a sjectrotechnology 2 1 I Electricity basics Learner outcomes ‘er careful reading and completing the exercises in this chapter, students should be able to: 4 State Ohm’s law and apply it to practical questions. 2 Apply resistivity and temperature coefficients to practical questions. 3 Explain and apply voltage and current division to practical series and parallel questions. ‘The aim of this chapter is to revise the basics from clectrotechnology I. 1.1 Ohm's Law Ohm's Law states that the ratio between the voltage across an element and the current through it is called its resistance: r-< 1 R Resistance Vv Voltage v 1 Current A 12. Resistivity We can also obtain the resistance of a material in terms of its length and eross-seetion by making use of its resistivity, as follows: Resistivity Qn 7 Length m ‘A. Cross-sectional area m: Resistivity, p (Rho), is a material constant and is defined as the resistance across opposite faces of a cube of the material. Table 1.1 supplies constant values for resistivity and temperature coefficient of various materials, ‘These values will be requited to solve the examples and the exercises. Typical values of resistivity and temperature coefficient of resistance ‘Material pin Q.mat 20°C ‘On0 per K Aluminium 0,0278 x 10° 0,0039 Brass 0,071 x 10 0,0015 Carbon, 40x 10" -0,0003 Copper 0,0172 x 10° 0,0038 Gold 0,022 x 10° = Graphite 8x 10° -0,0002 Table 11| Electrotechnology 2 12 | Example 1.1 | Find the resistance of a conductor with a cross-sectional area of 2,5 mm” and length of 450 m at | 20 °C, if it is made of (a) Aluminium, (b) Copper and (¢) Gold. Solution Bh A 0,0278 x 10° x 450 2,59 x10 = 5,042 | Rinne | ) - | | | pl Reopper = re os 6 » = 0172 x10* x 450 2,59 x10 = 3,096.2 pl Reota = ‘A. _ 0,0222x10 x 450 2,50 x 10% = 3,996 1.3. Temperature coefficient of resistance The temperature coefficient of resistance, 0: (Alpha), of a material is the change in resistance in chm per degtee change in temperature as a ratio of the original resistance, = 234,5°C Figure 1.1 The variation of resistance of capper with temperature is shown above. Ifa copper conductor has a resistance of 1 Q at 0 °C, the change of resistance for 1 °C change of temperature will: be 1/234,5 Q thus, for copper: io = 0,004264 /K. Ifa material having a resistance Ro at 0 °C has a resistance of R; at ty and Rp at t and if op is its temperature coefficient of resistance at 0 °C, then: Ry =Ro Vt a@% ty) and Ry =Ry (1+@% ta)jjotechnology 2 recoiled a which we obtain: DR, Roll+a% ty) R, Ry (+a t,) jsbetter used as: fa practice, the standard temperature is usually taken to be the approximate average room “femperature (ambient temperature), 20 °C. Since the temperature coefficient of resistance of pper at 20 °C_ is olay = 0,0038 PC. and a resistance of Rzo at 20 °C, the resistance R, at a perature t will be given by: R= Rao{ 1 + 020 (t~- 20°C)} Example 1.2 ‘A copper coil has a resistance of 25 2 at 0 °C. Find its resistance at 40°C. Solution Ry =Ro (14% ty) = 25 (1+0,004264 x 40 ) = 29,2642. Exercise 1.1 Use appropriate standard values from the previous pages. pl) Find the length of a copper conductor 2,5 mm in diameter with a resistance of 11 Dat 15°C. ‘Also find the resistance of this conductor at 35 °C. Use pon page |. (349.1 1h, 1,293.) 2) A copper coil is connected across a steady 24 V supply and has a resistance of 9 & at 20°C. After a while the current drops to 2,25 A. Find the final temperature of the coil. (68,74 °C, tbc open 225 lt il ea LER «a we 3) Determine the resiétance ofa carbon brush in an electrical hand tool at oh, ‘The brush has @ °-+— cross sectional area of 20 mm’ and a length of 17,5 mm. Calculate the voltage drop caused by ‘one of these brushes at a working temperature of 65°C, if the tool draws 9,5 A. 2 (3592, 0,32801 V) OLA boa. eer aera cote te bee C65 . APs Oi. 7, $= OST 14 Series circuit a In aseries circuit, the same current flows through all the elements. oa We NY Rs = Ri+R.