36.14 pressures to be measured. Typically, these gages are used for low- range measurements of 100 kPa of less. Ia betst-quality insteu- ‘ments, accuracies can be 0.1% of reading of beter. Electromechanical Transducers Mechanical pressure gages are gencrally limited by inelastic ‘behavior of the sensing clement, friction in the readout mechanist, ‘ang limited resolution ofthe pointer and dial. These effects can be 40% Pesfomance depends heavy on quality and range of reid fing vations, ste. ofveading iferetal pressure tarsniter Vey susceptible to measire- sseraping dllereatial ‘nenlerrorseautedy ne cone pleemes ile obeructons, reer uring equi and empratre changes. Nonlinear out (guare-rot fae Ig maniolss ‘on. Mist be kept clean. Mast be eld-abrated to hand eld referee, Vortex shedding Teduct assemblies, ductedex——21080——-=2 Sto 10% Highest cot per sensing pois. Lasgest physial size. Low a inlet probet ofseading Seperate accurey queso, Must be se up ad Seld- calibrated Yo hand-held erence ‘Trermal (analog lee- reduc assemblies or ducted 0.251025 2210 40% Mathematical averaging errors may be eatsed by analog cee toon) weng terme prober Df resding oni cicuty when weraping nonlinear signal Sensing tore pointe may ot be independeat May notbeableta compensate {or teperatres beyond a arrow range Mist beset p and Fied-earated to nand-teld reference, Mat be realbalee regu to cousltae ait Taemmal dispersion Ducted orfaminlet prover, 0.11050 4210 10% Com inereaes with numer of tensor aremblie in array, Not Aticrocontvollr-based) Beed velocity sensors ofseading —avalable with fanged ame. Honeycomb air svaighteaeis ‘sing thermore to Aotrccommended 4) manufacturer Accuracy veiled oa 0 independenty deter 29°C Not stable Yor abrasive orhgh-temperatare environ sine temperatures and sents velocities Taenal (walogclee- Tneduct atsemblie or ducted 0.510.901 10.20% Requizs lng dutppe runs, Sesitive to placesetcondtons ‘Conl) using RTDs probes; ales steel and treading Materatieal averaging eos maybe cased by analog elec plana RID have inc tral envzonment epabi ‘onc cirity wes averaging nonknec signals, Must be reco ‘brated regulary to counteract dit aul) expense36.16 ‘nasal membranes) or by mixing potassium chlorate and powdered sugar (nontstating) and fring the mixtuze with a match. The latter process produces considerable heat and shold be confined toa pan faviay ftom flammable materials, Titanium tetrachloride smoke ‘works well for spot tests, particularly for leakage through casings and ducts, beeause it ean be handled easily in a small, pistol-like ejector Another alternative is theatrical smoke, which is nontoxic, ‘bat requires proper illumination ures of ammonia water and sulfirie acid, i allowed to mix, forma white precipitate. Two bottles, one containing ammonia water and the other containing aid, are connected toa common nozzle by rubber tubing. A syringe fores air aver the liquid surfaces in the bot ies; the two streams mix atthe nozzle and form a white cloud ‘A satisfactory text smoke also ean be made by bubbling an aise stream through ammonium hydroxide and then hydrochloric acid (Nottage ef al. 1952). Smoke tubes, smoke candles, and smoke ‘bombs are available for stagying airflow patterns. ANEMOMETERS Deflecting Vane Anemometers ‘The deflecting vane anemometer consists of a pivoted vane enclosed in a case, Air exerts pressure on the vane as it passes through th instrament from an upstream to a downstream opening ‘A hair spring and a damping magnet resist vane movement. The instrument gives instantaneous readings ofdxectional velocities on ‘an indicating scale. With Ductuating velocities, ndle swings must bbe visually averaged, This instrument is useful for studying air ‘motion in a room, locating objectionable drafts, measuring air ‘velocities at supply and stun diffusers and grills, and measiring laboratory hood face velocities. Propeller or Revolving (Rotating) Vane Anemometers ‘The propeller anemonieter consists of alight, revolving, wind- diven wheel connected through a gear train to est of recording dials tat read Linear mettes of air passing in a measured length of time. Itis made in various sizes, though 75, 100, and 150mm are the most common. Each instrument requires individual calibration. At lovr velocities, the mechanisms fiction drag i considerable, and is, usually compensated for by a gear train that overspeeds. Fer this reason, the correction is often additive atthe lower range and sub- tractive atthe upper range, withthe lest corecton inthe middle range. The best instruments have starting speeds of 0.25 mvs or higher; therefore, they cannot be used below thal air speed. Elee- tronie revolving vane anemometes, with optical or magnetic pick= ‘ups to sense the rotation ofthe vane, are available in vane zee at small a¢ 13 mm diame Cup Anemometers ‘The cup ancmometeris primarily used to measure outdoor, mete- ‘orologieal wind speeds. It consists of three ot four hemispherical ‘cups mounted radially from a vertical shaft. Wind from any diree- tion with a vector component inthe plane of cup rotation causes the ‘cups and shaft to rotate, Hecause i is primarily used to measure meteorological wind speeds, the instrament is usally constructed 40 that wind speeds ean be recorded of indicated electrically at & remote point Thermal Anemometers “The thermal (or hot-wire, or hot-ilm) anersometer consists of a Iheated RID, thetmocouple junction, or thermistor sensor con- stricted atthe ond ofa probe; itis designed to provide a direct, sim- ple method of determining air velocity ata point in the Low fla The probe is placed into an aisteam, and ais movement past the 025 neve. arNza.E Bso- tars) Fig. 9 Dimensions of ASME Long-Radius Flow Nozzles Tom ASME PTC oO : me [x Fig. 10. Sharp-Edge Orifice with Pressure Tap Locations rom ASME PTC 19.5. Reprised with prmition of ASME. included to account for thermal expansion of the primary element Because this amounts to less than 1% at 260°C, i¢ can usually be ‘omitted. Equation (6) then becomes o where Cis the fiction loes correction factor ‘The factor C isa fiction of geometry and Reynolds number. ‘Values of C are given in ASME Standard PTC 19,5. The el passing ‘through an orifice plate contaets toa minimum area atthe vena con tracta located a short distance downstream from the orifice plate. 'S. Reprised with person of ASME, “The contraction coefficient, fetion loss coficient C, and approach factor 1)" ean be combined nt a single constant K, which isa function of goometty and Reynolds number. The aifce flow rate equations then become [2i=P) = x4, [zed © where (2 discharge ow sate, mt Ay oxtce ae, m= ‘ps Pa~ prstere drop a obtained by pressure tps, Pa ‘Values of are shown in ASME Standard PTC 195. ves, bends, and fittings upstream from the flowmeter ean cause errors. Long, straight pipes should be installed upstream and downstream from flow devices to ensute fully developed flow for proper measwrement, ASHRAE Standard 41.8 specifies upstream and downstream pip: lengths for measuring flow of liquids with an orifice plate. ASME Standard PTC 19.5 gives piping requirements between vasious fitings and valves and the vents, nozzle, ané orifice. If these conditions cannot be met, low conuhitioners ot scaightening vanes can he used (ASME Standards PTC 19.5, MFC TOM; Mattingly 1984; Miler 1983), Compressibilty effects must be considered for gas flow if pres- suc drop across the measuring device is more than afew percest of the inital pressure ‘Nozzles ae sometimes arranged in parallel pipes from a com- ‘moa manifold: thus, the capacity of the testing equipmeat can be changed by shating off the flow through one or mare nozzles. ‘An apparatus designed for esting airflow and capacity of air- Conditioning equipment is deseribed by Wile (1947), who also presents pertinent information on nozzle discharge coefficient, Reynolds numbers, and resistance of perforated plates. Some lab oratories refer to this apparatus as 2 code tester. VARIABLE-AREA FLOWMETERS (ROTAMETERS) In permanent installations where hgh precision, ruggedness, and operational ease are important, the Variable-area flowmeter i¢Measurement and Instruments 36.21 Table § Volumetric or Mass Flow Rate Measurement ‘Meavuremeat Mea ‘Applicaton Range Preciion Limitations ‘Oiice and iteeatialprarare Flow tough pipes, docs, ad lets forall es Nh Tw ove Reynolds mabe of S000 iseharge cociiient and aeeuraoy influesced by instalation ‘onions Nozzle and dient pcttue Flow though pipes, docts, an Above Reytols number 0510 2.0% Discharge colicin and accuracy neeraent yea, plenum forall ae 5000 influenced by instalation conditions ‘eat ube and ciferentat Flow through pipes, dove, and Above Reyuoléenumber051020% Discharge coecient and aecerscy [eure measuenest yatern plete fora de 05000 Tafueased by instalation tendons. Timing given mass oe Liquid or guses;usedto calibrate Any 0.4t003% Systems bulky ad slow volute ew lber flowmeter Retaneters Liquid on guset any 05t05.0% Should be caliated for id being metered, Displacement meter Relatively small volumetric flow’ Ax high as 500 Li, 0.11020% | Mos ypes rege calibration wit ‘wth igh presuce ass eepending 03 pe depending uid being meteed. Gasorete or volume displacement Short-durtion tests; wiedto ‘Teal low imited by 0.510 1.0% = “Thomas meter tomperstre ie of Elaborate sep juriieg ay