Physical Science-20230519020632

Course Name:Physical Science
Lesson 1: Motion and Forces
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Preparing for Your Course
Before beginning this course, it’s helpful to understand the resources within the content that
can help you remember what you’ve learned and be ready for the exam. This page will give
you an overview of how to prepare.
Quick Checks
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Example of a Quick Check
Quick Checks are designed to test your understanding as you read the content. They aren't
graded, so you can check your learning as you read and review them again before you take
the exam.
Practices
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Example of a Practice
Practice exercises are an interactive way to help you put together everything you’ve learned
in a lesson. Practices don’t count toward your final grade, so you can use them to check your
understanding as you learn and retake them to prepare for the exam.
Note-Taking
Written note-taking in your own handwriting is a proven way to retain more of what you’ve
learned. As you read, take note of the Quick Checks and Practices, since the exam will likely
ask you to recall these important concepts.
Review Flashcards
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Example of Flashcards
Flashcards appear at the end of each lesson to help you recall key terms and concepts. You
can use them to quiz yourself after each lesson and again just before the exam.
Before Your Exam

Before beginning the exam, consider reviewing the Quick Checks, Practices,
Flashcards, and your notes. If you read all the content and use the resources outlined
above, you’ll be better prepared to take your exam. If you still have questions, contact
your instructor before beginning the assessment.
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Lesson Overview
Physical science has played an important role in the development of our civilization. Using the
concepts of mechanics, heat, sound, chemistry, light, and electricity, our world has developed
important new technologies that help us live better lives. Many of the devices we take for
granted, such as motor vehicles, computers, telephones, and electrical appliances, were
invented and improved by applying physical science concepts.
In this lesson, you’ll begin your study of physical science by learning about what scientists
call mechanics. Mechanics includes the study of forces and motion and their effect on
objects. You’ll study mechanics first because this topic represents a general foundation for the
other branches of physical science. You’ll learn about force, motion, energy, and power.
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Lesson Objectives
Chart changes in position, time, and velocity
Explain how forces affect motion using Newton's laws
Explain the forces required to create motion in a curved path
Describe the momentum of an object and how it can be conserved
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Motion
Studying motion is the foundation for all physical science. Motion is an important
consideration for everything from particles within atoms to galaxies in the expanding universe.
A body is said to be in motion when it changes its position, and it's vital to know how motion is
measured.
Key Takeaways
Linear motions are always in the same direction and follow a path in a straight line. Curved motions change
direction throughout their duration and follow a curved path.
Motion can be measured with units in the English system or the International System (metric); for science
applications the metric system is used.
Objects are moving around us all the time. These objects can move in straight or curved lines
and their speed may or may not change. In this first section, you’ll learn the difference
between speed and velocity and how to calculate acceleration.
Bodies and Motion

In mechanics, any distinct amount of matter is called a body. A body may be in the solid,
liquid, or gaseous state, and it may have a certain shape, size, color, and mass. Describing a
body completely includes its position in time and space. To do this, you’ll need to describe
how the body moves from place to place. The change in position of the body is called motion.
The cause of motion is a force.
Types of motion must be carefully defined. This is so that each motion can be described
consistently and replicated when necessary. Motions can be described as linear or curved.
The illustration shows that the air distance between City A and City B is the shortest distance;
it’s indicated by a straight line. An airplane can travel in a straight line through the air, and its
motion is linear. In contrast, a car must follow the road between the two cities, which is a
winding path. The car’s motion is curved.
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Linear motions are always in a single direction. They follow a path in a straight line. Curved
motions change direction throughout their duration and follow a curved path.
Quick Check
_______ motion is always in the same direction and follows a path in a straight line.
Circular Curved
Reverse Linear
Units of Measurement
Understanding science requires a basic knowledge of the units that are used to make
measurements. Distance, mass, and time can be used to define most physical quantities. For
example, speed comes from distance and time. The volume of an object is the amount of
space it takes up. This can be calculated by multiplying three distances: the length of the
object times its width times its height.