+Rs Bu Be 4 Vs = Vit VatVs Vi Va Ma kof =b s=h=h=b © Figure 1.22Electrotechnoloby 2 14 ‘This arrangement is known as voltage division. ‘The voltage drop within a specific resistor, in a series circuit, can be found as follows. Vs kz ‘se mR oR; Ves ( fer Also find Vi and V2 These methods (formulae) will be employed shortly to solve complex circuits ! Example 1.3 Use voltage division to find the voltage drop across each resistor in a series circuit having @ 110 V supply, the respective resistor values are 7, 5 Q, 12 Qand 15. Q. Solution Start all solutions by sketching the appropriate wiring diagram and indicate all values, see figure 11d. Ar \ { Vr=110V . Figure 1.2b vy =——s® _ a R, +R, +R, +R, RAR, +R, +R, _ 0x7 10xs 745412415 745412415 = 19,744 = 14,103V Now solve V3 and V, on your own, (339 V, 42,3 V) 1,5. Parallel circuit Ina parallel circuit the same voltage appears across all the elements. Vr = Vi=Vo= V3 ls L=hth+h Ly IR bh} |R. BY [Rs @ From ly =]+h+l, and l= Meo MyM Ry RR. Rs1-5 equivalent value of two resistors in parallel can be found as follows: RxR ; f Zz = “Where “R,//R2” is the total resistance of R; parallel to Ro. +R, =R,//R,= lel Product ye for TWO resistors in parallel. 4 ‘A parallel circuit is also known as current division. The current in a specific resistor, in parallel ‘ircuit, can be found as follows. a) For two resistors in parallel i Lae 1] {Ri b] [Re Figure 1.44 b) For three resistors in parallel .s eee ufs eff off Figure 1.46 ©) For more than three resistors in parallel 4 ee n] ik b] [Re | fe Lu] [Re Figure 1.4 ‘This actually reads: A branch current is the product of the supply current and the equivalent resistance of the rest of the circuit divided by the sum of the equivalent resistance of the rest of the circuit plus the branch resistance. Note: It is convenient to perform the Product / Sum procedure for parallel resistors repeatedly for more than three branches. Ri// Ry then (Ri &Ra)// Ry then (Ry & Rp &Rs)// Ry ete.Blectrotechnology 2 1-6 | Liijiva Altemativey, for more than tworesistors: RRR HR, Fete ‘The second approach is much easier when using modern non-programmable calculators properly, i.e. (each block represents a key stroke on your calculator) (Ci pe DR FT Rs DEX Example 1.4 ‘Use current division to find the current through each resistor in a parallel circuit having a 50 V supply and respective resistor values of 7 Q, 5 Q, 12 Q and 15 Q. Solution ny a(bete tel 75 12 1 = 2,028986Q2 2,028986 = 24,6429 A Rj //R3 Ry = (+5 = 2,85714Q0. Le= T, (Ry /R3 Ry) (Rp Rs WR) +Ry _ 24,6429 x 2,85714 © 2,8571447 = 7,1429 A Ry WR, Ry = (G+ 1 = 3,41463.0 1, (Ry / Rs Ra) Ry Rs Ry)+Ra 429 x 3,41463 34146345 =10A, ‘Now solve I; and I, on your own. (424, 33)Exercise 1.2 a avill need these techniques to solve complex circuits in the next section. "Use voltage division to find the current I, in the load Ru. Le y 2 48 30 a- (%*4 1 VeQe = aS i : Va = Bea - fasv 6a] fs 4a} PRL Ve, IAS 2828 7 a,-8 7% v 92 14 By Fy Figure 1.6 . Hint; Start with the voltage division formula and adapt it where necessary. (3,125 A) 2) Use current division to find the current J, in the load Ri. 36A 32 IL Ri} |9Q 62 42 : Figure 1.7 5 Mint: Start with the current division formula and adapt it where necessary. (13,54) oy Use voltage division to find the voltage drop across the load Ry. | 92 , 52 \ Laas B sov Cf is 5,997 4 Figure 1.8 (5597 > aste a 4) Use current division to find the current I, in the Igad Ru. g 25. $2 ~ va L RL] |22 42 8 (997A) Figure 1.9 Inqnoze, 8% 4a Electrotechnology 2 a & ae 2 Electric circuits Learner outcomes ‘After careful reading and completing the exercises in this chapter, students should be able to: 1 Explain the difference between a voltage and current source. 2. Apply Kirchhof’s laws to solve practical circuits with more than one voltage source... 3. Apply the superposition theorem to solve practical circuits with more than one voltage or current source. Apply Thevenin’ s theorem to solve practical active networks. Apply Norton’s theorem to solve practical active networks. Until now, we have always had a battery, generator or some similar device powering a circuit. These are all voltage sources, Typical theoretical symbols are: tw Of: Figure 2.1. Figure 2.1 b In SI we looked at the difference between electromotive force (E) and potential difference (V) when current flows through a circuit. Thus a practical voltage source is therefore represented by a perfect voltage source in series with its internal resistance. 