Running head: REMOTE SENSING IN ARCHAEOLOGY 1

Remote Sensing in Archaeology

Robert Crocker

American Public University System

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Remote Sensing in Archaeology

In the past, archeology meant long, tiresome days with very little discovery. It was not

uncommon to dig in a suspecting area based on leads and research and spend countless hours and

manpower only to reveal nothing. Guess work led to being in the wrong area and finding no

trace of what the scientists were looking for. This paper will discuss how many such obstacles

were overcome by the use of remote sensing. Details will be discussed about the various ways

remote sensing has changed the way archeologists study areas of interest, as well as methods and

technology that may be used. Finally, discussions will be made of the various discoveries that

would have been lost to time forever if not for remote sensing capabilities.

Much of the archeological finds of today have relied upon studying ancient writings and

knowledge passed down from generation to generation by word of mouth. Every civilization has

their own ideas and traditions, which tried to identify how they came to be. Ancient lore from

each civilization was passed down, most often by word of mouth to give a sense of belonging.

Who was the first of our particular ethnicity? What did they have to endure to create what we

know today? These questions were given an explanation through history, often embellished with

grand tales of strength, mysticism and wonders, yet there was always some truth involved.

These are the things the archeologist had to go on in order to find specific locations in the

attempt to uncover the past and to understand how these civilizations lived. Often, this

information was wrong, citing different locations or people because of the embellishments of

past generations. This wrong information led to searching the wrong areas, and subsequently

finding no trace of the buildings or temples that were proclaimed to have been there.
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Maps

Ancient maps were helpful during the study, yet were most often either labeled wrong, or

drawn wrong. Scales were completely non-existent, and context were at the will of the map

maker. Later in ages, maps began to be more and more accurate, yet the lore remained the same,

if not more embellished. Locations began to be slightly easier to find, which led to some

amazing discoveries. Still there were times when the search for ancient structures turned up with

little to no evidence. In the case of desert areas, there may not have been landmarks to guide by,

and sand covers quickly, whereas in tropical environments, vegetation grows quickly and will

swallow up large swaths of the Earth in a relatively short amount of time.

Most of the maps at this time were hand drawn and lacked important details. The

creators of the map relied upon things they saw with their own eyes and labeled them as such.

Photographic evidence was non-existent and small pictures were hand drawn in the maps to give

indications of what the map maker was looking at. It was left to the reader to interpret what the

images meant.

Aerial photography was used and with great results yet, in some areas where vegetation

was prevalent aerial photography only revealed the canopy without any indications of what may

lie below. With this technique, images were taken from balloons and airplanes and had to be

developed after the fact. In previous years, global positioning data was not available, so specific

photos had to be documented extensively to understand where the photograph was taken in order

for ground research teams to be able to explore.

Light detection and ranging

With the advent of laser technology, and its later use in remote sensing, the research times

are being cut drastically. More specifically, the use of Light Detection and Ranging has had an
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immediate impact on the way researchers study areas for potential archeological information.

Light Detection and Ranging, or LIDAR is a form of remote sensing where the device emits a

pulse of laser light in order to determine variable distances from the device to the ground.

Unlike traditional aerial photography, LIDAR can be used in both daytime and darkness because

it is considered an active form of remote sensing.

Active remote sensing is defined as the device emitting the electromagnetic energy from

its own source, and then capturing that reflected energy for the image. In this way it can be used

in total darkness because it does not rely on any external illumination. This is in stark contrast to

passive remote sensing that relies on external illumination of the targeted area. Passive systems

do not emit electromagnetic radiation and therefore must be used when natural illumination is

present (Jensen, 2007). With LIDAR coupled with an active GPS system, locations where the

images were taken can easily be found on the ground.

Without some type of aerial imaging, archeologists had to cut through heavy, thick

vegetation in search of ancient structures. Without some knowledge of where the exact

coordinates of these structures, it was a hit or miss. LIDAR has opened up vast opportunities for

archeology by being able to scan large areas quickly. According to (Cascone, 2019), LIDAR can

scan areas that would normally take many years to search on foot. The article stated that LIDAR

has advanced archeology at least a hundred years, and it would take a hundred years to do what

LIDAR can do in an hour. “LiDAR is showing us things that we never would have been able to

see with 100 years of research—and we have 100 years of research under our belts already, so

it’s not like that’s hyperbole,” (Cascone, 2019).