nee Any 1% Uniform velocity; ually eed with ‘ream eased by let for good aecracy ues eating) lement of resistance tow and Used for check where system bas Lower imi set by renable 110.5% Secondary reading depends on diferent pressure felfoted esstnce clement peice dep necuacy of elation Tachi lowmetee Liquid or gusee Any 025:02.0% User electonie readout Single-o multipoint istumest Primarily eritwaledaivhandling Lowe linitsetby accuracy 2 10% Accuracy depends on uniformity of ormearuring velocity tapecific rte vith 0 special provi ofveloity mearutene flow and compleenes of averse point How Sten for flow measuemeat Instrumentation May bealfeted by distubances Heat put and temperature (Check valu in heater or cooler Any rea = ‘changes with seam and waler tet coil [Lamiae flow clement and (Messrs liquid orga wumetic 50 mam/sto Lie 1% Fhid mast be fie of ain ol, and sbiterestal pressure ‘or ae, nety neat ber impurities chat coud plug tewserenet ste, relationship with prema drop inetr or fleet its aration tiple and ent ouae [Magnetonydrodynamie lowmcter Messier elecsclly conductive 0006 0800 1% —_Atpresent state of the at (Glecvomagsete) ‘bids, sues; meter does nat conduct of fluid mst be shes fo! ne meng part {eater tan § pnboter Swe flowmeter and vortex Measre liquid gus flow in pipe; Above Reyoolds number 1% = shedding meter he moving pat ori! satisfactory. Iti Frequently wed to menture liquids oF gases in Vly we small-diameter pipes. For ducts or pipes over 150 mm in diameter, a ° the expense ofthis meter may not be warranted In Larger systems however, the meter can be placed in a bypass line and used with an orifice, The variable-area meter (Figure !1) commonly consis of @ float that is free to move vertically ina transparent tapered tube «0 The fluid tobe metered enters at the narrow bottom end of the tube and moves upsvatd, passing at some point throug the annulus formed between the float and the inside wall of the tube. At any [particular flow rate, the float assumes a definite position in the tube; a calibrated gealeon the tube shows the floats location and the faid flow rate ‘The floats positon is established by a balance between the fluid pressure forces across the annulus and gravity on the float. The buoyant force ¥;(p, ~ p)g supporting the float is balanced by the pressure differedce acting on the cross-sectional area of the float Ay Ap, where 0,4, nd V are, respectively, the float density, float ‘foet-tectional area, and ‘loal volume. The pressure difference cross the annul Flow for any fuid is nearly proportional tothe area, so that calibra- tion ofthe tbe is convenient. Tose the meter for different Maids the ‘low coefficient variation for any float must be known. Float design can reduce variation of the flow cocMicient with Reynolds number; float materials can reduce the dependence of mass flow calibration on fluid density POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT METERS ‘Many positive-displacement meters are available for measuring total liquid or gas volumezie low rates, The measured fluid Hows ‘progressively into compartments of definite size. As the compart- ‘ments fill, they rotate eo that th fluid discharges from: the meter.36.22 Fig. 11 Varisble-Area Flowmeter The flow rate through the meter equals the product of the compart- ‘ment volume, number of compariments, and rolation rate of the rotor Mos ofthese meters have a mechanieal repister calibrated t0 =hov total flow. ‘TURBINE FLOWMETERS ‘Turbine flowmeters are volumetric flow-rate-sensing mstere with a magnetic stainless ste! turbine rotor suspended in the flow ‘ream of anontagnetie meter body. The fluid stream exerts aZoree ‘athe blades ofthe turbie rotor, seting iin motion and converting the fhud’s Linear velocity to an angular velocity. Design motivation for turbine meters isto have the rotational speed of the turbine ‘proportional tothe average fuig velocity and thus tothe volume rate ‘of fluid flow DeCarlo 1984; Mattingly 1992; Miller 1983). ‘The roler’s rotational speed is monitored by an externally mounted piekoff assembly. Tae magnetic pickoff contains a perma- nent magnet and coil. As the turbine rota Blades pats through the field produced by the permanent magne, shunting action induces se voltage in the winding of the coil wrapped around the magnet. A sine wave witha frequency proportional to the flow rate develops. With the radio frequency pickoff, an oscillator applies a high frequency carrier sigual toa col in the pickofl assembly. The rotor Dlades pase through the felé generated by the coil and modulate the ‘carer signal by shunting action onthe field shape, The carter sig- nal is modulated a a rate coztesponsing othe rotor speed, which is proportional tothe flow rate. With both pickofls, pulse frequency is ‘measure of flow rate, and the total numberof ptes measites total volume (Mattingly 1992; Shafer 1961; Woodring 1969). Fecauze output frequency of the turbine flowmeter is propor: tional to flow rate, every pulse from the turbine meter is equivaleat toa known volume of fiuid that has passed through the meter; the sum of thee pulses yields ‘otal volume flow Surnmation is done by electronic counters designed for use with turbine flowmcters: they combine a mechanical or electronic repster withthe basic elec ‘Turbine flowmeters shouldbe installed with straight lengths of pipe upstream and downstream from the meter, The length of the 2009 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals (S1) inlet and outlet pipes should be according to manufacturers" recom mendations or pertinent standards, Where recommendations of standards canno! be accoramodated, the moter installation should be calibrated. Some turbine lowmeters can be used in bidzectional flow applications. A fluid strainer, used with liquide of poor or mar- Tubriity, minimizes bearing wear. “The lubricity ofthe process fluid and the type and quality of rotor bearings determine whether the meter is satisfactory for the patic- ‘lar application. When choosing tutbine flowmeters for ue with, ‘Duorocarbon refrigerants, attention must be paid te the typeof bear ings used im the meter and tothe ei conten ofthe refrigerant For these applications sleeve-type rater than standard bal bearings ae recommended, The amount of oil in the sefrigerant can severely allet calibration and bearing lie. Tu metering liguid uoroeachon refigerants, the liguid must not fash to a vapor (cavitate), which tremendously increases flow vo!- ‘ume, Flashing reslls in erroneous measurements and rotor speeds that ean damage bearings or cause a failure. Flashing can be avoided bby maintaining adequate hack pressure on the downstream side of the meter (Lipa 1972). AIR INFILTRATION, AIRTIGHTNESS, AND OUTDOOR AIR VENTILATION RATE MEASUREMENT Ai infiltration isthe flow of outdoor air nto a building through ‘unatentional openings. Airtightness refers to the building eave- lope’s ability to withstand flow when subjected to a pressure dif- ferential. The outdoor air ventilation rate is the rate of outdoor aisflow intentionally introduced to the building for dilution of oce- pent. and building-generated contaminants. Measurement ap proaches to determine these factors aze described briefly here, and in greter detail in Chapter 16 ‘Air inltration depends on the building envelopes artightness andthe pressute differentials across the envelope. These differen tials are induced by wind, sack effet, and operation of building ‘mechanical equipment, For meaningful results, the air infiltration rate should be measured under typical condition, ‘Atightness of a residential buikdng's envelope can be measured relatively quickly using building pressurization tet. In thie tech nique, a large fan or blower mounted ina door a: window induces & large and roughly uniform pressure difference across the building shel. The airdlow requted to maintain this pressure diference is then measured. The more leakage in the building, the more airflow is required to induce a specific indoor/outdoor pressure difference. Building airtightnes i characterized by the altflow rte ata refer~ cence pressure, normalized by the building volume or surface area, Under proper tes conditions, zerlts of a pressurization test are independent of weather conditions. Instrumentation requirements for pressurization eating elude a-moving equipment, adevieeto ieasuresirflow, and a differential pressure gage. Commercial building envelope leakage can also be measured using building pressurization ters. Bahinfleth etal. (1999) describe 4 protocol for testing envelope leakage of tall buildings using the ‘buiding’s archandling equipraent, ‘Outdoor airlow can be measured directly using the flow rate mea- surement techniques described in tis chapter Take care in selecting the instrument most suitable forthe operaling conditions, range of air- flows, and temperatures expected. The outdons aiflow rate is nor- ‘mally measured during testing and balancing, during commissioning, ‘or for continuous ventilation flow rate control using permanently ‘mounted flow senzors. ‘An additional factor that may be of interest iste building's ir ex- ‘change rate, which compat airflow ino the building wth the build- ings volume. Typically, this includes both mechanical ventilation and inflation. Building ar exchange rate canbe measured by injecting a tracer gas (ideally a chemically stable, nontoxic gas not normallyMeasurement and Instruments present in buildings) nt a building and monitoring and analyzing the teaver gus concentation sesponse. Equipment required for wacer ing includes (1)a means of injecting the tracer gas and (2) tracer gas, ‘monitor. Various tracer gas techniques ae used, distinguished by their injection strategy and analysis approach, These techniques inclode constant concentration (equilibrium tracer), deeay or growth (ASTM ‘Standard 741), and constant injection, Decay isthe simples of there techniques, bat the ober metiods may be sliafactory if eres taken, ‘A -cominian problem in tracer gas esting is poor mixing of the tracer 38 with the arsreams being measured Carbon Dioxide ‘Cathon dioxide is offen used at a tracer gas because CO; gat monitors are relatively inexpensive and eas) to ute, and occupant {generated CO, can be used for most tracer gas techniques. Rotled CO, or CO, fire extinguishers ae also readily available for tract {gar njetion, Carbon dioxide may be used asa tracer gas to measure Ventilation rates under the conditions and methods described in ASTM Standard D5245-98, for diagnostic purposes and point-in- time snapshots ofthe system's ventilation capabilities. CO, sensors ae alto used in building controls strategies to optimize ventilation by approximating the level of occupancy in a space: thie is one ‘method of demane-controlled ventilation, The concentration output ‘may be used in a mathematical formula that allows the system to ‘modulate ventilation rates when spaces with high density have highly variable or intermittent aceupancy (eg, churches, theaters, gymnasiums). Tais method of control is les effective in lower. flensity occupancies and spaces with more sable populations (@ersly and Emmerich 2002), Carbon dioxide may also be used together with outdoor air intake rate data to estimate the eutrent population of 2 space ‘Because the steady-state concentration balance formula in Ap- pendix C of ANSUASHRAE Standard 62.1-2007 depends tally ‘onthe validity of the assumed variables in the formula, CO, sensing for direct ventilation control should be used with caution, and por sibly supplemented with other control measurements to establish ‘the base and maxinvam design ventilation boundaries not to be ex- ceeded, Also, ensure that intake air rates never fall below those Fequired for building pressutization, which could affect energy we, comfort, heals, and indoor air quality ‘CO; input for ventilation contre does not address contaminants sgeneraied by the building itself, and therefore cannot be used with- ‘out providing a base level of ventilation for non-oceupant-gencrated conlaminants that have been shown to total signiieant [ration if not a majority of those found inthe space, CARBON DIOXIDE MEASUREMENT ‘Carbon dioxide has become an important measurement parame- ter for HVACR engineers, paticulatly in indoor ar quality AQ) applications. Although CO; is generally not of concer asa specific toxin in indoor aig, te ured ae a surrogate indicator of odor related to hursan oecupaney. ANSVASHRAE Standard 62.1 recommends specific minimum oxtdoor air ventilation rates to ensure adequate indoor ar quality NONDISPERSIVE INFRARED CO, DETECTORS ‘The most widespread technology for IAQ applications is the nondispersive infrared (DIR) seasor (Figure 12). This device makes use of the sirong absorption band that CO, produces at 424mm shen, exeited by an inirared light source, TAQ-specific [DIR instruments, calibrated between 0 and 5000 ppm, ae typi- cally accurate within 150 ppm but the accuracy of tote snare can be improved to within 50 ppm if the instrument is calibrated fora narrower range. Portable NDIR meters ate available with dizeet- ‘reading digital displays; aowever, response time vanes significantly 36.23 , (eracencre SAU CAREER) Fig. 12. Nondispersive Infrared Carbon Dioxide Sensor among diferea instruments, Most NDIR cell designs facilitate very rapié CO; sample diffusion, although tome instruments now i ‘widespread ure respond more lowly, resulting in stabilization times greater than $ min (up to 15 min), whieh may complicate walk- ‘through inspections Calibration In a clean, stable environment, NDIR sensors ean hold calibra- tion for mons, but condensation, dvs, dirt, and mechanical shock may offset ealbration. As with al ther CO, sensor technologies, DIR sensor readings are proportional to pressure, because the den- sity of gas molecules changes when the sample pressure changes. This leads to errs in CO; readings when the barometnc pressure changes ftom the calibration pressure, Weather-indiced errors Will be small, bt all CO; instrament should be recalibrated if used at aa, aluiude that is significantly different from ihe calibration altitude Some NDIR sensors are sensitive to cooling effects when placed in, an airstream. Tais is an important consideration when locating a fixed sensor of when using a portable system to evaluate alt handling system performance, because airflow in supply and return ducts may significantly shift readings. Applications Nondispersve infared sensors are well suited for equlibziun \eacer and tracer decay ventilation studies, andfaser-response models axe ideal for a yuick, basic evaluation of human-generated polltion, and ventilation adequacy. When properly located, these sensors are also appropriate for continvous monitoring and for contol strategies ‘sing equim tracer and air fraction tracer calculations AMPEROMETRIC ELECTROCHEMICAL CO, DETECTORS Amperomettic electrochemical CO, sensors (Figute 13) use ‘measured current driven between two electrodes by the educion of CO, that diffuses across a porous membrane. Unlike NDIR sensor, ‘which normally last the lifetime of the instrument, electrochemical CO, sensors may change in electrolyte chemistry overtime cally 12 to 18 monthe) and should be ceplaced periodically. sensors typically hold thir calibration for several weeks, but they ray drift more if exposed to low humidity; thi drift makes them Jess suitable for continous monitoring applications. AtJow humid ity (below 30%e Th), the sensors mst be Kept moist to maintain spec ified accuracy ‘Amperomeitic electrochemical sensors require less power than INDIR sensors, usually operating continuously for weeks waere NDI instruments typically operate for 6b (older models) to 150 (newer rode). The longer battery life can be advantageous for spot checks and walk-through, and for measuring CO; disteibution throughout 8 building and within a zone. Unlike most NDIR sensors, ampero- metric electrochemical sensors aze not affected by high humidity,36.24 ‘ATMOSPHERE “ROL we = Fig. 18 Amperometrie Carbon Dioxide Sensor RE ERNCE Fig. 14 Open-Cell Photoacoustic Carbon Dioxide Sensor 12 allowed tf although readings may be affected ifeonden fon the sensor. PHOTOACOUSTIC CO, DETECTORS Open-Cell Sensors ‘Open-eell photoacoustic CO; sensors Figute 14) operate as aix diffuses through a permeable membrane into a chamber that is pulsed with filtered light at the characteristic CO, absorption fie- ‘quency of 42 jm. The light energy absorbed by the CO, heats the sample chamber, causing a pressure pulse, which is sensed by 2 piezoresistor, Open-cell photoacoustic CO, sensors are presently ‘unavailable in portable instruments, in part beeanse any vibration during transportation would affect calibration and might affect the signal obtained fora given concentration of CO;, Ambient acousti- ‘al noise may also influence readings, For continuous monitoring, vibration i¢ a concer, as aze temperature and airflow cooling effects, Towever,ifa sensors located properly and the optical filter is kept relatively clean, photoacoustic CO; sensors may be very st ble. Commercially available open-cell photoacoustic transmitters do not allow recalibration to adjust for pressure differences, s0 an ‘offset should be incorporated in any control system using these en sors at an altitude or duct pressure other than calibration conditions. Closed-Cell Sensors (Closed-cell photoacoustic sensors (Pigure 15) operate under the same principle as tie open-cell version, except thal stmples ‘pumped into a sample chamber that is sealed and environmentally Stabilized. Two acoustic sensors are cometimee used a the charaber to minimize vibration effects, Closed-cel nit, available a porta- ble of fixed monitors, come with particle fiers that ate easily replaced (typically at 3 to G-month intervals) if distor dust aceu- lates on them, Closed-cell photoacoustic monitors allow real bration to corect for drift, pressure effects, or other environmental factors that might influence accuracy 2009 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals (S1) soar —! Fa csomenen Fig. 15 Closed-Cell Photoacoustic Carbon Dioxide Sensor POTEN NTIOMETRIC ELECTROCHEMICAL ‘CO, DETECTORS Poteatiometric electrochemical CO, sensors ute a porous foro- carbon membrane that is permeable t0 CO, which diffuses into a Carbonic acid electrolyte, changing the slectolyie's pli. This change is monitored by a pH electrode inside the cell. The pl ‘rode isepoteatial rift prohibits long-term monitoring to the acct sey an resolution required for continuous measurement or control (oF for detailed TAQ evaluations, although accuracy within 100 ppm, Achiovable short-term over the 2000 ppm