Units used to describe basic quantities in science must be standardized. This means they're
the same no matter where or when they're used. Throughout history, units based on everyday
things like the length of an arm or the size of a grain of wheat were used. These would be
different for each person, so these units couldn't be standardized. A system with consistent
measuring units was necessary for accurate scientific study.
In 1799, the French adopted a system of measurement called the metric system. Its basic
units of measurement are the meter (distance), the liter (volume), and the gram (mass). The
main advantage of the metric system is that all its units are based on the number 10.
Other metric units are obtained by multiplying or dividing a base unit by ten. Prefixes, such as
deci-, kilo-, centi-, or milli-, are added to the base unit to compare the other unit for the base
unit. For example, one meter equals 10 decimeters, one decimeter equals 10 centimeters,
and one centimeter equals 10 millimeters.
The table shows basic metric units and their abbreviations. Note that grams in the metric
system measure mass, not weight, but mass is used as a way to measure weight.
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Metric Units
Unit Abbreviation Number of Meters
kilometer km 1,000
hectometer hm 100
dekameter dam 10
meter m 1
decimeter dm 0.1
centimeter cm 0.01
millimeter mm 0.001
Liquid Volume
Unit Abbreviation Number of Liters
kiloliter kl 1,000
hectoliter hl 100
dekaliter dal 10
liter l 1
deciliter dl 0.1
centiliter cl 0.01
milliliter ml 0.001
Mass (and Weight)
Unit Abbreviation Number of Grams
kilogram kg 1,000
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Metric Units
Unit Abbreviation Number of Meters
hectogram hg 100
dekagram dag 10
gram g 1
decigram dg 0.1
centigram cg 0.01
milligram mg 0.001
Many people in the United States are familiar with the English system of measurement (also
called the customary system). The basic units of measurement in the English system are the
foot (length), the pound (weight), and the quart (volume). English measurement units are
commonly seen in the United States on product labels with metric equivalents printed
alongside.
The problem with the English system is that the relationships between units of the same
quantity aren’t uniform. For example, 1 yard equals 3 feet, and 1 foot equals 12 inches. As
another example, 1 pound equals 16 ounces, and 1 gallon equals 4 quarts. These
relationships make it difficult to add measurements or convert between measurements. The
table shows basic English units and their abbreviations.
English System of Measurement
Length
Unit Abbreviation Values
mile mi 5,280 feet
yard yd 3 feet
foot ft 12 inches
inch in 0.083 foot
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English System of Measurement
Length
Liquid Form
gallon gal 4 quarts
quart qt 2 pints
pint pt 16 fluid ounces
fluid ounce fl oz 0.0625 pint
Weight
ton T 2,000 pounds
pound lb 16 ounces
ounce oz 0.0625 pound
Rather than having to memorize conversions, as in the English system, the metric system is
based on multiples and products of 10. It's much easier to use, particularly for scientific
purposes. But since both systems are used to report measurements, it's an important skill to
be able to convert between systems.
The modern international system of measurement, the Système International (SI), is based
on the metric system. The seven base units of the SI metric system are as follows:
Meter (length)
Kilogram (mass)
Second (time)
Ampere (electric current)
Kelvin (temperature)
Candela (light intensity)
Mole (amount of substance)
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These units have been standardized worldwide for accuracy in scientific methods and
research.
The English system is still used in the United States for most purposes. The simpler and more
precise SI system is preferred for use in scientific and technical applications. Using the SI
system worldwide allows scientists to speak the same mathematical language when reporting
their findings. You'll have a chance to work with both systems in this course, beginning with
speed and velocity.
Quick Check
Which of the following is not a part of the metric system?
Meter Liter
Pound Gram
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Speed and Velocity
The distance traveled by a body in any direction per unit of time is called speed. Velocity is
the speed of an object in a given direction. Velocity and changes in velocity are often shown
in graphs.