LIDAR operates by sending out small pulses of laser light, which reflects back to the

sensor. Computers determine the exact time between the emitting and the receiving at many
REMOTE SENSING IN ARCHAEOLOGY 5

points in a single burst. This tells the distance by calculating the speed of light, and the distance

light can travel in that amount of time which creates the image. The shorter the time the laser

takes to reflect back to the sensor, the higher the point is in elevation such as tree canopies or tall

buildings. The longer the laser takes to reflect back to the sensor, the lower the elevation of the

target is such as grasslands or bare earth. LIDAR uses an eye-safe Near Infrared laser in the

1040 to 1060 nm range and can emit pulses at 100,000 pulses per second. This pulse rate ensures

that total coverage of the target area is accomplished.

Known as masspoints, the area elevation is derived by the total number of points the

LIDAR has recorded. Depending on several factors, LIDAR can create a bare earth image, even

in dense vegetation and can reveal structures on the image that otherwise could not be seen.

Many times, these structures could not be found even by ground crews if they were a mere few

meters away because of the vegetation. This image can show the difference between man-made

structures and naturally occurring structures because of the angles. Nothing in nature develops

straight lines and 90-degree angles, so when these are seen in an image, it is cause to believe the

area holds man-made structures.

Such as with the case of Mayan ruins in Northern Guatemala at the Maya Biosphere

Reserve. The Pacunam project used LIDAR to scan a site they had been excavating for years.

There were thoughts that the area was much bigger than they had originally thought, but without

LIDAR it would have taken the team as much as 60 years to find out. Using the LIDAR, the

team discovered the site was over 200 kilometers. At the time of the dig, there were areas the

team thought was simply land masses, yet LIDAR discovered it was a Mayan temple. (see figure

1)
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With the discovery of the areas size, the team decided to use the LIDAR on an 810 square

mile section of the Maya Biosphere Reserve and found more than 61 thousand hidden Mayan

structures. What the team saw as unusable swamp lands was found to be crop growing regions

with carved irrigation canals. Further scans in new, unexplored areas are revealing the Mayan

empire was vastly bigger and more advanced than previously thought and may soon rival the

advancement of many present-day civilizations. LIDAR has opened new areas of research in the

field of archeology by giving data sets, that would take many years to develop on foot, in a

matter of days.

Technology

NASA has launched two LIDAR technologies in 2018 to record biomass and forest

canopies. The first of which was mounted onto the International Space Station. The Global

Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation (GEDI) is designed to study the canopies of forested regions

along the same lines of the ISS travel. The primary function of GEDI is to give high resolution

ranging of forests and topography. This is useful to study how human interactions and climate

changes can influence Co2 productions.

The device itself is a geodetic class laser altimeter and provides 3 laser apertures that can

give a resolution footprint in the 25-meter range. While primarily used to study biomass and

Leaf Area Index, this technology can also provide archeologists with sub-canopy topography in

the 51.6-degree north and south latitude if needed. It is not known if this area might hold ancient

structures, yet the possibilities are in place if the data in needed (Dubayah et al., 2020) .

Ice, Cloud, and Land Elevation Satellite-2 (ICESat-2) carried the second device that was

launched. ICESat-2 carries one instrument known as the Advanced Topographical Laser

Altimeter System (ATLAS). This device is charged with precisely measuring heights of the
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planet’s ice, vegetation, land surface, water and clouds. ATLAS carries two laser emitters that

are designed to fire upwards of 10,000 pulses per second which is a vast improvement over the

device that ICESat-1 carried which was only capable of 40 pulses per second. The reason there

are two laser emitters is that one is a primary laser, and the second is a backup in case of

malfunctions. The reason for the backup is simple.

