table customer where the customer-id is 101 must be retrieved, and the customer-name attribute of these rows must be displayed.

2) Data-Definition Language A special language used to specify a database schema by a set of definitions called a datadefinition language (DDL). For instance, the following statement in the SQL language defines the account table: Create table account (account-number char (10), balance integer (4));

Execution of the above DDL statement creates the account table. In addition, it updates a special set of tables called the data dictionary or data directory. A data dictionary contains metadatathat is, data about data. The schema of a table is an example of metadata. A database system consults the data dictionary before reading or modifying actual data. We specify the storage structure and access methods used by the database system by a set of statements in a special type of DDL called a data storage and definition language. These statements define the implementation details of the database schemas, which are usually hidden from the users. The data values stored in the database must satisfy certain consistency constraints. For example, suppose the balance on an account should not fall below $100. The DDL provides facilities to specify such constraints. The database systems check these constraints every time the database is updated. 1) Domain Constraints

A domain of possible values must be associated with every attribute. (For example integer type, character type, date/time type) Declaring an attribute to be of a particular domain acts as a constraints on the values that it can take. Its an elementary part of the integrity constraints. They are tested easily by the system whenever a new data items is inserted into the database 2) Referential Integrity attributes also appears for a certain set of attributes in another relation (Referential Integrity). Database modification can cause violation of the referential integrity When a referential integrity constraints is violated, the normal procedure is to reject the action that caused the violation 3) Assertions An assertion is the condition that the database must always satisfy In this case, we ensure that the value appear in one relation for a given set of

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 Domain constraints and referential integrity constraints are the special form of the assertion. But there are many constraints that we cant specify by using only these special forms. For example, every loan has at least one customer who maintains an account with a minimum balance of $1000.00. When an assertion is created, the system test for its validity If the assertion is valid, then any future modification to the database is allowed without violating the assertion. 4) Authorization We can differentiate among user based on type of access they are permitted Authorization are of following type Read Authorization: which allows reading but not modification of data. Insert Authorization: which allows insertion of new data , but not modification of the existing data Update Authorization: Which allows modification of data but not deletion of the data Delete Authorization: which allows deletion of data on various data values in the database are expressed in terms of authorization

Instances And Schema Database changes over a time as information is inserted and deleted over a time. The collection of information stored in the database at a particular moment is called as instance of the database The overall design of the database is called the database schema The concept of database schema and instances can be understood by comparing it with programming language. A database schema corresponds to the variable declarations (along with type definitions) in a program

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 Each variable has a particular value at a given instant. The value of the variable in a program at a point in time correspond to an instances of the database schema Database system have several schemas based on the level of abstraction 1) Physical Schema: It describes database schemas at physical level 2) Logical schema: It describes database schemas at logical level 3) Subschema: A database may have several schemas at the view level called subschema that describes different views of the database. Physical data independence It is the ability to modify the physical schema without causing application program at the physical level is called as Physical data independence. Or The physical schema is hidden and can usually be changed easily without affecting application programs. Application programs are said to exhibit physical data independence if they do not depend on the physical schema, and thus need not be rewritten if the physical schema changes. Logical data independence It is the ability to modify the logical schema without causing application program at the logical level is called as logical data independence. Database Users and Administrators A primary goal of a database system is to retrieve information from and store new information in the database. People who work with a database can be categorized as database users or database administrators. Database Users and User Interfaces There are four different types of database-system users, differentiated by the way they expect to interact with the system. Different types of user interfaces have been designed for the different types of users. 1) Naive users These are unsophisticated users who interact with the system by invoking one of the application programs that have been written previously. 12

