TEMA: Gobierno Constitucional

CONSTITUTION. Every government has an organizational structure that defines the

specific responsibilities of its public officials. Some officials make the laws, others
see to their enforcement. Taxes must be collected and revenues spent. There must
be provision for preserving the domestic peace and providing for national defense.
The fundamental written documents that state how governments shall operate and
define their limitations are their constitutions.

Today the operation of a government according to a constitution does not make that
government [a constitutional government] by [popular definition]. [A constitutional
government] suggests that the government is a republic or a democracy.
Constitutional government is, therefore, by the consent of the governed.

Nearly [every nation] in [the modern world] has a constitution. In most cases these
are [written documents] such as the United States Constitution of 1787 or France's
constitution of 1958. Great Britain has what is usually called [an unwritten
constitution.] There is no single document that is [Britain's fundamental law]. There
has been, rather, [a cumulative development] for centuries of [legislative
enactments], [judicial decisions], and statements of rights.

[Most 20th-century dictatorships] also have constitutions. But if [true

constitutionalism] implies democracy and freedom, it takes more than the possession
and publication of a constitution to have [a constitutional government.]

TRADUCCIÓN:

Todo gobierno tiene una estructura organizativa que define las responsabilidades
específicas de sus funcionarios públicos. Algunos funcionarios hacen leyes, otros se

encargan de hacerlas cumplir. Deben recaudarse impuestos e invertirse los ingresos. Debe
haber disposiciones para preservar la paz interna y proporcionar la defensa nacional. Los
documentos escritos fundamentales que establecen cómo deben operar los gobiernos y
definen sus limitaciones son sus constituciones.

Hoy en día, el funcionamiento de un gobierno según una constitución no convierte a ese

gobierno en un gobierno constitucional por definición popular. Un gobierno constitucional
sugiere que el gobierno es una república o una democracia. El gobierno constitucional
existe por el consentimiento de los gobernados.

Casi todas las naciones en el mundo moderno tienen una constitución. En la mayoría de los
casos se trata de documentos escritos como la Constitución de los Estados Unidos de 1787
o la constitución de Francia de 1958. Gran Bretaña tiene lo que usualmente se llama una
constitución no escrita. No existe un documento único que sea la ley fundamental de Gran
Bretaña. Ha habido, más bien, un desarrollo acumulativo durante siglos de promulgaciones
legislativas, decisiones judiciales y declaraciones de derechos.

La mayoría de las dictaduras del siglo XX también tienen constituciones. Pero si el

verdadero constitucionalismo implica democracia y libertad, se necesita más que la
posesión y publicación de una constitución para tener un gobierno constitucional.

La legislatura
Legislature, branch of (government) empowered to make, change, or repeal its laws
and to levy and regulate its taxes. Most modern legislatures are representative:
composed of many (members) who are chosen directly or indirectly by popular vote.
(Legislatures) that provide direct representation are usually considered more
democratic in practice because they are less susceptible to being dominated by a
single faction.

Nearly all modern governments have a (bicameral), or two-house, legislature. The

so-called lower house is generally elected on a basis of direct representation; and
the upper house commonly on a basis either of indirect representation or of direct
representation limited to certain occupational, territorial, or hereditary categories.
The traditional theoretical justification for an (upper house) is that it can exercise
moderation and delay on legislation by the lower house and thus restrain the effects
of impulsive or excessive fluctuations of public opinion. A few governments,
however, including that of the state of Nebraska, have (unicameral), or single-house,
legislatures.

