In Which Key Did the Angels Sing?

Author(s): John F. Bowers

Source: The Mathematical Gazette, Vol. 78, No. 482 (Jul., 1994), pp. 119-126
Published by: The Mathematical Association
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3618567
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IN WHICH KEY DID THE ANGELS SING? 119

In Which Key did the Angels Sing?

JOHN F. BOWERS

Among the very few reported observations of singing angels, the

account given by the shepherds of the angelic choir on Christmas night
records some of the words but gives no account of the music, even
though shepherds are much celebrated as pipe players and so form an
unusually musical profession. But in which key did the angels sing? This
question could only have been answered for us by a shepherd with
perfect pitch, that is, an unusually good ear for pitch (how high or low
the music is). However, the question also contains the hidden assumption
that the angels based their music on the key system, which was not
known on earth until the sixteenth century AD, so the question should be
changed to "Which musical system did the angels use?". Clearly, as
angels are perfect, the system must be the best available, so we may be
able to answer the question theoretically.
To start our search for the best musical system, let us look at four
scales played on a keyboard. First we identify a note called C as a note
sounded by a white key which is the left hand key of the block of three
white keys enclosing two black keys. Now play the eight consecutive
white keys starting from C and ending with the next C further to the
right. This sequence of notes is a scale of the key of C major. Let us
compare this with the scale produced by playing the eight consecutive
white notes starting with E, the note at the right hand end of the block of
three, two keys higher than C. The resulting scale not only sounds higher
but also makes a different kind of melody. This sequence of notes is a
scale of the Phrygian mode based on E. To obtain a scale that sounds like
C major but starts on E we can play E, then the black keys to the right of
the next two, F and G, then play the white keys for A and B, then the
black keys above C and D, to end with the white key for E. The note
sounded by playing the black key to the right of F is called F sharp and
playing the black key to the left of G is called G flat, though these two
names refer to the same key on the keyboard. The second scale starting
with E is a scale of E major, and it sounds exactly like the scale of C
major, except that it is higher. These two scales differ in pitch, whereas
the two scales starting with E have the same pitch but differ in mode. The
word "mode" also has some specialized meanings, which we shall
indicate by adjectives, and appears in some names, which we shall
indicate by capital letters.
But why should angelic singing relate to the keyboard or even
resemble human music at all? As angels have no lungs nor, when they
are at home, any fluid to vibrate, they must sing there by a method

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120 THE MATHEMATICAL GAZEI'E

unknown to us, but when they wish to be heard and appreciated by

shepherds, they must vibrate the air and use a recognizable musical
system. Now, all earthly music is founded on the laws of Physics (just
think of the songs of birds) and these must be a reflection of the heavenly
perfection on which the angels' ethereal music is based, so we should
examine musical sounds.
The first connection between Music and Physics was discovered by
Pythagoras, who was living in 550 BC. He discovered that the pitch of
the note emitted by a vibrating section of a string was related to the ratio
of the length of the section to the length of the whole string, and that
harmonious chords or intervals in the music are formed from pairs of
notes for which the ratios have simple numerical relationships.
However, it is easier to make Pythagoras' results more precise in a
more modem form, with the pitch of a note being directly proportional to
the number of vibrations causing it.
Let us suppose that the note called C is caused by 512 vibrations per
second (the scientific, not musical, standard). If the number of vibrations
is doubled to 1024 (which corresponds to halving the string), the
resulting note is so similar that it is also called C, and we shall denote it
by C* and call it the octave note. As any harmonious note above C*
corresponds to a note an octave below and therefore with vibrations
between 512 and 1024 per second, there is no need to explore numbers of
vibrations outside this range.
The note called G with 512x3/2 = 768 vibrations per second gives a
chord when played with C which is heard so precisely that it is used for
tuning instruments, and G is called the fifth note of the octave, just as it
is the fifth note of the scale for the key of C major. But the interval from
G to C* and the chord obtained by playing them together sound pleasant
and the note C* has vibrations per second which are four thirds of those
for G. In order to create this harmonious interval with C as the lower
note, the note F is introduced with vibrations which are four thirds those
for C, that is, 512x4/3 = 682.6 recurring vibrations per second, and this is
called the fourth note of the octave as it is the fourth note of the scale of
C major. Because the interval from F to C* is that of a fifth, the only
interval that has not been investigated is that from F to G, and this ratio
between the vibrations of G and F is 9/8. This ratio represents the interval
of a tone, which Pythagoras used as his smallest harmonious interval so
he added further notes to his system, one tone apart above C giving D
with 512x9/8 = 576 and E with 512x81/64 = 648 vibrations per second.
The ratio 81/64 suggests that the interval from C to E and the chord
consisting of C and E should be unpleasant, but they both sound very
pleasant. This is because the ear cannot easily distinguish this note from
one with 640 = 512x5/4 = 512x80/64 vibrations per second, and the

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IN WHICH KEY DID THE ANGELS SING? 121

simple ratio 5/4 explains the harmonious sounds.