 For example, a bank teller who needs to transfer $50 from account A to account B invokes a program called transfer. This program asks the teller for the amount of money to be transferred, the account from which the money is to be transferred, and the account to which the money is to be transferred. As another example, consider a user who wishes to find her account balance over the World Wide Web. Such a user may access a form, where she enters her account number. An application program at the Web server then retrieves the account balance, using the given account number, and passes this information back to the user. 2) Application programmers These are computer professionals who write application programs. Application programmers can choose from many tools to develop user interfaces. Rapid application development (RAD) tools are tools that enable an application programmer to construct forms and reports without writing a program. There are also special types of programming languages that combine imperative control structures (for example, for loops, while loops and if-then-else statements) with statements of the data manipulation language. These languages, sometimes called fourth-generation languages. 4) Sophisticated users These are interacting with the system without writing programs. Instead, they form their requests in a database query language. They submit each such query to a query processor, whose function is to break down DML statements into instructions that the storage manager understands. Analysts who submit queries to explore data in the database fall in this category Online analytical processing (OLAP) tools simplify analysts tasks by letting them view summaries of data in different ways.

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 For instance, an analyst can see total sales by region (for example, North, South, East, and West), or by product, or by a combination of region and product (that is, total sales of each product in each region). The tools also permit the analyst to select specific regions, look at data in more detail (for example, sales by city within a region) or look at the data in less detail (for example, aggregate products together by category). Another class of tools for analysts is data mining tools, which help them, find certain kinds of patterns in data. 5) Specialized users These are sophisticated users who write specialized database applications that Among these applications are computer-aided design systems, knowledge do not fit into the traditional data-processing framework. base and expert systems, systems that store data with complex data types (for example, graphics data and audio data), and environment-modeling systems. Database Administrator One of the main reasons for using DBMSs is to have central control of both the data and the programs that access those data. A person who has such central control over the system is called a database administrator (DBA). The functions of a DBA include: Schema definition. The DBA creates the original database schema by executing a set of data definition statements in the DDL. Storage structure and access-method definition. Schema and physical-organization modification. The DBA carries out changes to the schema and physical organization to reflect the changing needs of the organization, or to alter the physical organization to improve performance. Granting of authorization for data access. By granting different types of authorization, the database administrator can regulate which parts of the database various users can access. The authorization information is kept in a special system structure that the database system consults whenever someone attempts to access the data in the system. 14

 Routine maintenance. Examples of the database administrators routine maintenance activities are: Periodically backing up the database, either onto tapes or onto remote servers, to prevent loss of data in case of disasters such as flooding. Ensuring that enough free disk space is available for normal operations, and upgrading disk space as required Monitoring jobs running on the database and ensuring that performance is not degraded by very expensive tasks submitted by some users.

Database System Structure / Overall Structure of DBMS

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A database system is partitioned into modules. The functional components of a database system can be broadly divided into the storage manager and the query processor components. The storage manager is important because databases typically require a large amount of storage space. Corporate databases range in size from hundreds of gigabytes to, for the largest databases, terabytes of data. Since the main memory of computers cannot store this much information, the information is stored on disks. Data are moved between disk storage and main memory as needed. Since the movement of data to and from disk is slow relative to the speed of the central processing unit, it is imperative that the database system structures the data so as to minimize the need to move data between disk and main memory. The query processor is important because it helps the database system simplify and facilitate access to data. High-level views help to achieve this goal; with them, users of the system are not being burdened unnecessarily with the physical details of the implementation of the system. However, quick processing of updates and queries is important. It is the job of the database system to translate updates and queries written in a nonprocedural language, at the logical level, into an efficient sequence of operations at the physical level. 1) Storage Manager A storage manager is a program module that provides the interface between the low level data stored in the database and the application programs and queries submitted to the system. The storage manager is responsible for the interaction with the file manager. The raw data are stored on the disk using the file system, which is usually provided by a conventional operating system. The storage manager translates the various DML statements into low-level file-system commands. Thus, the storage manager is responsible for storing, retrieving, and updating data in the database. The storage manager components include: Authorization and integrity manager, which tests for the satisfaction of integrity constraints and checks the authority of users to access data. Transaction manager, which ensures that the database remains in a consistent (correct) state despite system failures, and that concurrent transaction executions proceed without conflicting.