range, may be adequate for basic ventilation and odor evaluations. In addition, tis type of sensor has a slow response, which increases the operator time necessary for field applications or for performing a walk-through of a building. COLORIMETRIC DETECTOR TUBES. Colorimetric detector tubes contain a chemical compound that discolor inthe presence of CO, gas, with the amount of discolor ation related to the CO, concentration. These detector tubes are ‘often used to spot-check CO, levels; when used properly, they are accurate to within 25%. If numerous samples are taken (le. six oF more), uncertainty may be reduced. However. CO; detector tubes are generally not appropriate for specifi ventilation assessment because of their inaccuracy and inability to record concentration changes over time LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS Laboratory techniques for measuring CO, concentation include ‘mate spectroscopy, thermal conductivity, infared spectroscopy, and ‘25 chromatography. These techniques typically requize taking on Fite grab samples for laboratory analysis. Capital costs for each pices of equipment are high, an signieaat training is required, A ‘considerable drawback to grab sampling i that CO, levele change significantly durin the day and over the course ofa week, making it sensible to place sensors on site with an instrument capable of recording or data logging measurements contimueusly over the ‘course of a workweek. An automated grab sampling systema captut~ ing many samples of dala would be quite cumbersome and expensive if designed to provide CO, trend information over time, However, a2 advantage to laboratory techniques is that they ean be highly acct rate. A mass spectrometer, for example, can measure CO; con- ‘centration to within 5 ppm frem 0 to 2000 ppm. All laboratory ‘measurement techniques are subject to errors resulting from interfer- ing agents. A gas chromatograph is typically used in conjunction ‘wilh the mass spectrometer to climinate interference from nitrous ‘ide (NO), which has an equivalent mass, if samples are collected Jn a hospital or in another location where NO might be presen.‘Measurement and Instruments 36.25 me Hi oo ne TH A A fer Cea ‘Wanna Xoo ae one TH Ht ve , AX A 1g. 26 votre in Sgro whatnot Cheah — —aou = Ste = Hf A A ES 4 eer + rt Hee Fig. 22 Wattmeter with Current and Potential Transformer FR Fig.23__ Polyphase Wattmeter in Two- Phase, Three-Wire Circuit with Balanced ‘or Unbalanced Voltage or Lond. Fig. 25 Single-Phase Power-Factor ‘Meter Fig. 24. Polyphase Wattmeter in ‘Three-Phase, Three-Wire Cireuit FR Fig. 26 Three-Wire, Three-Phase ower-Factor Meter,36.26 ELECTRIC MEASUREMENT Ammeters "Ammeters are low-resistance instruments for measuring eurent They should be connected in series with the eireuit being measured GFigute 16). Ideally, they have the appearance of a shot eieuit, hut, in practice, all ammeters have anonzero input impedance that ind ‘ences the measurement to some extent Ammeters often have several ranges, anditis good practice when ‘measuring unknown currents to start with the highest range and then reduce the rangeto the appropriate valu to obain the most sensitive reading, Ammters with range switches maintain circuit contin during switching. On some older instruments, itmay be necessary io short-circuit the ammeter terminals when changing the range. (Current tansfoimers aie often used to increase the operating range of ammeters, They may also provide isolation/protection fom « high-voltage line. Current transformers have at least to separate windings on magnetic core (Figure 17). The primary ‘winding is connected in series withthe eireut in which the current is measure. Ina clamp-on probe, the transformer core is actually ‘opened and then connected around a single condi ‘current fo be measured, That conductor serves a the ing. The secondary winding ea ‘current, which ie connected to an ammeter. Depending on type, the ammeter reading may need tobe multiplied by 30 of the transformer ‘When using an auxiliary current transformer, the secondary circuit must not be open when curest is flowing in the primary ‘winding; dangerously high voltage may exist scross the secondary terminals. A shor-circuiting blade between the secondary terminals, should be closed before the secondary circuits opened a any point ‘Transformet accuracy ean be impaired by residual magnetism in ‘the core when the primary circuit is opened at an instant when flux is large. The transformer core may be left magnetized, resulting in ratio and phase angle errors. The primary and secondary windings should be short-sieuited hefore making changes Voltmeters \Volimlers are high-tesstance instruments that should be con nected across the loa (in parallel), as shown in Figure 18. Kall, they have the appearance of an open circuit, but in practice, all volt ‘meters have some finite impedance that influences measurement to some extent ‘Voltage transformers ate often used to increase the operating range of a voltmetes(Figuie 19). They also provide isolation from high voltages and prevent operator injury. Like eurent transform= ers, voltage transformers consist of two of more windings on amag- hetie core, The primary winding is generally connected across the high vollage to be measured, and the secondary winding ie con nceted tothe voltmeter Its important not to short-izeult the see- ‘ondary winding of «voltage transformer. ‘Wattmeters ‘Wettmeters measure the active power of an ae ereuit, which ‘equals the voltage multiplied by that par ofthe eazrentin phase with the voltage, There aze geveraly two sets of terminals one to con rect he load voltage and the other to connect in series withthe load ‘eurent, Curent and voltage transformers can be used to extend the range of a wattmeter orto isolate i Som high vollage, Figures 20, ‘and 21 show coanections for single-phase wattmeters. and Figuse 22 shows use of current and voltage trnsformers with a single phage wattmeter, ‘Wettmeters with multiple current and velage elements ae avail- ale to measure polyphase power Polyphase wattneter connections ae shown in Figures 23 and 24 2009 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals (S1) Power-Factor Meters Power-factor meters measure the ratio of active to apparent power (product of voltage and current). Connections for power- factor meters aad wattmetere az similar, and current and voltage transformers can be used to extend their range, Connections for single-phase and polyphase power-factr meters are showin ia Fig- ‘wes 25 and 26, respectively ROTATIVE SPEED MEASUREMENT ‘Tachometers Tachometers, or diret-measuring rpm counters, vary from hand- held mechanical or cleceic meters 10 shafl-riven and clectonic Pulse counters. They are used in general laboratory and shop work to check rtative speeds of motors, engines, and tubines, Stroboscopes Optical rpm counters produce a contolled high-speed electronic ashing light, which the operator directs on 2 rotating member, inereasing the rat of lashes until eaching synchronism (the eptical cffet that rotation has stopped). At this point, the pm measured is ‘equal othe lashes per minute emitted bythe strobe unit Care rast bo taken to start atthe bottom of the instrament scale and werk up ‘because multiples of the rpm produce almost the same optical effect astrue synchronism, Multiples ean be indicated by positioning st- ble marks oa the shat, such a a bar on one side and cigele om the ‘opposite side. I, for example, the two are seen superimposed, then the strobe light is Dashing at an even multiple ofthe ue rpm AC Tad ometer-Generators ‘A tachometer-genetator consists of rotor anda stator. The rotor is a permanent magnet driven by the equipment. The stator i¢ a winding witha hole through the center for the rotor, Conceattieity, is not eitical; bearings are not required between rotor and stator ‘The output can be a single-cycle-per-revoltion signal whose vell- age is linear fanction of rotor speed. The polypole configuration that generates 10 cycles per revolution allows measurement of speeds ag low as 20 rpm without causing the indicating needle to flutter The output of the ac achometer-generator it rectified and ‘connected toa de volimete, SOUND AND VIBRATION MEASUREMENT Measurement systems for determining sound pressure level, intensity Ieve, and mechanial vibration generally ste transducers to.onvert mechanical signals ino clectical signals, which ace then processed clectonicaly or digitally to characterize the measured Ineehanical sighals. These measurement systems contain one of ‘more ofthe following elements, which may or may not be contained ina single instrument + A transducer, or an assembly of transducers, to convert sound pressure or mechanical vibration (ime-varying strain, displace :ment, velocity, acceleration, or force) inte an electrical signal that is quantitatively related to the mechanieal quantity being mea- sured Amplifiers and networks to provide functions uch as electrical impedance matching, signal conditioning, integration, diferenti- ation, fiequency weighting, and gain Signal-processing equipment to quantify those aspects of the signal that are being measured (peak value, ms value, tne- Weighted average level, power spectral density, or magnitude or phase ofa complex linear spectrum or transfer