1 Ste Figure 2.2 ‘There are, however, energy sources which deliver a constant current under all circumstances, like pentode tubes, bipolar transistors (BPTs) and field-effect transistors (FETs). These are referred to as current sources. ‘The typical theoretical symbol is shown below:effect current source has infinite internal resistance. In practice, however, the current > will have a resistance that is not quite like an open circuit. A practical current source will Hore be represented by an ideal current source in parallel with its (high) internal resistance, ¢ ijustrated below: X Ns SN Tan xo Bi ; x § Figure 2.4 any industrial applications are too complex to solve with Ohm’s law alone. Thus we use wrems to solve standard circuits. "with a capital letter ‘R’. A 2.1 Kirchhoff’s laws Gustav Robert Kirchhoff was bom in Konigsberg Germany on March 12 of 1824. During his stident years in the late 1850's he made important contributions to electrical circuit theories. He demonstrated that an alternating current in a zero resistance conductor would flow at the speed of Jight and he also formulated what we call Kirchhoff’s current and voltage laws. bh Kirchhoff’s current law : The algebraic sum of the eurrents Is flowing towards a point is equal to the sum of the currents flowing away from that point. ‘Thus the algebraic sum of the currents at a point is equal to zero. Mathematically this is expressed as: & Ith-b-l+Is=0. (21-0) h This can also be graphically shown, as in figure 2.5. Kirchhoff’s potential law : The algebraic sum of the potential differences in a closed circuit is equal to zero. Mathematically this is expressed as: t FE, -E2=IRi-IR2 or LE=EIR ‘This can also be shown graphically, as in figure 2.6,Electrotechnology 2 23 The following are typical steps to be followed when solving brach currents using Kirchhof?'s Laws, A h B b c ABFD : E;)=hRi + (i +b)Rs t = CBFG : B,=bR2+ (i +1)Rs = Ri ACGD : E\-E2=hRi-bRe D F G Take note of: Figure 2.7 a) The not b) the arrows indicating the potential and current directions, ©) b=h+kand d) the various subscripts. Example 2.1 ‘Two batteries, E; and Ey, with em.f.’s of 6 V and 2 V and internal resistances of 2 Q and 3 Q respectively are connected in parallel with a 5 resistance. Calculate the current in each branch and the output voltage of each battery. Solution Figure 2.8 E,=1,R,+G, +1))Rs 6=21,45(, +1) 6=71, +51, _..equation (1) E,51R. +) +1)Rs 2331, +50, +1) 2=51, +81, ....equation (2) Complete this example by solving the two simultaneous equations. (x8 48=561, +401, Q)x5 10=251, +4019 38=311, 1, =1,2258A. ....3)Vv, +1,2258x2 3,548,V Exercise 2.1 Determine all the branch currents by using Kirchhoff’s laws. , = a wv 6a 20a Figure 2.9 2) Determine the current through the 12 © resisto ae (1317, -0,512 A, 0,805 A) by using Kirchhoff’s laws - 122 30V tov 152 92 Figure 2.10 4 Determine [,, by using Kirchhoff’s laws. 15Q IsV — Ci, . Yh ‘ %| \oa oa) isha 52 1sV HH Figure 2.11 (1,234 A, 0,957 A, -0,277 A) y's 7 Kut « al oO h AElectrotechnology 2 25 2.2 (Superposition theorem Definition: Ina linear nétwork containing more than one source of e.m-f, the resultant current in any branch is the algebraic sum of the currents that would be produced by each emf. acting alone, when all the other sources of em-f. have been replaced by their respective internal resistances. This can be illustrated as follows: 1 I he => and | Figure 2.12.0 Figure 2.12 b Figure 2.12 ¢ Figure 2.12 a gets redrawn as figures 2.12 b and e, each with only one source of e.m 1, is then. found from h, =k» + hk». From this it follows that if a cirouit has three sources, three eircuits ust be drawn, each with only one source. ‘Three “I,” values must be calculated and then added to determine the total current. Figure 2.12 a ean be solved more quickly and easily by using Kirchhoff laws. If one of the voltage sources is replaced by a current source this question ean only be solved using the Superposition theorem. Similarly various intricate circuits need specialised approaches, This book, will only deal with four of the most common circuit theorems, namely: Kirchhoff, ‘Superposition, Thevinen and Norton. Example 2.2 . Find I, for the circuit below by employing the superposition