The interval from C to E is called a major third because it is the
third note of the scale of C major, whereas a different note occurs in the
scale of C minor. Pythagoras then added the note A one tone above G
with 768x9/8 = 864 vibrations per second, which is inaudibly different
(except to an acutely trained ear) from 853.3 recurring, that is, 512x5/3
vibrations per second, and the note B two tones above G with
approximately 768x5/4 = 512x15/8 = 960 vibrations per second. In this
way, Pythagoras constructed a scale of C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C* in which
each interval between successive notes has been constructed as one tone,
except for the two intervals E to F and B to C* which were not
constructed deliberately but merely as the remaining intervals in the
octave between the constructed notes. If we divide the vibrations for the
upper note in each pair by those for the lower, we obtain the ratio 16/15
in both cases, so Pythagoras recognized this as an important smaller
interval. Because two of these smaller intervals give a ratio of vibrations
of 256/225, which is approximately 252/224 = 9/8, this interval is called
a semitone. Pythagoras therefore left us an analysis of the octave in terms
of semitones, and the empirical fact that the simpler the ratio between the
vibrations, the more harmonious the interval or chord. We now know that
this is because the simpler the ratio of the number of vibrations, the less
the interference between the vibrations for the two notes.
The next step in the evolution of music came in about 300 BC when
Ctesibius the Egyptian invented the organ, very much in the form of a
modem pipe organ except that to play a note one pulled out a wooden
slide. Between 1200 and 1400 the organ operations were transferred to a
keyboard with just the white notes of the modem keyboard. The use of
the organ and the lyre, of which the principal note is D, led to the music
of the Roman Empire being based on the Dorian Mode. The scale of the
Dorian Mode can be played entirely on the white notes of the keyboard
starting with D, but it can also be played on the keyboard by playing the
white notes from C to C* except that E is replaced by E flat and B by B
flat.
The difficulty of using just the Dorian Mode comes when a man who
cannot reach low D wants to sing. If the organist plays one note higher,
he plays in the Phrygian Mode, and if he plays an octave higher, a
woman is needed as the singer. This problem was solved by St. Ambrose,
who was Bishop of Milan up to 397 AD. In order that a variety of voices
could sing one part, he distinguished four authentic modes with a range
of an octave on the keyboard: the Dorian Mode from D to D, the
Phrygian Mode from E to E, the Lydian Mode from F to F and the
Mixolydian Mode from G to G. The papal school of St. Gregory (who
died in 604 AD) added four plagal modes, but these only differ from the

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122 THE MATHEMATICAL GAZTE'IE

authentic modes by the pitches of the notes that are sung.. Three more
traditional modes which can be played entirely with the white keys of the
keyboard were named by Henricus Glareanus in his book
Dodecachordon (1547): the Aeolian Mode with range from A to A, the
Locrian Mode with range from B to B and the Ionian Mode with range
from C to C.
Further harmonic possibilities had been introduced by this time by
developments in the keyboard between 1400 and 1450. The starting point
was a difficulty that singers had when singing in the Lydian Mode. The
singers found that it was very difficult to pass from the principal note F
to B and stay in tune, and equally difficult to go from B to F*. Further, if
the notes were played together on the organ the resulting sound was
horrible, as the ratio 45/32 between the vibrations for F and B would
predict. To avoid this, a note a semitone lower was sung, B flat, with the
pleasant ratio 5/4. This called for a black key on the organ keyboard, just
to the left of B. Similar difficulties with other modes led to the successive
addition of further black keys to play F sharp, E flat, C sharp and G
sharp. This produces the layout of the modem keyboard with all the
semitone intervals of the octave. Composers of keyboard music like
William Byrd (died 1623) experimented with various modes in their
music and finally settled on two of the traditional modes as particularly
suitable: the Ionian Mode, now called a major key and the Aeolian Mode,
which is one form of a minor key. However, the free use of the keyboard
leads to problems of tuning, which we met earlier in a simple form
concerning the vibrations for the note E, but this was resolved in about
1700 by letting each semitone represent an increase in vibrations
obtained by multiplying by the twelfth root of 2. The approximate
number of vibrations per second for each note is given by v in Table 1.
Note C C# D D# E F F# G G# A A# B C*
v 512 542 575 609 645 683 724 767 813 861 912 967 1024
n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
r 1 16/15 9/8 6/5 5/4 4/345/323/2 8/5 5/3 9/5 15/8 2

v is the number of vibrations per second for the note.

n is the number of semitones of the note above C.
r is approximately v/512.
TABLE 1.