function)Measurement and Instruments + A device such as a meter, oscilloscope, digital display, or level recorder to display the signal or the aspects of it tat ze being sqaniled + An aterface that allows cable, witeless, of memory eatd output “The relevant range of sound and vibration signals ean vary over sore than 12 orders of magnitude in amplitude and more than & orders of magnitude in frequency. depending on the spplication, References on instrumentation, measurement procedures, and sig nal analysis ate given inthe Bibliography, Produet and application notes, technical reviews, and books published by instrumentation -manufactusezs ates excellent source of additional zeference a Fial. See Chapter 47 ofthe 2007 ASHRAE Handbook HVAC Appl cations and Chapter 8 of thi volume for futher information on sound and vibeation SOUND MEASUREMENT ‘Microphones ‘Amicrophone is a transducer that transforms an acoustical signal into an electrical signal The two predominant transduction prin ples used in sound measurement (as opposed to broadcasting oF ‘svording) are th electrostatic and the piczoclectic. Electrostatic (Capacitor) microphones are available either as clectret micro- phones, which do not regure an external polarizing voltage, of 38 condenser microphones, which do require an extemal polarizing voltage, typically in the range of 28 to 200 V (de). Piezoelectric nes may be manufactured using either natural piezoelec tric crystals or poled ferroelectric erytals. The types of response characteristics of measuring microphones ate prestut, fee fel and random incidence (diffuse fel) ‘The sensitivity and the frequency range over which the micro- phone has uniform senstivty (flat frequency response) vary with, Sensing element diameter (surface area) and microphone type Other critical factors that may affect microphone’preamplifier per- formance or response are atmospheric pressure, temperature, rela- tive humidity external magnetic and electrostatic fields, mechanical vibration, and radiation, Microphone eelection is based and short-term stability: the match between performance charac teristics (eg. sensitivity fequency response, amplitude linearity, selfnoise) and the expected amplitude of sound pressure, fke= ‘quency, range of analysis, and expected environmental conditions ‘of measurement; and any other pertinent considerations, such as size and diectional characteristics Sound Measurement Systems ‘Microphone preamplifiers, amplifiers, weighting networks, tere, analyzers, and displays are available either separately ot inte grated info a measuring instrument such as a sound level mete, personal noise exposure metes, measuring amplifier, of real-time fractional octave or Fourier (c.g, fast Fourier transform (FFT)] signal analyzer. Instruments included in a sound meatusement tystem depend on the purpose of the measurement and the fr ‘queney range and resolution of signal analysis. For community, and industrial noise measurements for regulatory purposes, the instrument, signal processing, and quantity to be measured as ‘usually dictated by the pertinent regulation. The optimal instr ment set generally varies for measurement of diferent character- istics such as sound power in HVAC ducts, sound power emitted by machinery, noise criteria (NC) aumbers, sound absorption coefficients, sound transmission loss of building partitions, and reverberation times (Ty). Frequency Analysis ‘Measurement erteria often dictate using filters to analyze the signal, to indicate the spectrum of the sound being measured. Filters, ff different bandwidths for different purposes include fractional octave band (one, one-third, one-Welfh ee), constantpercentage 36.27 bandwidth, and constant (typically narrow) bandwidth. The filters zmay be analog ot digital ang, if digital, may ot may not be capable of real-time data acquisition during mcasurement, depending onthe Dbanewidth of frequency analysis. FFT signal analyzers are genet- ally used sn sitealione that require very narrow-reeolstion signal analysis when the amplitude ofthe souné spect vay significantly ‘wath respec o frequency. This may occur in regions of resonance or when iti necessary to identify narrow-band or diserete sinewave "sgnal components ofa spectrum in the presence of other such com= [ponents or of broadband noise. However, when the frequency varies (eg, because of nonconstant pm of amotor), result from FFT ana- Iyzes can be difficult to interpret because the change in rpm. pro- ‘ides what looks lke ¢hroadhasd signal Sound Chambers ‘Special rome and procedures are roquited to characterize and calibrate sound sources and receivers, The rooms ate generally cla Sified inte the types: anechoic, hemianechoic, ané reverberant The ideal anechoie room bas all boundary surfaces that completely absorb sound energy at all frequencies. The ideal hemianechoic room would be identical tothe ideal anechoie room, except that one surface woud totaly reflec: ound energy at all frequencies. The ideal reverberant room would have boundary surfaces that totally reflect sound energy tall frequencies, Anechoie chambers ate used to perform measurements under conditions approximating those ofa free sound field. They can be ‘used in calibrating and. characterizing individual microphones, ‘microphone arrays, acoustic intensity probes, reference sound power sourees, loudspeakers, sirens, and other individual or eom- plex sources of sound, ‘Hemianechoie chambers have a hard reflecting flor to accom ‘modate heavy machinery orto simulate lage factory floar or out- door conditions. They ean be used in calibrating and characterizing reference sound power sources, oblaining sound power levels of hoise sources, and characterizing sound output of emergency Vehi- cle sirens when mounted on an entergency motor vehicle. ‘Reverberation chambers are used to perform mearurements ‘under conditions approximating those ofa difuse sound field. They can be used in calibrating and characterizing random-incidence microphones and reference sound power sources, obtaining sound power ratings of equipment end sound power levels of noise Sources, measuring sound absorption coeflicients of building mate~ rials and panels, and measuring ensmission lors through building paritions and components such as doors and windows. ‘he choice of which room type to use often depends on the test method requited for the subject units, testing costs, ot room avall- ability. Calibration A measurement system should be calibrated as a system from ‘microphone or probe to indicating device before itis used to per~ form absolute measurements of sound. Acoustic calibrators and Pistonphones of fixed or variable frequency and amplitude are avail= able for this purpose. These calibraters should be used at a fre ‘quency low enough that the pressure, freefield, and random- incidence response characteristics ofthe measuring microphone(®) axe, for practical purposes, equivalent, of at least elated ina known, ‘Qualitative manner for that specific measurement system. In gen= tral, the sound pressure produced by these ealbraiors may vay, depending on microphone type, whether the microphone has a pro- tective gri,atmosphesi pressure, temperature, and relative Bumid- ity Correction factors and coeficients are required wen conditions of use differ from those existing during the calibration of the acous- tic calibrate or pistonphone. Fo: demanding applications, precision sound sources and measuring microphones should periodically be tent tothe manufacturer, a private teting laboratory, ora national standards laboratory for ealbration,36.28 VIBRATION MEASUREMENT Except for seismic instruments that record or indicate vibration rectly with a mechanical or optomechanical device connected to the tet surface, vibration measurements use an eleetromechanical or interferomlcic vibration transducer, Here, the erm vibration transducer refers to a generic clectromechanical vibration trans ducer. Electromechanical and interferomeltic vibration transducers Delong to a large and varied group of transducers that detect ‘mechanical motion and furnish an electrical signal that ie quanita- tively related to a particular physical characteristic of the motion, Depending on design, the electrical signal may be related to mechanical strain, displacemest, velocity, acceleration, or foree The operating principle of vibration transducers may involve opti- «al interference; elecrodynamie coupling; piezoelectric (including poled ferroelectric) of piezoresistive crystals, or variable eapaci= lance, inductance, reluctance, or resistance. A considerable variety ‘of vibration transducers wth a wide range of sensitivities and band ‘widths is commercially available. Vibration transducers may be ‘contacting (eg, seismic tanstucers) or noncontacting (e.g, iter- ferometric, optical, or capacitive). Transducers Selsmae transducers use a spring-mas resonator within the tras- ducer. At frequencies much greater than the fundamental natural fiequeney of the mechanical resonator, the relative dsplheement ‘between the base and the seismic mass of the transducer is nearly proportional tothe displacement ofthe transducer base. At frequer ‘ies much lower than the fundamental resonant frequency, the rele live displacement between the base and the seismic mass of the transducer is neasly proportional to the