In the case of GEDI, which was attached to the ISS, astronauts could repair the device

easily, while ATLAS was on board a satellite which cannot be repaired without major planning

and execution. ATLAS is designed to take measurements every 2.3 feet along the ground path of

the satellite which provides excellent coverage in order to accurately measure elevations. The

satellite was equipped with a Laser Reference System which captures photons being emitted and

some of those being retrieved and makes corrections on the lasers position which increases the

efficiency of the system. If the laser needs to be moved a very small fraction to capture more of

the photon with the 2.6-foot diameter beryllium telescope, the Laser Reference system does the

moving (Neumann). These are just two of the myriads of devices that are in use providing

valuable data. For the most part, most LIDAR systems operate the same way, and have similar

objectives.

Ariel Photography

LIDAR is just one of the various means archeologists use to learn the location of ancient

ruins. Aerial photography has made significant advances in archeology prior to the invention of

LIDAR. Areas that are not completely dense in vegetation can benefit from the non-destructive

imaging that remote sensing can provide. In the article (Agapiou, 2014), one of the ways aerial

photography can be used in archeology is by the identification of crop marks. These marks

represent a different growth of vegetation over near-surface structures. This is accomplished by

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examining the vegetation indices commonly used to examine the short- or long-term variation in

vegetation land cover. By examining these indices, archeologists can reveal areas where the

growth of vegetation is different given the soil composition over fabricated structures. This crop

mark can lead to discoveries of structures that may be just under the surface.

This article details the use of the Sentinal-2 satellite for use in archeology and gives

specifics on the satellite’s altitude and specific times of day it will be in operation. The two

small satellites that make up the Sentinal-2 are placed in a Sun-synchronous orbit at 786

kilometers in altitude. This allows the two satellites to have a vast field of view while

maintaining their positioning with the Sun. It was chosen to have the two satellites image at

10:30 local time to ensure minimum cloud cover and to ensure greater incident illumination.

Landsat satellites have been in use since 1972, and currently provide multispectral

coverage for many archeological sites, however the spatial resolution is on the medium scale at

15 to 80 meters. It was found that Landsat images were relatively inexpensive and can cover

large areas quickly in the visible, infrared and thermal wavelengths. This is useful when

considering small archeological sites with little funding. Even with limited funding,

archeologists can have access to data that can assist with finding and establishing new excavation

sites.

Balloons have been used in aerial photography for many years. In 1858 a French

photographer named Gaspar Felix Tournachon, known as "Nadar" tethered a hot air balloon 80

meters above the French village of Petit-Becetre and was successful in taking the first aerial

photograph. He patented the idea of using these aerial photographs for map making and for

surveying. The popularity of aerial photographs grew substantially from that moment and drove
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the research into making them better. Everything from balloons to rockets were used to create the

photographs (2020)

In 1909, Wilbur Wright was credited with the first aerial photograph from an airplane

when he took a passenger and had them take motion pictures of the military field in Rome. From

this point, aerial photography became a battlefield tool. Later, the invention of thermal and

infrared cameras gave commanders an exceptional view of the battlefields in World War 1, with

both sides using the techniques with great success. By the end of the war, both sides were

filming the battlefront twice per day, both in visible and infrared wavelengths (2020).

Sherman Fairchild developed a camera with the shutter inside the lens, which greatly

increased the reliability of the photographs while airborne. Later, Fairchild designed an airplane

with an enclosed cabin and high mounted wings especially for aerial photography. Marketing

the designs, Fairchild saw the business grow exponentially in the coming years and made great

strides in aerial photographs (2020).

He took a series of photographs of Manhatten Island at an altitude of 10,000 feet and

stitched them together making one large picture. This photograph was wildly popular with the

city government and was used by law enforcement extensively. Before he died in 1971,

Fairchild witnessed his cameras being used by the astronauts on Apollo 15, 16, and 17 to map the

surface of the Moon.