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 File manager, which manages the allocation of space on disk storage and the data structures used to represent information stored on disk. Buffer manager, which is responsible for fetching data from disk storage into main memory, and deciding what data to cache in main memory. The buffer manager is a critical part of the database system, since it enables the database to handle data sizes that are much larger than the size of main memory. The storage manager implements several data structures as part of the physical system implementation: Data files, which store the database itself. Data dictionary, which stores metadata about the structure of the database, in particular the schema of the database. Indices, which provide fast access to data items that hold particular values. Statistical data: It stores statistics about the data stored.

2) The Query Processor The query processor components include DDL interpreter, which interprets DDL statements and records the definitions in the data dictionary. DML compiler, which translates DML statements in a query language into an evaluation plan consisting of low-level instructions that the query evaluation engine understands. A query can usually be translated into any of a number of alternative evaluation plans that all give the same result. The DML compiler also performs query optimization, that is, it picks the lowest cost evaluation plan from among the alternatives. Query evaluation engine, which executes low-level instructions generated by The DML compiler. Query processing refers to the range of activities involved in extracting data from a database. The activities include translation of queries in high-level database languages into expressions that can be used at the physical level of the file system The steps involved in processing a query appear 1. Parsing and translation

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2. Optimization 3. Evaluation Before query processing can begin, the system must translate the query into a usable form. Thus, the first action the system must take in query processing is to translate a given query into its internal form. In generating the internal form of the query, the parser checks the syntax of the users query, verifies that the relation names appearing in the query are names of the relations in the database, and so on. The system constructs a parse-tree representation of the query, which it then translates into a relational-algebra expression. If the query was expressed in terms of a view, the translation phase also replaces all uses of the view by the relational-algebra expression that defines the view. Furthermore, the relational-algebra representation of a query specifies only partially how to evaluate a query; there are usually several ways to evaluate relational-algebra expressions. As an illustration, consider the query Select balance from account Where balance < 2500 This query can be translated into either of the following relational-algebra expressions: abalance<2500 (balance (account)) balance (balance<2500 (account))

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. A sequence of primitive operations that can be used to evaluate a query is a query execution Query-evaluation plan. Fig shows an evaluation plan for our example query. The queryexecution engine takes a query-evaluation plan, executes that plan, and returns the answers to the query. The different evaluation plans for a given query can have different costs. It is the responsibility of the system to construct a query-evaluation plan that minimizes the cost of query evaluation. Once the query plan is chosen, the query is evaluated with that plan, and the result of the query is output. Query optimization is the process of selecting the most efficient query-evaluation plan especially if the query is complex. We do not expect users to write their queries so that they can be processed efficiently. Rather, we expect the system to construct a query-evaluation plan that minimizes the cost of query evaluation. Consider the relational-algebra expression for the query Find the names of all customers Who have an account at any branch located in Brooklyn. Data Model A data Model is a collection of conceptual tools for describing data, data relationship, data semantics and consistency constraints. There are three different types of model 1) E_R model 2) Network Model 3) Hierarchical Model 20

1) E_R Model The Entityrelationship (E-R) model is a high-level data model. It is based on a perception of a real world that consists of a collection of basic objects, called entities, and of relationships among these objects. The relational model is a lower-level model. It uses a collection of tables to represent both data and the relationships among those data. Its conceptual simplicity has led to its widespread adoption; today a vast majority of database products are based on the relational model. Designers often formulate database schema design by first modeling data at a high level, using the E-R model, and then translating it into the relational model. The E-R data model employs three basic notions: entity sets, relationship sets, and attributes. 1) An entity is a thing or object in the real world that is distinguishable from all other objects. For example, each person in an enterprise is an entity. An entity has a set of properties, and the values for some set of properties may uniquely identify an entity. 2) Relationship set 3) Attributes Mapping Cardinalities Mapping cardinalities, or cardinality ratios, express the number of entities to which another entity can be associated via a relationship set. Mapping cardinalities are most useful in describing binary relationship sets, although they can contribute to the description of relationship sets that involve more than two entity sets. In this section, we shall concentrate on only binary relationship sets. For a binary relationship set R between entity sets A and B, the mapping cardinality must be one of the following: One to one. An entity in A is associated with at most one entity in B, and an entity in B is associated with at most one entity in A. One to many. An entity in A is associated with any number (zero or more) of entities in B. An entity in B, however, can be associated with at most one entity in A. Many to one. An entity in A is associated with at most one entity in B. An entity in B, however, can be associated with any number (zero or more) of entities in A.