acesleration ofthe trans= ducer base. Therefore, seismic displacement ransducers and seismic clectrodynamie velocity ansducers tend to ave a relatively com pliant suspension with a low resonant ffecuency; piezoelectric Acceleromters and force transducers have a relatively sf suspen- sion with a high resonant frequency ‘Strain transducers include the metallic resistance gage and pic- zoresstve stain gage. For dynamic strain. measurements, thes ‘unually bonded ditectly tothe test surface. The accuracy with which ‘bonded strain gage replicate strain occuring in the tes ste is largely a function of how wel the stain gage was oriented and bonded tothe tet surface. Displacement transducers include the capacitance gage, Iringe- ‘counting interferometer, seismic displacement transducer, optical approaches and the linear variable differential transformer (LVD1), ‘Velocity transducers include the reluctance (magnetic) gage, laser Doppler interferometer, and seismic electrodynamic velocity tans ducer. Accelerometers and force transducers include the piezoelec- Iti, pezoresistve, and foree-balance serve. Vibration Measurement Systems Sensitivity, fequeney limitations, bandwidth, and amplitude line ‘eanty of vibration tranaducecs vaty greatly with the transduction ‘mechanism and the manner in whieh the tanadvcer i applied in & ‘given measurement apparatus. Contacting transducer’ performance ‘an be significantly affected by the mechanical mounting methods and poins of ataclment ofthe wansduees and connecting cable and by the mechanical impedance of the tiricture loading the trans ddocer. Amplitude linesity vatiessignficasly over the operating range of the transducer, with some transducer types or configura- tions being inherently more liner than others. Other factors that may critically affect performance or response are temperature; relative ‘humidity; external acoustic, magnetic, and electostatic elds rans- verse vibation; base stain; chemicals; and radiation. A vibration ‘wansducer shouldbe selected based on its long~ and short-term sta- Dilys the match between ts performance characteristics (-. seBsi- tity, frequency response, amplitude linearity, self-noise) and the 2009 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals (S1) expected amplitude of vibration, fequency range of analysis, and ‘expected environmental conditions of measurement, and any other pertinent considerations (eg..sze, mass, and resonant frequency). Vibration exciters, or shakers, are used in structural analysis, vibration analysis of machinery, fatigue testing, mechanical raped ance measurements, and vibration calibration systems. Vibration ‘excitershavea table or moving element with a drive mechani that may be mechanical, electwodynamic, piezoelectric, or hydraulic. They range from relatively small, low-power unit for ealbrating transducers (e-, accelerometers) to relatively lage, high-power mits for several and fatigue testing, Conditioning ampliters, power supplies, preamplifiers, charge amplifiers, voltage amplifiers, power amplifiers, filters, control- lers, and displays aze avilable either separately or integrated into 4 measuring instrument or system, such ae a structural analysis system, vibration analyzer, vibration monitoring system, vibration Imefet, measuring amplifier, mufichannel data-acquisition and ‘modal analysis eystem, or real-time fractional-actave or FFT signal analyzes, The eboice of instruments to include ina vibration mea- surement system depends on the mechanical quanity to be deter- ‘mined, purpose of the measurement, and frequeney range and resolution of signal analysis. For vibration measurements, the sig- nal analysis is relatively narzow in bandwidth and may be relatively low in frequeney, to accurately characterize structural resonances, ‘Accelerometers with internal integrated circuitry are availabe to provide impedance matching or serve contol for measuring very low-frequency acceleration (esrvo accelerometere), Analog inte {gration and differentiation of vibration sighals i available through integrating and differentiating networks aad amplifier, and digital is available through FFT analyz, Vibration measurements made for different purposes (e.g, machinery diagnostice and health mon- itoring, balancing rotating machinery, analysis of torsional vibra- tion, analysis of machine-oo! vibration, modal analysis, analysis of vibration isolation, sizess monitring, industrial concol) gener- ally have different mechanical measurement requirements and a different optimal set of instrumentation, Calibra Because oftheir inherent long- and short-term stability, ampli- tude linearity, wide bandwidth, wide dynamic range, low noise. and ‘wide range of sensitivities, seismic accelerometers have tradition ally been used as reference standard for dynamic mechanical mea- futements A measurement system sliould be calibrated as a system fom transducer to indicating device before itis used to perform absolute dynamic measurements of mechanical quantities. Cali- ‘rated ference vibration excites, standard reference accelerome- texs, precision conditioning amplifiers, and precision calibration excites are available for this purpose. These exciters and standard reference accelerometers can be used to transfer a calibration to another transducer. For demanding applications, calibrated exciter or standard reference accelerometer with connecting cable and co ditioning amplifier should periodically be sent o the manufacturer, ‘a private losing laboratory, or a national standards laboratory for calibration, LIGHTING MEASUREMENT Ligh evel, or illuminance, is usually measured with a photocell made from a semiconductor suchas silicon or selenium, Photocelle produce an output curent proportional to incident lusinouws flux ‘when linked with a mictoammeter, color and casine-corected Slters, and multirange switehes; they are used in inexpensive hand Iheld light meters and more precise insruments, Different cell heads allow mulizange use in provision meters ‘Cadmium sulfide photocells in which resistance vaies with illu- ‘mination, are algo used i ight meters. Roth gas-filled and vacuum, photoelectric cells ae in useMeasurement and Instruments Small survey-type meters are not as accurate as laboratory -metets; thie readings should be consideted approximate, although consistent, fora given condition. Their range is sually from 50 to 50 000 lux. Precision low-level meters have cel heads with ranges down to 0 to 20 lux. ‘A photometer installed in a revolving head it called a gonio- photometer and is used to measure the distabution of light Sources ot luminaires, To measure total iminous flux, the lime nage is placed in the center ofa sphere painted inside with ahigh- reflectance white with a near-perfect diffusing matte surface, Total, Tight output is measured through a small baffled window in the sphere wal. ‘To measure irradiation from germicidal lamps, a filler of fused ‘quartz with fluorescent phosphor is placed over the light meter cell If meters areused to measure the number of himens per unit area diuscly leaving a surface, uminance (ed’m) instead of lumina- tion (ux) itead, Light meters can be used to measure fuminance, electronic lux meters containing a phototube, an amplifier, and a -mieroammeter can read luminance directly. ‘Chapter 2 of the IESNA (2000) Lighting Handbook gives de- tailed information on measizement of light THERMAL COMFORT MEASUREMENT ‘Thermal comfort depends onthe combined influence of eloting, activity air eroperare air velocity, mean radiant temperature, and airhumidity: Thermal comfor is influenced by heating of cooling of particular body part through radiant temperature asymmetry (plane ‘radiant termperatue), va air temperaute air velocty. turbulence), vertical ar temperature differences, and floor temperature (surface temperature) ‘A general description of thermal comfor is given in Chapter 9 sand guidelines for an acceptable thermal environment are given in ASHRAE Standard 55 and ISO Standard 7730, ASHRAE Stan- dard 55 also includes required measuring accuracy. In addition to specified acewracy, ISO Standard 7726 includes recommended measuring locations and a detailed description of instruments and methods Clothing and Activity Level ‘These values are estimated from tables (Chapter 9; ISO Stan- dards 8996, 9920), Theamal insulation ofelothing (in?