The various legislatures throughout the world are known by different names, such as
(Congress, Parliament, Knesset, Diet, and Assembly.) Most are limited in their
powers by the Constitution or organic law of the government of which they are a part.
The enactments of the U.S. Congress, for example, can be vetoed by the president,
and the Congress must approve by a two-thirds majority any bill it wishes to pass
despite a presidential veto. The British Parliament, on the other hand, chooses it
own prime minister and cabinet, who are ultimately responsible to it for all their
administrative actions. Being legislative as well as executive or administrative
leaders, these officials have considerable power to initiate and influence legislation
desired by their administrative departments. The tendency in most modern
governments has been toward increasing assumption of legislative powers by
administrative officials, with a consequent weakening of the legislatures. Many
political scientists ascribe this to growing public impatience with the uncertainties of
party politics within legislatures. The trend is also attributed to the increasing
complexity of modern government, which requires the use of people with specialized
skills, often not found in publicly elected legislatures, for the drafting of laws.
“Legislature," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright (c) 1993 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright (c) 1993 Funk &

Wagnall's Corporation.
Legislature, branch of government empowered to make, change, or repeal its laws and to
levy and regulate its taxes. Most modern legislatures are representative: composed of many
members who are chosen directly or indirectly by popular vote. Legislatures that provide
direct representation are usually considered more democratic in practice because they are
less susceptible to being dominated by a single faction.
Nearly all modern governments have a bicameral, or two-house, legislature. The so-called
lower house is generally elected on a basis of direct representation; and the upper house
commonly on a basis either of indirect representation or of direct representation limited to
certain occupational, territorial, or hereditary categories. The traditional theoretical
justification for an upper house is that it can exercise moderation and delay on legislation by
the lower house and thus restrain the effects of impulsive or excessive fluctuations of public
opinion. A few governments, however, including that of the state of Nebraska, have
unicameral, or single-house, legislatures.
The various legislatures throughout the world are known by different names, such as
Congress, Parliament, Knesset, Diet, and Assembly. Most are limited in their powers by the
Constitution or organic law of the government of which they are a part. The enactments of
the U.S. Congress, for example, can be vetoed by the president, and the Congress must
approve by a two-thirds majority any bill it wishes to pass despite a presidential veto. The
British Parliament, on the other hand, chooses its own prime minister and cabinet, who are
ultimately responsible to it for all their administrative actions. Being legislative as well as
executive or administrative leaders, these officials have considerable power to initiate and
influence legislation desired by their administrative departments. The tendency in most
modern governments has been toward increasing assumption of legislative powers by
administrative officials, with a consequent weakening of the legislatures. Many political
scientists ascribe this to growing public impatience with the uncertainties of party politics
within legislatures. The trend is also attributed to the increasing complexity of modern
government, which requires the use of people with specialized skills, often not found in
publicly elected legislatures, for the drafting of laws.
"Legislature," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright (c) 1993 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright (c)
1993 Funk & Wagnall's Corporation.

The Bicameral System is the legislative system in which the power of making the law is
vested in two chambers, or houses, both of which must approve a bill before it becomes
law. In general the upper house is composed of members selected on a territorial basis,
representing states or other political subdivisions rather than the people directly, and usually
serving for longer terms than the members of the lower house. In principle the upper house
provides the legislative experience necessary to control unwise legislation. The lower
house is generally composed of members selected on the basis of population, each
member representing an equal number of citizens. Because of more frequent election and
closer identification with the districts they represent, members of the lower house reflect
more strongly the contemporary mind of the electorate. Typical of the bicameral system is
the U.S. Congress, which consists of a Senate, constituting an upper house, and a House of
Representatives, constituting a lower. The bicameral system is in force in all states except,
since 1937, Nebraska, which has a unicameral, or single-chamber, legislature. Throughout
the world national parliaments are about equally divided between bicameral and unicameral
systems.
"Bicameral System," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright (c) 1993 Microsoft Corporation.
Copyright (c) 1993 Funk & Wagnall's Corporation