Key Takeaways
Both speed and velocity involve a rate of movement, but velocity also indicates direction.
Acceleration occurs when the velocity of a body changes in speed, in direction, or in both at the same time.
A free-falling body has a uniform acceleration due to the force of the earth’s gravity if no other forces are acting on
it.
Velocity
Although the terms speed and velocity are often used interchangeably, there are some
important differences between the two. Speed is the distance traveled in a unit of time, in any
direction. Velocity is the speed of an object in a certain direction. Both terms involve a
numerical rate, but velocity also indicates direction.
In problems dealing with linear motion, the terms “speed” and “velocity” may be used
interchangeably because direction never changes.
Calculating Velocity
The velocity of a body can be found by the following formula:
s
v =
t
In this formula, v usually stands for velocity in meters per second. That means s stands for
distance in meters, and t stands for time in seconds.
The velocity formula can work with other units too. To find velocity in kilometers per hour,
distance is measured in kilometers and time in hours. When the English system is used,
distance is measured in miles, time in hours, and velocity in miles per hour.
Here's a sample problem for using this formula. A car traveled from City A to City B, which is
420 kilometers away. If the trip took six hours, the velocity can be found by using the formula
as follows:
s
v =
t
420 kilometers
v =
6 hours
v = 70 km/h (kilometers per hour)
Average and Instantaneous Speed

Of course, the car in the previous example didn’t always travel at exactly 70 km/h during the
trip. The car had to slow down or stop at intersections, so 70 km/h is the average speed that
the car traveled. This is found by dividing the total distance by the total time. The odometer
registers the total distance traveled by the car, which is useful for this type of problem.
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A car’s instantaneous speed, the real speed of the car at a particular instant, changes often
during a trip. The car may speed up to pass another vehicle or slow down in heavy traffic. In a
car, the speedometer shows the car’s instantaneous speed.
If the speed is changing frequently, a better measure of the speed can be obtained by taking
very small measures of distance and very small intervals of time. It may be difficult to
accurately measure smaller intervals, so in most cases, averages can be used.
Example: Mia must drive 32 kilometers to commute to work. This takes her 0.5 hour. Her
car's fastest speed during the trip is 88 km/hour, but she has to stop for several red lights.
What is Mia's average velocity?
Solution: use the velocity formula. The instantaneous speed doesn't matter. Average speed is
found with the total distance traveled and total time.
s
v =
t
32 kilometers
v =
0.5 hour
v = 64 km/h
Uniform Velocity
A body is said to be moving at uniform velocity if it moves in one direction and covers equal
distances in equal intervals of time. In other words, the body covers the same distance each
second, so its speed isn't changing. If the movement is represented in a graph, the result will
be a straight line.
Here's an example, graphed below. A body travels for four hours and moves 60 kilometers
during each hour. Time is plotted on the horizontal axis and distance on the vertical axis. The
distance that the body had moved after 1, 2, 3 and 4 hours are shown at points A, B, C, and
D. Because the distance covered in each time interval is the same, the points are on a
straight line.
Because the velocity is uniform, the progress of the body is illustrated as a straight line. It can be said the distance is changing uniformly with the
time, or that the distance is a linear function of the time.
Rearranging the Formula
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The velocity formula can be rearranged to use velocity and time to solve for distance. It can
also be rearranged to use velocity and distance to solve for time. (All three versions of the
formula appear on the formula sheet provided at the end of this lesson for use on your exam.)
Example: A motorboat travels at a uniform speed of 5 meters/second (m/s). How far does the
boat travel in 10 minutes?
Solution: Use the formula for uniform velocity to calculate the answer, and solve for distance
(s) instead of velocity. The following variation of the velocity formula can be used to solve this
problem:
s = v × t
There's one additional step. The velocity is in meters per second, but the time is given in
minutes. To use the formula correctly, convert the minutes to seconds. There are 60 seconds
in one minute, so multiply 60 times 10 to find the total number of seconds in 10 minutes.