-K)W] can bbe measured on a thermal mannequin (MeCullough et al. 1985; Olesen 1985). Activity (Win?) ean be estimated from measuring (CO, and O, in a person's expited ai. Air Temperature ‘Various types of thermometers may be used to measure ar tem- perature, Placed in a room, the sensor registers a temperature between ar temperature and mean radiant temperature. One way of reducing the radiant erzor isto make the sensor as smal as pos rible, because the coovective hedt transfer coefficient inereases a8 tize decreases, whereas the radiant beat transfer coelficient is con stant, A smaller sensor also provides a favorably low time con- slant, Radiant error can also be reduced by using a shield (an open polished aluminum eylindet) around the sensor. using 2 sens ‘witha low-emittance surface, or aificially increasing ai velocity around the sensor (aspirating air through a tube in which the sen~ rors placed) Air Velocity In occupied zones, ai velocities are usvally small (010 0.5 mi), bout do affect thermal sensation, Because velocity Diutuates, the mean value should be meatured over a suitable period, typically, 3 min, Velocity Muctuations with frequencies up to | Hz signifi cantly inerease human diseonitort caused by drat, which i a func tion of air temperature, mean air Velocity, and turbulence (sce 36.29 Chapter 9). Piuctuations can be given asthe standard deviation of air velocity over the measuring period (3 min) or as the turbulence intensity (tandard deviation divided by mean ar velocity) Velocity disection may change and is difficult to identify at ow ai Velocities ‘An omnidivectional tensor with a short response time should be ‘used, A thermal anemomicter is suitable, Ira hot-wire auernometer is used, the direction of measured flow must be perpendicular tothe hot wire, Smoke pufis can be used to identify the direction, Plane Radiant Temperature ‘This refers tothe uniform temperature ofan enclosure in which the sadiant flux on one sie of a stall plane element isthe same as inthe acial nonuniform environment. Te deserves the radiation i one direction. Plane radiant temperature can be calculate from sur- face temperatutes ofthe envionment (balf-room) ané angle factors between the surfaces anda plane clement (ASHRAK Standard 55). may also be measured by a nel-adiometer ora radiometer with a sensor consisting of a reflective disk (polished) and an absorbent disk (painted black) (Olesen et al. 1989), ‘Mean Radiant Temperature “This ie the unifou temperature ofan imaginary black enclosure in which an occupant would exchange the same amount of radian heat as in the actual nontaiform enclosure, Mean radiant tempers= ture can be calevlated from measuzed surface temperatures and the corresponding angle factors hetween the person aud surfaces Ttean also be determined fromthe plane radian rmperatue in six oppo- site directions. weighted according to the projected area factors for ‘person, For more information, see Caper 9. ecatee of ie simplicity, the instrument most commonly used 19 determine the mean radiant temperature is black globe thermom- ster (Bedford and Warmer 1935; Vernon 1932) This thermometer consists ofa bollow sphere usually 150 mim in diameter, coated in fat back paint witha thermocouple or thermometer bulb at its cen= ler. The temperature assumed by the globe at equilibrium results fiom a balance between heat gained and lost by radiation and con= ‘Mean radiant temperatures are calculated from ctuoxiotyt 4 ea ow 3) = ay where 4, = mean adn tempertne, °C 4 = eabe tempersire, °C ¥, = Sivetociy, lt 1 dirtempertue, °C B~ globe daetet, {¢~ emissivity (095 for back globe) According to Equation (11), ai temperature and velocity around the globe must also be determined. The globe thermometer is spher- ieal, but mean radiant temperature is defined in telation to the ‘human body: For sedentary people, the globe represents « good approximation, For people who ate standing, the globe, in a radiant ‘nonuniform environment, overestimates the radiation from floor o ceiling; an ellipsoidal sensor gives a closer approximation. A lack, lobe alzo overestimates the influence of shor-wave radiation (eg, Sushine). A flat gray colo beter represents the radiant character. istic of normal clothing (Olesen etal. 1989), The hollow sphere is usually made of copper. which results in an undesirably hight constant. This can be overcome by using lighter materials (¢., thin plastic bubble). Air Humidity “The water vapor preseure (absolute humidity) is usually uniform inthe occupied zone of a space; therefore, its sufficient to measize36.30 9? T SE SS Fig. 27 Madsen’s Comfort Meter (tadsen 1978) absolute humidity at one location. Many of the instruments listed in Table 3 are applicable, At ambient temperatzes that provide com- fortor sight discomfort, the thermal effect of humidity i ony mod ‘erate, and highly accurate bumicity meseurements are unnecessary CALCULATING THERMAL COMFORT ‘When the thermal parameters have been measured, their com- bined effec: ean be calculated by the thermal indies in Chapter 9 the effective temperature (Gagge etal. 1971) can be determined ftom air temperature and humidity, Based on the four ‘environmental parameters and an estimation of clothing and activ- ity, the predicted mean vote (PMV) can be determined with the aid of tables (Chapter 0; Fanger 1982; ISO Standard 7730). The PMV is an index predicting the average thermal sensation that a group of ‘sceupante may experience ina given space, For certain types of normal activity and clothing, measured envi- ronmental parameters ca be compared directly with those in ASHRAE Standard $5 or ISO Standard 1730. INTEGRATING INSTRUMENTS Several instruments have heen developed to evaluate the com- bined effet of two or more thermal parameters on human comfort Madsen (1976) developed an instrument thet gives information of the occupants’ expected thermal sensation by ditectly measuring the PMV value, The comfort meter has a heated elliptical sensor that simulates the body (Figute 27), The estimated clothing (msulation value), activity inthe actual space, and humidity are set on the instru meat, Tae sensor then integrates the thermal effect of ait tempera ture, mean radiant temperature, and ac velocity in approximately the same way the body does, The eleetronie instrument gives the mea- sured operative and equivalent temperature, caleulaled PMV, and predicted percentage of dissatistieé (PPD), MOISTURE CONTENT AND TRANSFER MEASUREMENT Life off-the-shelf instrumentation exists to measure the mois- ture content of porous materials or moisture transfer through those materials. However, many measurements can be set up with a small investment of tine and money. Three moisture properties ae most, ‘commonly sought: (1) the sorption isotherm, the amount of water vapor hygroscopic material adsorbs from humid air; 2) vapor per- rmeabiity, the rate at which water vapor passes through a given rmuteria; and (3) liguid difsivity, the rate at which liquid water passes through a porous material, Sorption Isotherm ‘A sexption isotherm relates the equilibrium moisture content EMC) of a hygroscopic material to the ambient relative humidity 2009 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals (S1) ‘under constant temperature. Moisture conteat isthe ratio of a sam- ples total mass of water to dry mast. Determining a sorption iso- therm involves exposing a sample of matcral to a known relative Jhuridity ata knowa temperature and then measuring the sample's moisture content aflersuicient tite has elapsed forthe sample to cach equilbyium with ts surroundings. Hysteresis in the sorption Ibehavior of moet ygrascopic materials requires that measurements ‘he made for both ineressing (adsorption isotherm) and decreasing relative humidity (desorption isotherm). Ambient relative Bumidity canbe controlled sing saturated salt solutions or mechanical refigeration equipment (Carotenut eta 1901; Coningham and Sprott 1984; Tveit 1966), Precise meaeure- iments of the relative humidity produced by various salt solutions ‘ware reported by Greenspan (1977). ASTM Standard E104 de- feribes the use of saturated salt solutions. A sample's EMEC is us ally determined gravimetrically using a precision balance. The sample's dry mass, necessary to ealeulate moisture content, can be found by oven drying or desiccant drying. Oven dry mss may 9e lover than desiceant dry mass because ofthe loss of volatiles other than water in the aven Richards ot al. 1992), ‘A major cifiulty in measuring sorption isotherms of engineer- ing materials is the longtime requited for many materials to zeach ‘equilbrium (often as long as weeks or months) The rate-limiting iechanism for these meastzensents is usally the slow process of ‘vapor diffusion int the pores ofthe material. Using smaller samples ‘ean reduce diffusion time. Note tha, although EMC isotherms aze traditionally platted as 2 function of relative humility, the actual iransport to of from material i determined by vapor pressured ferences. Thus, signifieant moisture content changes can oceut Ihecause of changes in either the material vapor pressure or rounding at long before equilibrium is reached. ‘Vapor Permeability Diffusive transfer of water vapor through porous materiale is often described by a modified form of Fick law we = a aa where nC mass oF vapor desing through unit area per nite, gem) pds ~ vapor pects gradient, Palm = vapor permeability. ng(6- 0) In engineering practice, permeance may be used instead of per- _meability. Permeance is simply permeability divided by the mate- ral thickness inthe direction of vapor flow; thus, permeability is a ‘material property, whereas pemieanee depends on ticknes, Permeability is measured with wet-cup, dy-cup, or modified cup tests. Specific tet methods for measuring water Vapor permeability are given in ASTM Standard 296, For many engineering materials, vapor permeability is a strong fanetion of mean relative humidity. Wet and dry cups cannot ade~ (quately characterize this dependence on relative humidity. Instead, ‘I modified cup method can be used, im which pare water o desie= ‘ant in a cup i replaced witha saturated salt solution (Burch etal, 1992; MeLean eta 1990). A second saturated sa: solution is used tocondition the environment outside the cup. Relative