TRADUCCIÓN: El Sistema Bicameral es el sistema legislativo en el que el poder de

hacer la ley se confiere a dos cámaras, o casas, las cuales deben aprobar un
proyecto de ley antes de que se convierta en ley. En general, la cámara alta está
compuesta por miembros seleccionados sobre una base territorial, que representan
a los estados u otras subdivisiones políticas en lugar de al pueblo directamente, y
generalmente sirven por períodos más largos que los miembros de la cámara baja.
En principio, la cámara alta proporciona la experiencia legislativa necesaria para
controlar la legislación imprudente. La cámara baja generalmente se compone de
miembros seleccionados sobre la base de la población, cada miembro representa
un número igual de ciudadanos. Debido a elecciones más frecuentes y una
identificación más cercana con los distritos que representan, los miembros de la
cámara baja reflejan con más fuerza la mente contemporánea del electorado. Típico
del sistema bicameral es el Congreso de los Estados Unidos, que consiste en un
Senado, que constituye una cámara alta, y una Cámara de Representantes, que
constituye una cámara baja. El sistema bicameral está en vigor en todos los estados
excepto, desde 1937, en Nebraska, que tiene una legislatura unicameral o
unicameral. En todo el mundo, los parlamentos nacionales están divididos
aproximadamente por igual entre sistemas bicamerales y unicamerales.

Careers in Law

Legal education varies from country to country. In England, law can be studied in college and a

bachelor's degree is awarded, usually after four years. But additional training is required to become
an experienced, practicing lawyer. The graduate is articled, or apprenticed, to one or more senior

lawyers for at least a year before being licensed to practice as a solicitor. Solicitors may not represent

clients in court; only barristers may do that. There are associations of barristers who control the

admission of candidates to argue cases in the courts. This situation of having the legal profession

divided into solicitors and barristers is called a split bar. Some other European countries also have a

split bar. In France, for example, only a special group of lawyers avocats, meaning "advocates" are

licensed to argue in court.

In the United States, lawyers are required to be college graduates and to attend a law school for three

years. Upon graduating from law school, the student receives the degree of Juris Doctor (doctor of

law). In addition, the law school graduate must pass an examination before being admitted to the bar.

(The legal profession is called the bar because, when the profession was developing in England many

centuries ago, there was a fence in courtrooms separating the judges' area from the rest of the room.

This fence was called the bar, and it became customary to say that a lawyer was called to the bar,

meaning he was called upon to practice his profession.)

Whereas in England, the practice of law is regulated by associations of barristers, in the United States

it is governed by the courts. Bar associations in the United States may discipline a lawyer or

recommend disbarment, but the courts have the final say in the disposition of the matter.

The field of law is so vast that lawyers, in addition to going into private practice or joining law firms,

find employment in other ways. Some work exclusively for corporations. Others work in all branches

at every level of government. Each government department usually has a full-time legal staff. A legal

education is also useful in other occupations. About 10 percent of the chief executive officers of large

corporations are lawyers. Most politicians and many bankers, stockbrokers, and businessmen have

had a legal education.

Thomas M. Stanton Excerpted from Compton’s Interactive Encyclopedia. Copyright © 1994, 1995

Compton’s NewMedia, Inc.

Civil law is a legal system originating in Continental Europe and adopted in much of the
world. The civil law system is intellectualized within the framework of Roman law, and with
core principles codified into a referable system, which serves as the primary source of law.
The civil law system is often contrasted with the common law system, which originated in
medieval England, whose intellectual framework historically came from uncodified judge-
made case law, and gives precedential authority to prior court decisions.
Historically, a civil law is the group of legal ideas and systems ultimately derived from the
Corpus Juris Civilis, but heavily overlaid by Napoleonic, Germanic, canonical, feudal, and
local practices, as well as doctrinal strains such as natural law, codification, and legal
positivism.
Conceptually, civil law proceeds from abstractions, formulates general principles, and
distinguishes substantive rules from procedural rules. It holds case law secondary and
subordinate to statutory law. Civil law is often paired with the inquisitorial system, but the
terms are not synonymous.
There are key differences between a statute and a code. The most pronounced features of
civil systems are their legal codes, with concise and broadly applicable texts that typically
avoid factually specific scenarios. The short articles in a civil law code deal in generalities
and stand in contrast with ordinary statutes, which are often very long and very detailed.
The family is the basic social unit. A nuclear family generally consists of a couple (a

man and a woman) and their children. The nuclear family exists whether they are

married or not. They usually share a common residence. A nuclear family is not

always complete. Sometimes it is incomplete in that one spouse is absent from home.