60 × 10 = 600
Now, substitute the given values into the formula and solve.
s = v × t
s = 5 m/s × 600 seconds
s = 3,000 meters
Answer: The boat travels 3,000 meters in 10 minutes.
Example: How much time should be allowed for a 360-mile car trip if the car will travel at an
average speed of 45 miles per hour (mph)?
Solution: Use the formula for uniform velocity to calculate the answer, and solve for time (t)
instead of velocity.
s
The formula t =
v
, a variation of the velocity formula, can be used to solve this problem.
Substitute the values given in the problem into the formula and solve.
s
t =
v
360 miles
t =
45 mph
t = 8 hours
Answer: The time allowed for the car trip should be 8 hours.
Quick Check
What is the formula to determine the velocity of a body?
−V = dt V = t ÷ d
V = d ÷ t V = d – t
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Acceleration
Acceleration occurs when the velocity of a body changes in any way. The velocity may
change in speed, in direction, or in both at the same time.
In the following discussion of acceleration, the direction of velocity will remain constant, so the
equation only includes a change in speed. Acceleration will measure the rate that the speed
changes.
Acceleration measures the change in velocity (m/s) each second. That means the unit for
acceleration is meters per second per second, or m/s2. Do not square the numerical
value, m/s2 is just a label explaining what that value means.
Acceleration can be expressed as follows:
Acceleration = Change in velocity ÷ Time required
This relationship is shown in the following formula:

v2 −v1
a =
t
In this formula, a stands for acceleration, t stands for the time interval, v2 stands for velocity at
the end of the time interval t, and v1 stands for velocity at the beginning of the time interval t.
Example: Consider a car whose velocity changes uniformly from 22 meters per second (m/s)
to 33 m/s over a time interval of 22 seconds (s). What’s the acceleration of the car?
Solution: Use the acceleration formula to find the answer.

v2 −v1
a =
t
Now, substitute the values given in the problem into the formula and solve. Note that the
answer will be expressed in meters per second squared (m/s2).
33 m/s−22 m/s
a =
22 s
11 m/s
a =
22 s
a = 0.5 m/s2
Answer: The acceleration of the car is 0.5 m/s2.
A velocity change is shown in the figure below, showing points A, B, C, D, and E, which a
body reaches after traveling 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 seconds. If the points are plotted in a coordinate
system, the points form a curved line. The curve becomes steeper every second, which
means that the velocity is greater in every second. This shows that the body is accelerating
by getting faster.
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This graph represents an accelerated motion. The distance covered in each time
unit is greater than in the preceding time unit and isn't changing uniformly with
time. The increase in velocity indicates an acceleration of the body.
When the velocity decreases in each consecutive time unit, a body is moving with a
deceleration. The solution found in the acceleration formula will be negative. That is, a body
moving with a negative acceleration is slowing down, or decelerating.
Quick Check
A decrease in velocity for each consecutive time unit is known as
inertia. speed.
deceleration. acceleration.
Acceleration of Falling Bodies

Gravity is the force of attraction between bodies. Because the earth is such a massive body,
we experience gravity as the attraction of objects toward the center of the earth. A free-
falling body has an acceleration due to the force of the earth’s gravity and no other forces
acting on it. Anything that has been dropped and is simply falling through the air is considered
a free-falling body. (In reality, there's friction from air resistance, but to simplify, this lesson
ignores that.)
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This is an example of a body moving with uniform acceleration. A free-falling body will
continue to accelerate at the same rate for the entire time it's falling. This means it will get
faster each second. The velocity toward the earth will increase by the same amount each
second until it hits the ground or another force interferes.