In this way, all octave chords are exactly in tune, but no others. An
instrument tuned by this system is called equal tempered or well
tempered and it was used by J.S. Bach and promoted by his books of
compositions for keyboard called The well tempered clavier. Once this
system of tuning is adopted there is no need for any further additions to
the set of notes consisting of the twelve semitones because no interval

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IN WHICH KEY DID THE ANGELS SING? 123

between the notes smaller than a semitone occurs, so any technical

change to a passage of music (such as a change of key) can be made
within the system. We have seen that the twelve semitones are an
inevitable part of any musical system which has this property and
therefore they form the simplest musical system of this kind. Of course,
there are more complex musical systems, like those which use quarter
tones to resolve tuning problems, but angels must surely prefer
simplicity.
To find out which is the best of the simple musical systems that can
be based on the twelve semitones, we must evaluate the harmonic
qualities of every system of 7 notes in the octave, which we may take
from C to C*, and we shall call such a system a quasimode as it is a
generalization of the traditional modes. According to Pythagoras,
harmony comes from simple ratios, so let us look at the list of ratios for
all the semitones of the scale. In Table 1 each note is associated with the
number n of semitones above C, the approximate number v of vibrations
per second and the approximate ratio r of v over 512.
Let us first find a harmonic index for each interval, measured in
semitones. As an example we can start by considering the interval of 7
semitones from C to G. We wish to obtain a whole number which
represents the ratio of the vibrations so that the more harmonious
intervals have consistently lower numbers than the less harmonious
intervals. The ratio of the vibrations for G over C is 3/2 and we can
represent this fraction by its numerator 2. However, we have noticed that
the note G also defines what is called the inverted interval from G to C*
in the octave from C to C*, and the ratio of vibrations in this case is 4/3,
so we can represent this fraction by its denominator 3. Because every
interval in the octave from C to C* also defines an inverted interval in the
same way, it would be more convenient for calculating a harmonic index
of a quasimode as a sum of the indices for all its intervals if we take the
sum only for all the direct intervals of the quasimode by adding the
number representing the complexity of the ratio for the inverted interval
to that for the direct interval to provide the index for the direct interval.
Therefore, in the case of the direct interval of 7 semitones defined by the
note G, we define the harmonic index K(7) to be 2+3 = 5. As a second
example, let us consider the note E which defines a direct interval of 4
semitones with a ratio 5/4 of the vibrations. The obvious index for this
direct interval is 4, but the choice for index for the inverted interval of 8
semitones is less obvious. The ratio of the vibrations for an interval of 8
semitones is 8/5 but due to a factor of 2 which appears in the ratios as the
notes approach C*, it seems better to represent this inverted interval by
the index 4 (or alternatively 5) in this case. Although there is an element
of choice of a number to represent some of the inverted intervals, the

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124 THE MATHEMATICAL GAZEI- E

choices do not alter the ranking of the indices. Therefore we define the
harmonic index K(4) for 4 semitones as 4+4 = 8. A similar decision is
needed to choose the harmonic index 18 for 2 semitones or its inversion,
10 semitones. The harmonic indices for the rest of the intervals are found
as the sums of the lower numbers associated with the ratios. Table 2
defines the harmonic index K(n) for the interval of n semitones for every
direct interval in the octave.

n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
K(n) 30 18 10 8 5 64 5 8 10 18 30
n is the length of an interval measured in semitones.
K(n) is the harmonic index for the interval of n semitones.
TABLE 2.

We can now define the harmonic index H for a quasimode as the

sum of the harmonic indices for all the intervals defined by the scale. For
example, the scale for C major consists of C, D, E, F, G, A, B but not C*,
because we have already taken the inverted intervals into account. The
intervals with lower note C and upper notes D, E, F, G, A, B measure 2,
4, 5, 7, 9, 11; those with lower note D and upper notes E, F, G, A, B
measure 2, 3, 5, 7, 9; E yields intervals of 1, 3, 5, 7; F yields intervals of
2, 4, 6; G yields intervals of 2, 4 and the interval A to B yields 2
semitones. The harmonic index for C major (or any other major key) is
therefore H = K(1) + 5K(2) + 2K(3) + 3K(4) + 3K(5) + K(6) + 3K(7) +
2K(9) +K(11). Therefore, for the major mode, H = 30 + 5 x 18 + 2 x 10
+3 x8+3x5 +64+3 x5+2x10+ 30= 308.
The calculation of the harmonic index for any quasimode is easy,
but all the indices need to be compared in order to find the lowest value
and therefore discover the harmonically best quasimode. Because there
are 462 different quasimodes, the calculation was entrusted to a computer
with a BASIC program, and this disclosed 7 quasimodes with equal best
harmonic index 308. Indeed, the best quasimodes are the 7 traditional
modes. In fact, it is inevitable that the quasimodes should appear in sets
containing numbers which are multiples of 7 because, for any quasimode,
6 others can be found with the same harmonic index by starting the scale
on each of the other notes of the basic scale. The second best harmonic
index is 323 and the worst is 465. We must now find a best mode among
the seven traditional modes.
This is not the Lydian Mode, which had to be modified by
substituting B flat for B, nor the Locrian Mode which was never used
because the scale has the similarly discordant G# in place of G. The
remaining five modes all have in their scales the notes F and G which
allow modulation, that is, transition to the same mode at a different pitch.
The Major (or Ionian) and Mixolydian Modes differ from the others in