The abscence of one spouse may be the result of social convention or economic

necessity. In an incomplete family, the man is generally absent from the household.

In some families, there are more than two spouses. In polygynous societies, the

nuclear families include one husband and more than a wife. In the case of a

polyandrous society, the nuclear family includes one wife and more than one husband.

In both monogamous and polygamous societies, families may be extended by the

addition of consanguineal relatives, like brothers, sisters, fathers, grandfathers, and so

on. An affinal relative societies, the nuclear families include one husband and more

than a wife. In the case of a polyandrous society, the nuclear family includes one wife

and more than one husband.

In both monogamous and polygamous societies, families may be extended by the

addition of consanguineal relatives, like brothers, sisters, fathers, grandfathers, and so

on. An affinal relative like a brother-or-sister-in-law may also be a member of the

family
POLITICAL SCIENCE. One meaning of the Greek word politeia is "government."

The word was used in ancient Greece as a general term to describe the way city-

states were ruled, and it is derived from the word polis, which means "city-state."

Today the word politics refers to all aspects and types of government. Political

science is a more specific term. It means the systematic study of government by the

best scientific methods available. It is one of the social sciences, along with cultural

anthropology, economics, geography, and sociology. Political science is also related

to law because lawmaking is one of the chief functions of government.

Political science studies comparative types of governments; the structure, function,

and agencies of governments; the roles of citizens; decision-making processes;

special-interest groups and lobbying; the power of elites in society;

voting patterns; the operation and influence of political parties; the shaping of public

opinion and its impact on government; and the relations of media and other

institutions to government.

Plato's 'Republic' is an excellent example of political philosophy because in it he

describes the ideal state and its functions. Other political philosophers include the

Roman orator Cicero, author of another 'Republic'; St. Augustine of Hippo, author of

'The City of God'; Thomas Aquinas and Dante, both of whom wrote on kingship;

Niccolo Machiavelli, author of 'The Prince'; Thomas Hobbes, who summed up his

ideas of the state in 'Leviathan'; Montesquieu, author of 'The Spirit of Laws'; John

Locke, who wrote 'Two Treatises on Government'; and Edmund Burke, author of

'Reflections on the Revolution in France'.

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This multimedia platform combines a book and video series that will change the way
you study constitutional law. An Introduction to Constitutional Law teaches the
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students even those unfamiliar with American history will learn the essential
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PARTNER ABUSE, CONTROL AND VIOLENCE THROUGH INTERNET

AND SMARTPHONES: CHARACTERISTICS, EVALUATION AND
PREVENTION
Manuel Gámez-Guadix1 , Erika Borrajo2 y Esther Calvete2 1
Universidad Autónoma de Madrid. 2 Universidad de Deusto
Partner abuse is an important social problem due to its high prevalence
and the consequences it entails for the victims. In recent years,
information and communication technologies, such as the Internet and
Smartphones, have become frequent tools for exercising controlling
behavior and aggression in young couples. The purpose of this paper is
to conduct a review of the research on online abuse in young couples.
To this end, firstly, we analyze what this phenomenon consists of and
the main manifestations of online abuse in the couple through the
Internet and Smartphones. Then, a review is carried out of the
instruments developed for the assessment of online abuse and their
psychometric properties. Finally, several recommendations are outlined
for the development of prevention strategies derived from the available
empirical evidence. Key words: Online abuse, Partner violence, Dating
violence, Control, Cyberbullyin