In reality, when a body falls in the air, air molecules exert a force that slows its
acceleration. Consider the fall of a small metal coin and that of a large feather that has
the same weight. The metal coin will drop straight down quickly, and the feather will float
down more slowly. The feather falls slowly because its shape catches more air, and the
air resistance on the feather is much greater than on a compact metal coin. So, air
resistance can affect acceleration greatly. However, it should be ignored for calculations
in this course.
Note that objects that have been thrown, fired, or launched are also objects in freefall. Once
they're no longer in contact with another object, the only force on them is gravity. If you throw
a baseball, you use force to make the ball leave your hand. Once it's in the air, there's no
more force from your hand keeping it going. Inertia (which isn't a force, it's just mass resisting
changes) makes the ball keep moving forward, while gravity pulls the ball downward.
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Using Formulas for Word Problems
This course has several short formulas in every lesson. For convenience they're all listed in
the formula sheets at the end of each lesson. You can use the formula sheets on the exam.
However, having a formula available is helpful only if you know how to use it!
Physical science uses real-world situations, so you'll need to solve word problems using the
formulas. This video explains how formulas are used to solve word problems, a skill you
should review before moving on.
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Graphing Motion
Motion describes a change in position. It's also convenient to represent motion graphically.
Key Takeaways
The y-axis can show displacement, velocity, or acceleration. These three types of graphs will look very different
even when showing the motion of the same body.
If a body is in uniform motion, the distance graph will be a diagonal line, the velocity graph will be a straight
horizontal line, and the acceleration graph will be a straight horizontal line at zero.
It’s sometimes most convenient to represent motion graphically. Each of the following parts of
motion can be represented by a graph:
Displacement (the distance traveled from the starting point)
Velocity (how fast the object is moving in a certain direction)
Acceleration (how quickly the object changes its velocity, such as speeding up or slowing down)
Let’s say you’re driving down the highway at a constant speed of 60 miles per hour. If you
drive for 1 hour, you’ll have gone 60 miles. How would this be represented using motion
graphs?
If in 1 hour you go 60 miles, and the speed is constant, you can figure out how far you would
go in other time increments as well. By creating a data table for 10 minutes, 20 minutes, 30
minutes, 40 minutes, 50 minutes, and 60 minutes, you could construct a graph like this one:
To find the distance traveled at any time, begin at that time on the x-axis. Look
straight up to the line. From the line, move horizontally to the y-axis. That point on
the y-axis is the distance travelled in that time.
You can use this graph to determine more quickly how far the car traveled at any given time
between 0 and 60 minutes without having to do the math. You can estimate how far the car
had traveled at 35 minutes. Start at the dot (between 30 and 40 minutes) on the bottom, and
go up until you hit the line. You can see that 35 minutes is approximately 35 miles traveled.
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The example assumes that the car doesn’t change its speed. It always travels 60 mph (or 1
mile per minute). The graph is a uniform line. This represents what scientists call constant
velocity. There’s no speeding up or slowing down.
If a graph of the same situation shows velocity on the y-axis, there's a straight, constant line
at 60 mph, since the velocity never changes.
How would you graph the acceleration of the car? Since in this case, the car’s velocity is
constant, acceleration is 0. The graph shows a straight line at 0 on the y-axis for 0
acceleration.
In the real world, objects almost never move with 0 acceleration, as you’ll see in the next
section.
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Quick Check
If a body doesn't speed up or slow down and is a straight line on the velocity time graph, what
does this demonstrate?
Inertia Constant velocity
Acceleration Displacement
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8. Practice: Understanding Motion Measurements
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9. Practice: Essentials of Motion
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Force and Motion
Motion is always associated with a push or pull. This is called the force. A force is the energy
that causes a motion to change. Newton’s laws describe the relationship between motion and
force.
Key Takeaways
Newton’s first law of motion (law of inertia) states that a body tends to remain doing what it's doing.
Newton’s second law of motion relates mass and force to acceleration. This law can be expressed in an equation, a
= F ÷ m. If an object is at rest, it stays at rest. If an object is in motion, it stays at a constant velocity.