humidities on both sides of the sanyple material ea be varied from 0 Yo 100%, Sev- ral cups with a range of mean relative humidities are used to map fut the dependence of vapor permeability on relative bumidity. In measuring materials of high permeability, the Gniterate of vapor ifusion through air isthe eup may become a factor. Air-flm resis- tance could then be a significant fraction ofthe sample's resistance to ‘vapor flow. Accurate measurement of high-permeability material may reqhite an accounting of diffusive rates arots al air gape (Fa ney stal. 1991)Measurement and Instruments Liquid Diffusivity ‘Transfer of liquid water through porous materials may be char- scterizad as a diffusion-like process " 4 wf = po ay where we = mass of guid wansfered though uit wea per unit me, ketem) = igi deity, pin? By lid liv, le 16-, or 32-bit words. An 8-3it word is a byle: many communica tions methods aze rated according to their bytes per second trans- fer rate, Digital data are transferred in either serial or parallel rode, Serial transmission means that the daa are sent as 4 series ‘of pulses, one bitat atime. Although slower than paalle! systems, feria interfaces require only two wires, which lowers thei cabling cost. The speed of serial transmissions is rated according to the symbols per second rate, or baud rte. In parallel transmission, the entire data word is transmitted at one time. To do this, eac bit of data Word has fo have its own transmission line; other linet areMeasurement and Instruments needed for clocking and control. Parallel mode is used for short, distances or when high data transmission rate axe required, Serial, ‘mode mist be used for long-distance communications where wir- ing costs are prohibitive ‘The two most popular interface us standards curetly used for data transmission are te IEEE 488, or general-purpose interface bus (GPIB), and the R8232 serial interface. The TEBE. 488 bus system feeds data down eight parallel wire, one cata byte at atime. This ‘parallel operation allows i to wansfer data rapidly at yp to | million Characters per second. However, the IEEE 488 bu i limited to a cable length of 20 m and requires an interface connection on every _meter for propet termination, The RS232 system feeds data serially down two wires, one bit ata time. An RS232 line may be over 300m, Jong. For longer distances, it may feed a modem to send data over standard telephone lines. Newer digital bus protocols are now avail able to digitally tanstait data using proprietary of standardized methods and TCP/IP o¢ USB. connections between the data acquisi= tion unit and a personal computer, These newer buses ean provide faster throughput than the older TEE 488 and RS232 methods, have ro length constraints, and may also be available with wireless con- nections. A local are network (LAN) may be available in a fciity for transmitting information. With appropriate interfacing, trans. ducer data are available to any computer connectes to the network ‘Bus measurements can greatly simplify thee basic applications daa gaherng. stone int eng, and enter cntoled processes, Data gathering collects readings over tim ‘common applications include aging ters im quality conto, temper- tre test in quality assurance, and testing for interitent in sor. vice. A conttoller can moniter any output indefinitely and then display the data directly on screen or recon it on magnetic tape or Ais for farure use. sulommated limit testing, the comptter compazes each mea- surement with programmed limite. The contcller converts readings to a goodhad readout, Automatic limit testing is highly cost- effective when working with large number of paremeters ofa par. ticular unit under tot In computer-controlled processes, the IEEE 488 bus system becomes a permanent pat ofa larger, completely automated sys tem. For example, a large industrial process may require many elec ‘wical sensors that feed a central computer controling many part of the manufacturing process. An IEEE 488 bus controller collects readings from several sensors and saves the data unl asked to damp an enire batch of readings toa larger central computer atone time ‘Used in this manner, the IEEE 488 bus contoller serves a8 a slave ofthe central comptter Dynamic range and accuracy must be considered in a digits recording system. Dynamic range refers tothe ratio of the maxi- fax inptit signal for which te system ie useful to the note floor of the system. The accuracy figure fora system is affected by the sig nal noise level, nonlineaity, temperature, time, crosstalk, and #0 forth. In selecting an 8-, 12-, or 16-bit analog-io-digital converter, the designer cannot assume that sysiem accuracy is necessarily determined by the resolution of the encoders (i.e, 0.4%, 0.025%, and 0.0016%, respectively), Irthe sensor preceding the converter is limited to 19 full-scale accuracy, fr example, no significant benc- Sts are gained by using a 12-bit system over an $-bil system and suppressing the least significant bit, However, a grester numberof bits may be required to cover a larger dynamic range. Data-Logging Devices Data loggers digitally store electial signals (analog or digital) to an inemal memory storage component. The signal srom con- nected sensors is typically stored to memory at timed intervals ang ing from MPz to hourly sampling. Some data loggers sore dats based on an event (eg, button push, contact closure). Many data Joggers ean perform linearization, sealing, or other signal eonltion- ing and allow logged seadings tobe either instantaneous or averaged 36.33 values. Most data loggers have built-in clocks that record the time and éaie together with tansducer signal information, Data loggers range from single-channel input to 256 or more channels. Some are general-purpose devices that accept a multitude of analog and/or digtal impute, whereas others are more specialized to a epecific measurement (¢., 2 portable anemometer with bui-in data. logging capability) or application (e., a temperature, relative humidity, CO, and CO monitor with data logging for TAQ applica tions). Stored data are genctally downloaded using a serial interface with a temporary direct conection toa personal computer. Remote data loggets may also download by modem through land-based or wireless telephone lines. Some data loggers are designed fo allow downloading divecty toa printer, orto an external hard drive oF tape drive that can later be connected to a PC With the reduction in size of personal computers (laptops, not=- books, hane-held PCs, and palmtops), the computer itself is now being used asthe data logger. These mobile computers may be lel, inthe fel storing measurements from sensors dtectly interfaced into the compster. Depending on the particular application and numberof sensors to be read, a computer card mounted dreetly into the PC may eliminate the external data acquisition device com- pletely. STANDARDS ASA, 2008, Reference qualities foracoutcl levels ANSI Standard SS 1989 (R2000). Acoustical Society of America, New Yok ASA. 2005. Measurement of soune pressure levels air ANS Standard ‘1.132005. Acoustical Society of America, New York ASA. 2006, Speciation for acoustical eallorsoes ANSI Standard Si. 40- 2006, Acoaical Society of America, New York ASA. 2004: Teebnigues of machinery vibration measurement. ANSI Stan ‘dard S2 17-1980 (2008). Acourcal Sosty of Amerie, New York. ASA, 2005. Guide o the mechasical outing of aceleomstert. ANSI ‘Slandard'S281-1989 (R2008). Acoustical Soiey of Arseriea, New ASA, 2006, Sania methods for determining and verifying sated noise ‘ission valet of machinery and equipment. ANSI Standard S125 1985 (R2006) Acoustical Soret of America, New York ASA.2008. Method for detersining the ise os of outdoor nose ba ses. ANSI Standard 3128-1998 (R208) Acoustea! Society of Amer fea, New York [ASA 2006, Method forthe designation of sound poweremited by machi ery and equipment ANSI Standard S12 24-1949 (R20Q6). Acoustica] Society of Azzaiea, New York |ASHRAE, 2006, Stadacd method for temperature measurement. ANSU 'ASHRAE standand 411-1086 (RA 2000) ASHIRAE. 1992. Standard methods for laboratory ai low measurement, "ANSUASHRAE Stardard 412-1987 (RA 1992), ASHIRAE. 1989, Standard melaed for pretnre mearirement. ANSI 'ASHRAE Standard 81-1989, ASHRAE, 2006, Standid method for measurement of proportion of he Sricant in guid ettigeant ANS ASHIRAE Sandan 414-1996 (RA, 2006) SHIRA. 2006, Standard metho for measurement of mote ait propestics 'ANSUASHRAE Strand 416-1994 (RA 2008), ASHRAE. 2006. Method of test for measurement of low of gas. ANS! ASHRAE Standard 7-108 (RA 2006). ASHRAE, 1910, Stundard methods of measurement of flow of liquids in Piper using orice Dowmeters ANSUASHRAE Standard 418-1988, ASHIRAE, 2006 Calorimeter test methods formats flow measurements of woaile refrigerant, ANSU ASHRAF Standard 19-2000 (RA 2006) ASHRAE. 2007 Laborstory methods of eting fan fr aerodynamic pe Torrance rating. ANSUASTIRAE Standard $1-07, abo ANSUAMCA Standard 210-07, ASTIRAE, 2006. Thermal environmental conditions for human occupancy. 'ANSUASIIRAL Standard 55.200, ASHRAE, 2007. Vetlstion for acceptable indoor air quality, ANSU ASIIRAK Standard 62.1-2007 ASHRAE, 1997, Laboratory method of esting to determine the sound power ina duct’ ANSUASHIRAE Standand 64-1997, also ANSUAM ‘Standard 330-97,