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IN WHICH KEY DID THE ANGELS SING? 125

that the scales contain the note E, which gives the strong but harmonious
interval of the major third with C, but the Major (Ionian) Mode has the
advantage of the note B, which provides a strong termination, or cadence.
Therefore the Major Mode is the better of the two modes containing E.
The Dorian, Phrygian and Aeolian Modes are all softer in character, with
the less harmonious interval from C to E flat and the less definite
cadences obtained by passing from B flat to C*, giving very
homogeneous musical phrases. However, the Dorian Mode is unique
among the traditional modes in that the scale is unchanged if it is
replaced by the inverted scale going down from C* by steps of length
equal to those of the rising scale, so the Dorian Mode is exceptionally
homogeneous as well as one of the most harmonious. We can conclude
that the angels' choice from among the quasimodes would be the Major
Mode for affirmative music or the Dorian Mode for contemplative music.
Possibly the angels sang using a scale with other than 7 notes, so let us
examine other scales used in European music, notably the scales for
minor keys. Unlike the major keys, the mode for the minor keys is not
fully determined, and three scales are used. The Natural Minor Scale is
the scale of the Aeolian Mode we have considered already. The Melodic
Minor Scale uses different notes in ascending and descending phrases.
By modifying the harmonic index to treat intervals and inverted intervals
separately, we obtain a harmonic index of 346 for the Melodic Minor.
The Harmonic Minor Scale is the Aeolian Mode played on the white
notes from A to A* but with G replaced by G sharp to give a stronger
cadence. This scale was much used by Beethoven in his late string
quartets, but its harmonic index is 374.
Claude Debussy based music on the Whole Tone Scale of six notes,
which has the scale starting with C as C, D, E, F sharp, G sharp, A sharp,
C*. With this system there is one other set of notes, exemplified by the
scale G, A, B, C sharp, D sharp, F, G* and this differs from the other
only in pitch. In this scale there are no semitones, which gives the music
a peaceful, other-worldly quality, but also has no principal note or
cadences. Such music may be entirely suited to the singing of unending
praise, but it is most unsuitable for Singing hymns for shepherds to
understand. The scale most used in this century is the Chromatic Scale,
which consists of all twelve notes of the keyboard, and facilitates
modulation and the creation of cadences but it easily leads to formless
music with no centre nor point of repose. The shepherds might not even
have recognized such sounds as music, but they would certainly have
been familiar with the Pentatonic Scale. This harmonious scale, which
(starting with C) consists of C, D, E, G, A, C* and (starting with F sharp)
can be played on the black notes of the keyboard, is used in folk music
all over the world. It has a harmonic index of 130 for 10 intervals,

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126 THE MATHEMATICAL GAZE'II E

average 13, compared with 308 for 21 intervals, average about 14.7, for
the traditional modes. The scale is like the major scale except that it lacks
B to use in upward cadences and F to use in modulating downwards. As
we must assume that angelic voices are well modulated, the angels would
obviously prefer to sing in a major key rather than the Pentatonic Scale.
They would obviously avoid the whole tone scale, with a harmonic index
of 348 for 15 intervals (average 23.2), or the chromatic scale , with a
harmonic index of 1236 for 66 intervals (average about 18.7). As a
comparison, note that the worst of the quasimodes, with harmonic index
465 for 21 intervals, has an average about 22.1.
Our discussion has now taught us that the angels would have sung
in either a major key or the Dorian Mode. The bright, assertive style of
the Major Mode is entirely suited to the bringing of good news, and the
scale would be almost familiar to the shepherds. On the other hand, they
probably also knew some art music in the Dorian Mode, and the
homogeneous and symmetrical sounds of the Dorian Mode would accord
with the bringing of peaceful news from the heavenly courts. Indeed, that
the angels were singing courtly music of which the shepherds might have
been in awe seems to be confirmed by the leading angel's opening
words, "Fear not". Therefore we may conclude that the angels sang in the
Dorian Mode.
JOHN F. BOWERS

School of Mathematics, The University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT

I. i lj

Oh darling! Is it nfy2dr or nfx2dy ?

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