Factors Affecting the Motion of a Body

Sir Isaac Newton was a great mathematician and scientist who lived in England about 300
years ago. Some of his most important work involved the mechanics of force and motion.
Newton developed three basic theories about inertia, the relation between force and mass,
and the forces of action and reaction. These are known as Newton’s Laws of Motion.
Consider a moving object. What causes motion? Does any characteristic of the body help or
hinder motion? What outside effects can change motion? What describes motion with enough
precision that the motion can be predicted?
The body itself may influence the motion; it’s certainly easier to push a lightweight object than
a heavy one. The body's mass is an important factor.
Motion always begins with a push or pull, which is called the force. A force is the energy used
to cause a motion to change. Newton’s laws describe the relationship between motion and
force.
If you’ve ever moved furniture, you know that it’s easier to slide an object over a smooth
surface than over a rough one. The resistance from the surface works against the motion.
This is a force called friction, which acts on surfaces in resistance to motion.
Multiple forces acting on a body at the same time can work together or work against each
other to change motion or hinder change in motion.
Newton’s First Law

If an object isn't moving, it doesn't start moving without a force causing it to move.
When an object is moving, friction tends to slow it down. But if it was possible to remove the
friction completely between a body and a surface, once the body started moving, it wouldn't
stop. Under perfect conditions, it would keep moving forever.
That possible result was observed by Galileo in his writings and later expressed by Newton’s
First Law of Motion: A body at rest remains at rest, and a body in motion remains in motion
at a constant velocity, unless acted upon by an external force.
A body, whether moving or resting, resists any change in its motion. Change can happen only
due to an external force.
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In everyday life, you don't see objects continuing at a constant speed without continually
adding force. This is because friction is a force that's always acting on moving objects,
slowing them down.
The smoother the surface, the less resistance there is from friction. Wheels might cause it to
move even more freely than sliding. If oil is added between the body and the surface, the
body will move even more freely. These can reduce friction greatly but never eliminate it
completely.
The only situation with zero friction is in a vacuum, a place where there's no matter, not even
air molecules. The only natural vacuum is outer space. Here, Newton's first law is observed. A
spacecraft moving through empty space far from any planets isn't slowed by friction at all. It
will keep moving at the same speed in the same direction, forever, with no additional forces
applied.
Inertia is a body's resistance to changes in motion. The higher a body's mass, the more
inertia it has. So more massive objects resist change more than less massive objects.
It's more difficult to start pushing a large car than a small one. The large car has more inertia
than the small car, so it takes more force to put the larger car in motion. It also takes more
force to slow it down or change its direction once it’s moving. The greater difficulty in starting
or changing the motion of a large car than a small one is because of its greater mass.
A good way to see inertia in daily life is looking at a system where two bodies are together,
and force is applied to only one of them. Consider a person standing on a bus. The bus's
brakes provide a force to stop the bus, and the bus's engine provides force that moves the
bus forward. However, the person isn't attached to the bus and so those forces aren't
affecting the person.
This person is experiencing the effect of inertia while standing on a bus. When the bus is moving at a constant speed and he is moving with it, he
has no trouble maintaining his balance, as shown in A. When the bus slows down to stop, he feels thrown toward the front of the bus (B). When
the bus moves forward again, he is thrown off balance toward the back of the bus (C).
The figure shows a man standing on a bus that’s moving at a constant speed at first. Because
of inertia, the man’s body tends to keep moving at that constant speed also, and he can stand
on the bus with no problem. When the moving bus slows down quickly, inertia causes the
man’s body to continue moving at the original speed. The overall effect is that of feeling
moved toward the front of the bus (part B).
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In part C, the bus moves forward quickly. Because of inertia, the man’s body tends to remain
at rest when the bus moves and speeds up. The overall effect is that of being moved toward
the back of the bus. The man must hang on to a handle to keep from falling over backward.