Archeologists have recently discovered the need for low altitude aerial photography

based on the cost. Many systems in play today are very low cost compared to LIDAR or other

forms of satellite or airplane-based observation techniques. In recent research, several systems

have been molded together to make a small, low cost, field operated device. Using two cameras,

one with infrared capabilities, along with a Spectra Vista GER 1500 spectroradiometer mounted
REMOTE SENSING IN ARCHAEOLOGY 10

to a small 3-meter diameter helium-filled balloon gave archeologists the capability to scan at

varying heights. Spectroradiometric scans of the target were taken at different heights along with

photographs from both cameras (Hadjimitsis, 2013).

This technique gave the researchers the ability to discover sub-terranean anomalies

consistent with buried structures. Instantly being able to retrieve the pictures greatly decreased

the time between scans and digs. Because of the ability to raise and lower the balloon, the scan

can be focused on areas thought to hold relics by lowering the balloon to the exact point. The

whole system can be carried into the field by backpack and deployed within an hour which

eliminates the wait times for planes and satellites to get to the location. Researchers can go to

the area of interest and scan and excavate within hours (Hadjimitsis, 2013).

After the scans are complete, researcher have an idea of where to look based on

information in the pictures. This can be accomplished by shovel tests in a grid, or by use of

electronic means. Using a Ground Penetrating Radar unit is one way to discover buried artifacts.

Ground Penetrating Radar is a non-intrusive method of discovery that is being used extensively

by archeologists. This involves dragging, rolling, or hovering a GPR unit over the area in a grid

pattern (2018)

The GPR unit sends radar pulses into the ground and the antenna attached to the unit

retrieves the pulses reflected and displays of the scans will be produced on the screen. There are

many versions on the GPR unit ranging from the most basic, where the data must be off loaded

to a computer for diagnostics, to the advanced unit that carries the computer onboard and does

the diagnostics instantly. Depending on the type of antenna used, the scans can range from a few

inches deep or up to 90 feet deep depending on the materials being scanned. Care must be taken

when choosing the correct antenna for the area based on research into the area. Research may
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reveal how deep the artifacts may be. Questions of how the area was used in the past, such as for

agriculture, battlefields, or habitation may give clues as to what is needed for the scans to be

accurate (2018).

Any artifact that has a different density than the surrounding soil can be found using

GPR. Scans must be made in a grid pattern with overlapping passes so as not to miss any small

feature that may denote something much larger. Typically, the area should be free of vegetation

and relatively flat. There are many limitations involved in using GPR such as wet areas,

underwater, and areas that are on severe inclines as well and dense vegetation. Using this GPR

unit in conjunction with scans from either balloons, airplanes or satellites increases the

archeologist's success rates exponentially (2018).

Locations

There are vast amounts of sites that have benefitted from remote sensing. From ancient

Aztec sites, to large scale Mayan civilizations, remote sensing has become a globally accepted

tool for archeologists. In the large-scale archeological site of Teotihuacan, LIDAR was used to

locate sites and strip away the dense vegetation to reveal areas that were not previously located.

After the initial finds, LIDAR detected areas where looters dug tunnels into the sites to steal

valuable treasures. These tunnels were excavated and gave access to the main sites. From there,

LIDAR indicated areas where there were only remnants left of structures (Kiley, 2018).

When entering tunnels there were areas where dating of the structures could take place as

well as areas that still had the decorative paintings on the walls. In all, LIDAR revealed almost

64,000 dwelling places in the area which gave researchers an estimate of the population of

Teotihuacan at 7 to 11 million residents. In the scans, there was evidence of spiraling

fortification much farther out than originally thought extending almost 6 kilometers from the
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main area. This denoted to the researchers that the site was almost 70 times bigger than they

originally thought (Kiley, 2018).

The architecture found shows that the city had structures that had been built over, which

denotes that the internal structures of the city were the original, and either were built on to, or

torn down and built new. The differences between the architecture inside the city shows

influences of other areas. What this means is that trade was taking place with other cities and

cultures. Influences of these other areas made their way into the city and were used. Some

places showed strong Mayan cultures where some areas of the city showed other cultural

influences (Kiley, 2018).