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 Many to many. An entity in A is associated with any number (zero or more) of entities in B, and an entity in B is associated with any number (zero or more) of entities in A.

Entity-Relationship Diagram An E-R diagram can express the overall logical structure of a database graphically. Such a diagram consists of the following major components: Rectangles, which represent entity sets Ellipses, which represent attributes Diamonds, which represent relationship sets Lines, which link attributes to entity sets and entity sets to relationship sets Double ellipses, which represent multivalued attributes 22

First name Name Employee Last name Dashed ellipses, which denote derived attributes DOB Middle name

Student Double lines, which indicate total participation of an entity in a relationship set Double rectangles, which represent weak entity sets

2)

Network Model The popularity of the network data model coincided with the popularity of the hierarchical data model. Some data were more naturally modeled with more than one parent per child. So, the network model permitted the modeling of many-to-many relationships in data. A set

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consists of an owner record type, a set name, and a member record type. A member record type can have that role in more than one set; hence the multiparent concept is supported. An owner record type can also be a member or owner in another set. The CODASYL network model is based on mathematical set theory. The network model's original inventor was Charles Bachman, and it was developed into a standard specification published in 1969 by the CODASYL Consortium. In network model data are represented by a collection of records and relationships among data are represented by links. It is used to handle non hierarchical relationshipshis model uses pointers toward stored data.

Network Model A network database consists of a collection of records connected to one another through links. A record is in many respects similar to an entity in the E-R model. Each record is a collection of fields (attributes), each of which contains only one data value. A link is an association between precisely two records. Advantage 1) Simplicity The network model is also conceptually simple and easy to design 2) Ability to handle more relationship types The network model can handle one to many and many to many relationship.

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3) Ease of data access In network database terminology, a relationship is a set. Each set comprises of two types os records-an owner record and a member record. In a network model an application can access an owner record and then the menber records within a set. 4) Data Integrity In network model no member can exit without an owner. A user must therefore first define the owner record and then the menber record.tgis ensure the data integrity. 5) Data Indpendence The apllication program run independently of the data.any changes made in the data characheristics do not effect the application program 6) Database Standards The standards form by the DBTG (Database Task Group of CODASYL comittee) form th basis of the network model.all the network database management systems adhere to these standards . These standards comprise of a (DDL) and DML that augments database administrotion and portability. Disadvantage 1) System coplexity In this model data can be accessed one record at a time. This make it essential for the database designer administrators and programmer to be familiar with the internal data structure to gain access to data.therefore user friendly database management system cannot be created by Netwok model 2) Lack of structural Independence Making the structural modification to the database is very difficult as data access method is navigational 3) Hierarchical model The data is sorted hierarchically, using a downward tree. This model uses pointers to navigate between stored data. It was the first DBMS model.

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A hierarchical data model is a data model in which the data is organized into a tree-like structure. The structure allows repeating information using parent/child relationships: each parent can have many children but each child only has one parent. All attributes of a specific record are listed under an entity type. Example of a Hierarchical Model. In a database, an entity type is the equivalent of a table; each individual record is represented as a row and an attribute as a column. Entity types are related to each other using 1: N mapping, also known as one-to-many relationships. The most recognized and used hierarchical databases are IMS developed by IBM and Windows Registry by Microsoft. An example of a hierarchical data model would be if an organization had records of employees in a table (entity type) called "Employees". In the table there would be attributes/columns such as First Name, Last Name, Job Name and Wage. The company