Quick Check
Which of Newton's laws states that “A body at rest or in motion at a constant speed tends to
remain at rest or in motion at constant speed unless acted upon by some external force”?
First law Third law
Second law Fourth law
Newton’s Second Law

Newton’s second law relates mass and force to acceleration. Mass is not only a measure of
inertia but also a measure of an amount of matter. As mentioned earlier, the metric unit of
mass is the kilogram.
Newton’s Second Law of Motion describes what happens to a body when external forces act
on it: When an external force acts on a body, that body is accelerated with a magnitude
proportional to the force and inversely proportional to the body's mass. In the form of an
equation, this law can be expressed as follows:
F
a =
m
, or
F = ma
In this formula, a stands for acceleration in meters per second squared, F stands for force in
newtons, and m stands for mass in kilograms.
The metric unit of force is the newton (N). A mass of one kilogram undergoes a change in
velocity of one meter per second every second if pushed by a force of one newton. A larger
mass will accelerate less if pushed by the same force.
Example: A force of 10 newtons is applied to a ball with a mass of 0.5 kilograms (kg). What's
the acceleration of the ball?
Solution: Use the formula for Newton’s second law to solve the problem. Substitute the given
values into the formula, then solve.
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F
a =
m
10 N
a =
0.5 kg
a = 20m/s2
Answer: The acceleration of the ball is 20 m/s2.
Example: Suppose that a force of 100 N causes a body to move with an acceleration of 5
m/s2. What's the mass of the body?
Solution: Use a variation of the formula for Newton’s second law to solve for mass. Substitute
the given values into the formula, then solve.
F
m =
a
m = 100 N ÷ 5 m/s2
m = 20kg
Example: What force (in newtons) is required to accelerate a body with a mass of 10
kilograms at a rate of 6 m/s2?
Solution: Use a variation of the formula for Newton’s second law to solve for force. Substitute
the given values into the formula, then solve.
F = ma
F = 10 kg × 6 m/s2
F = 60 N
Answer: A force of 60 N is required.
Quick Check
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What's the metric unit of force?
Kelvin Ampere
Newton Joule
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Direction of Forces
When considering the effect of forces, both the strength of the force and the direction of the
force are important. The direction of the force affects the direction of motion. Forces can work
together or against each other, depending on their directions.
Key Takeaways
Whenever one body exerts a force on a second body, the second body exerts an equal and opposite force on the
first body. Thus, force occurs in pairs.
A scalar is a quantity used to measure magnitude only. A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction.
Forces in opposite directions on the same object can cancel each other out.
Action and Reaction

If you push down on a desk, the desk must push upward against your hand also; you know
this because you can feel the desk. Also, the harder you press, the harder the desk pushes
back on your hand. Your hand can feel the increase in pressure.
This situation is the basis for Newton’s Third Law of Motion: Whenever one body exerts a
force on a second body, the second body exerts an equal and opposite force on the first body.
It’s sometimes stated as "every action has an equal and opposite reaction," but that popular
definition leaves out the focus on forces.
Force always occurs in pairs. If a person throws a basketball, the ball pushes backward on
their hand as they push the ball forward. When someone walks forward, they're pushing
backward on the ground, and an equal and opposite force from the ground to their feet
propels them forward. A jet engine pushes air backward, so the air pushes forward on the
metal of the engine.
Newton’s second law states that if an external force is exerted on a body, the body will be
accelerated. So, what's happening when a force is pushing on something that isn't free to
move? If the body isn’t free to move, it's because there's another external force pushing on
that body in the opposite direction. This force works against the first force.
Consider again pushing downward on a desk. Your hand pushes on the desk, and the desk
pushes on your hand. So, the desk tries to move downward, but immediately encounters the
floor. The desk pushes downward on the floor, and the floor pushes upward on the desk with
the same amount of force.