The site was immense and gave indications of the power structure that was held by the

Mayans. With the defensive structures that surround the city, there is evidence of a strong

militarism standpoint which shows a structured rank system in the civilization. What is

interesting is that there are areas that show immense population signs in certain areas of the city,

while other areas show almost no population at all. It is unknown why the differences in

populations within the city itself, yet some believe it may have been a caste system. Not only

were the researchers able to find evidence of large structures, but the Digital Elevation Model

gave them images of outlying structures, along with caves for underground storage. Some of

these caves revealed they were looted burial chambers, which were ground checked (Kiley,

2018).

Cahokia, near Collinsville IL., is listed on the UNESCO list and contains some 3000

square miles and is the oldest known Native American city in North America. Cahokia is just off

the Interstate 55-70 in Illinois and is relatively unknown by most residents. The site contains

numerous mounds of earth and the third largest pyramid in the world and was the center of trade
REMOTE SENSING IN ARCHAEOLOGY 13

for much of North American Natives over 1000 years ago. Much of the site still remains yet,

built with wood and earth, some prominent features have weathered away (Werner, 2012).

Early aerial photographs of the site gave clear understanding of the size based on

discoloration of the soil around the central mound. Much of the site has been mistaken as natural

hills, and smaller mounds have been used as sources of fill dirt in the past before the realization

of what the site actually was. Early aerial photographs have been digitized, and research into the

site has revealed village areas, prehistoric borrow pits, and a central plaza where trade and

recreation took place (Werner, 2012).

One of the most fascinating discoveries of Cahokia was the LIDAR discovery of a raised

75-foot walkway from the plaza to the southern end of the Cahokia precinct and ends atop a large

mound. It has been discovered that there were several small mounds surrounding the large

mound where the walkway ended, yet it is not known what the walkway was used for. Some of

the site has been encroached upon by urban expansion, including a stockyard being built right on

the top of one of the larger mounds (Werner, 2012).

LIDAR scans of the area has shown the floodplains around the smaller mounds were

filled with single family dwellings dated around 1100 AD, and agriculture was the largest use of

the land. Agriculture was not the main reason for the site. Research has shown strong evidence

of social, political and religious influences, likely brought forth by the rulers of the city. Within

the dwelling areas of Cahokia were found leadership dwellings, most likely lower-class leaders

that helped to make decisions that affected the whole city (Werner, 2012).

These dwellings were thought to be where leaders lived based on the evidence of sweat

lodges. In some Native American cultures, it was required that leaders took sweat baths to purify

the spirit before making important decisions that would affect the city. These sweat lodges were
REMOTE SENSING IN ARCHAEOLOGY 14

connected to dwellings within the residential areas in floodplains. Smaller temples dotted the

residential areas, and small figurines have been found.

These figurines were made of a soft stone called flint clay that is only found in sink holes

near the present-day city of St. Louis. Depictions of females holding plants such as sunflowers

and squash were found as well as figurines of snakes. One figurine depicted a woman and a

snake with the head of a feline, whose tail split into vines that produced squash. This was the

first known indication of the religious ideas of the city and centered around fertility, which was

common among an agriculture-based civilization. Religion plays a vital role in most cultures

and especially in historic societies. With the findings of many smaller temples in the areas where

the dwellings were, it is abundantly clear that this city was no different.

Around 1500 buildings found using LIDAR have been excavated with findings ranging

from simple stone tools to exotic trade goods. Many small underground storage areas have been

found with pottery still intact with organic material inside. Woven matts have been found along

with Conch shells from the Gulf of Mexico. These shells denote trade with other civilizations

and furthers the idea that the city had a major trade route.

Archeology has long been thought of as a destructive science. Excavations destroy

ancient sites and structures, and enter burial sites, as well as remove artifacts that were meant to

remain buried. Many sites have been completely destroyed by a combination of archeology and

looting however, efforts have been taken to preserve much of the areas. With the advent of

remote sensing, much of this destruction can be prevented. From the first hot air balloon that

took pictures from above, to the modern day advanced technological satellite using multispectral

imaging, archeologist have sought to use the innovations to increase knowledge of the past.
REMOTE SENSING IN ARCHAEOLOGY 15

Advancements are critical, and the widespread use of non-invasive technologies are fueling the

discoveries of ancient landscapes, their occupation, and cultures.

Figure 1
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