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also has data about the employees children in a separate table called "Children" with attributes such as First Name, Last Name, and date of birth. The Employee table represents a parent segment and the Children table represents a Child segment. These two segments form a hierarchy where an employee may have many children, but each child may only have one parent. In a hierarchical database the parent-child relationship is one to many. This restricts a child segment to having only one parent segment. This simple model is commonly known as the adjacency list model, and was introduced by Dr. Edgar F. Codd after initial criticisms surfaced that the relational model could not model hierarchical data. Advantage 1) Simplicity Data base is based on hierarchical structure therelationship between various layers is logically simple.Thus design of data model is simple 2) Data security It is the first model which provide data security and enforced by DBMS 3) Data Integrity As it is based on parent child relationship.there is always a link between parent segment and the child segment under it.The child segments are always automatically referenced to its parent, this model promotes data integrity 4) Efficiency This model is very efficient when the database contains a large number of 1: n relationship and when the users require large number of trascations using data whose relationships are fixed Disadvantage 27

1) Implementation Complexity Although the model is simple and easy to design ,it is quite complex to implement The database designer should have very good knowledge of the data storage characterics. 2) Database Management Problem If you make any changes in the database structure of hierarchical database then it is required to make the necessary changes in all the application prgrams that accessthe database.Thus maintaining the database and the applications can become very difficult. 3) Lack of structural Independence Structural independence exits when the change made in the database structure does not affect the DBMSs ability to access the data. It uses the physical storage paths to navigates to the different data segments .so application programmer should have a good knowledge of the relevant data path to access data.so if the physical structure is changed the application will also have to be altered. 4) Programming Complexity Due to structural independence and navigational structure the application programmers and end user must know precisely how the data is distributed physically in the database in order to access the data.It requires the more knowledge of a system which is difficult for the user who have little or no programming knowlegde 5) Implementation Limitation Many of the common relationship de not conform to the 1:n format required by this model.the m:m (Many to many) relationship,which is more common in real life is very difficult to implement in this model

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Client Server Architecture The architecture of a database system is greatly influenced by the underlying

computer system on which it runs, in particular by such aspects of computer architecture as networking, parallelism, and distribution: Networking of computers allows some tasks to be executed on a server system, and some tasks to be executed on client systems. This division of work has led to clientserver database systems As personal computers became faster, more powerful, and cheaper, there Personal computers support terminals connected to centralized systems that As a result, centralized systems today act as server systems that satisfy Figure 1 shows the general structure of a clientserver system. Database was a shift away from the centralized system architecture. are used to handle directly by the centralized systems. requests generated by client systems. in Figure 2 The back end manages access structures, query evaluation and optimization, concurrency control, and recovery. The front end of a database system consists of tools such as forms, report writers, and graphical user interface facilities. The interface between the front end and the back end is through SQL, or through an application program to interface clients with servers. functionality can be broadly divided into two partsthe front end and the back endas

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Any client that uses the ODBC or JDBC interfaces can connect to any server that In earlier-generation database systems, the lack of such standards necessitated that With the growth of interface standards, the front-end user interface and the backApplication development tools are used to construct user interfaces; they provide Some of the popular application development tools are PowerBuilder, Magic, and Further, certain application programs, such as spreadsheets and statistical-

provides the interface. the front end and the back end be provided by the same software vendor. end server are often provided by different vendors. graphical tools that can be used to construct interfaces without any programming. Borland Delphi; Visual Basic is also widely used for application development. analysis packages, use the clientserver interface directly to access data from a back-end server. In effect, they provide front ends specialized for particular tasks some transactionprocessing systems provide a transactional remote procedure call interface to connect clients with a server. These calls appear like ordinary procedure calls to the programmer, but all the Thus, if the transaction aborts, the server can undo the effects of the individual remote procedure calls from a client are enclosed in a single transaction at the server end. remote procedure calls.

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