theorem. IL 92 30A 92 5Q 50V Figure 2.13 a Solution a) Using the current source only, see figure 2.13 b. : RRs = [= = a} Yi = 4,52 Ix(R,/R3) (RRs) FR 30x4,5 “4545 = 142114 Figure 2.13 bnt in cting ws the voltage source only, see figure 2.13 ¢. Ve xRi//Ra (945 =3,21429Q) ‘Finally add the individual currents Ipthy 14,211+2,6316 16,8426 A. Exercise 2.2 ulate the line current, 1, for each ofthe following circuits using the superposition theorem. Figure 2.13 ¢ IL 3,463 NEE 4 Lars, wy 250 a tee He ~ Sg 28 1425.4 Figure 2.14 ag ‘ ) sho on bob 159 8a ba 102 109 Figure 2.15 ( (184A) y J | 1 92) 92 92 500V 99 / A : pa, (29,11 A) Figure 2.16 iElectrotechnology 2 27 4) _ Ig 52 Susy S24Vv fu e] oat el OUg)COi&e 3Q Figure 2.17 = 0,415 A, Tu» = 0,678 A, I = 3,026 A, I = 4,731 A, 1, =8,85 A) 2.3. Thevenin’s theorem DEFINITION: An active network having two terminals, A and B, can be replaced by a constant voltage source having an e.m.f., Er, and an internal resistance, Ry The value of the e.m.f, Ex, is equal to the open-circuit voltage between A and B, while thet intemal resistance, Rr, is the resistance of the network between A and B with the load disconnected and the sources of e.m.f. replaced by their internal resistances. Active network Thevenin’s equivalent circuit Network x with voltage | Voc sourcesand |<“! 1S Re resistance Er B Figure 2.18 b Figure 2.18 a ‘The line current between A and B can then be found from: laa Rr tR as ‘The subscript “T” is for Thevenen, not total. Example 2.3 Find ;, for the circuit below by employing the Thevenin circuit theorem. 42. 30 25A 8 19.2. 92 Figure 2.19 atechnology 2 Solution Acco! Rr A yt Re B Figure 2.19 b = 13,5714 A Voo = 1p xRo = 13,5714x9 * 122,143.V To find Rr, using figure 2.19 d. , 9x26 T9426 = 6,6857192. Finally J, can be calculated, using figure 2.19 e. a = 122,14 6,68571 +15 = 5,632 a ding to Thevenin the above circuit must be replaced with a simple seri Figure 2.19 ¢ ~ 7° 72 92 192 1_1—y Figure 2.19 d (5,63. A)the resistance of the network between A and B, with Blectrotechnology 2 29 i Exercise 2.3 Find I, for the circuits below by employing the Thevenin circuit theorem. A Saw] 7 12V I iL 92 92 702) )RL 6Q Y (0,336 A) Figure 2.20 xX 2) 62 IL ¢ 48A 122 9Q 102] )R 6Q v (9,495 A) oe 210V 4Q 2292 72 Gay 2.4 Norton's theorem Norton’s theorem-is a restatement of ‘Thevenin’s theorem using a current source instead of a voltage source. Definition; | An active network, acting between two terminals, such as A and B, can be replaced by a current source, Jy, in parallel with its internal resistance, Ry! ‘The current, Ix, is the short-circuit current ‘between A and B while the internal resistance, Ry, is the load disconnected and the sources of env replaced by their respective internal resistances. ‘The subscript “N” refers to Norton, ‘Active network Norton’s equivalent circuit Network x x with voltage | _ sources and [RE ems Ww Ry Re resistance B B Figure 2.23 a Figure 2.23 b From the equivalent circuit, I, is then easily found from : _ WyxRy + Ry t Bp72 23Q X yh 110V 92 33.2 Y SA) Figure 2.24 a “ Solution ' According to Norton, the above circuit must be replaced with a simple equivalent circuit with a current source, as indicated below. The short circuit current between X and Y and the internal tesistance of this equivalent circuit must first be determined. 7 = a4) © y Ry R Y lofa ie Figure 2.24 b Find Iy (Isc ), using figure 2.24 e. ‘ 23x9 an be he= 8 B49 = 64687502 Rynis ces of Figure 2.24 ¢ 110%6,46878, 7 +6,46875, = 52,8306 V21h i Electrotechnology 2 | \ To find Ry, using figure 2.24 d.- 6x ih 1x9 3a ii Ry=23.4 a 5a By lil = 2693759 i = \ To find I, using figure 2.24 e. Figure 2.24 d i x i ilh Zh Rw Re if 2,297 x 26,94 @ 23a 2692 330 i 26,94+33 4 = 1,02 Y i S24 Figure 2.24e Exercise 2.4 _ AA) Use Norton's theorem to find the eurent inthe 8.0 resistor. 42 42 62 8Q (0,5 A) Figure 2.25 (A) Use Norton’s theorem to find the current between X and Y, {+14 x 102 SQ (ox) 29 5a 10a 52 y (08a) Figure 2.26 3) Use Norton’s theorem to find the current between X and Y. x 32 1 43a | {122 92 w2llR . ¥ (13,606 A) Figure 2.27 i Use Norton’s theorem to find the current between X and Y. ¥ ; X $a 6Q I "KS 65a | |360 42 72\|R * ™ L Y 11,699 A= Figure 2.28 , ‘ de