So, there are two pairs of equal and opposite forces: one pair between your hand and the
desk, and another pair between the desk and the floor. Under those conditions, consider the
forces on the desk—a downward force from your hand and an equal upward force from the
floor. They're perfectly balanced. There will be no unbalanced force acting on the desk, and
the desk won’t move.
Quick Check
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Which of Newton's laws states that “Whenever one body exerts a force on a second body, the
second body exerts an equal and opposite force on the first body”?
Second law Third law
First law Fourth law
External Reference(https://www.youtube.com/embed/8Q1tw_QWy-8?wmode=opaque)
Balanced and Unbalanced Forces
Video Length: 2 minutes, 35 seconds
Vector and Scalar Quantities

Clearly, the direction of a force is important when determining how it will affect an object's
motion. Some measurements have direction, and some don't.
A scalar is a quantity consisting of a single real number that’s used to measure magnitude
(size). Voltage, mass, time, temperature, energy, and speed measurements can be described
as scalar quantities.
Here are some examples of scalar quantities:

20 degrees Fahrenheit
10 pounds
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500 volts
60 miles per hour
A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction. Usually, a vector is represented
on paper by a straight line with an arrowhead on one end. The length of the line is
proportional to the magnitude of the quantity represented, and the line is drawn in the
direction of the quantity it represents.
If a boat sails 300 miles east away from an island, “300 miles east” is a vector that can be
illustrated with an arrow. The vector’s magnitude is 300 miles, and its direction is east.
Put simply, speed is a scalar quantity, and velocity is a vector quantity. Sixty miles per hour is
a scalar quantity, but if you add a direction and say “60 miles per hour west,” the quantity
becomes a vector.
Vectors can be used to represent force, velocity, acceleration, and more. In the image above,
each vector’s magnitude is indicated by its length, and its direction is expressed by the angle
of the arrow. In part A the vector represents a force of 150 N in a northeasterly direction. This
vector is drawn three times as long as the vector shown in part B, which represents a force of
50 N in the same direction. Instead of a force, the vector in part C represents an acceleration
of 30 m/s2.
When more than one force is acting on a body, the resulting combined force is called the net
force. Knowing the direction of forces acting on a body is important to determine the net
force. Two forces acting in opposite directions can cancel each other out.
For example, a force on a body of 30N pushing to the left and a force on the same body of
30N pushing to the right will cancel each other out to produce a net force of 0N. However, two
30N forces both acting to the left will work together, to make a net force of 60N on the body.
When the force and the motion of the body are not in exactly the same or opposite direction,
a different procedure is used to find the influence of the force on the body.
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The velocity of the block moving on the horizontal surface depends to a large
extent on the direction of the applied force. The more nearly parallel to the
surface the force is applied, the faster the block will move.
Assume that a block is sliding on a horizontal surface as shown in the figure. The force that
causes this sliding is shown by the arrow F (force). The force causes the block to move
horizontally to the right. However, the entire force doesn’t contribute to the horizontal motion,
because the force also tends to lift the block, not just slide it along the surface.
Quick Check
Which of the following types of quantities has both magnitude and direction?
Scalar Ultra-linear
Numerical Vector
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Gravity
A body's weight is the force of gravity acting on its mass. This force changes in situations
where gravity changes, such as going to a high elevation or to a different planet.
Key Takeaways
On Earth, mass multiplied by 9.8 gives weight in newtons. On other planets (or moons), a different number is used
because the planet's mass is different.
The force of gravity varies over the surface of Earth based on the elevation (distance from the center of the earth).
The Force of Gravity

Gravity acceleration has the symbol g. If gravity acceleration g is substituted for general
acceleration a in the equation of Newton’s second law, the equation becomes:
F = mg
In this formula, F stands for the force of gravity in newtons, m stands for mass in kilograms,
and g stands for gravity acceleration. On or near the surface of the Earth, g is 9.8 m/s2.
The force measured by this equation is the force of gravity causing, or trying to cause, a body
to accelerate toward the center of the planet. Weight is just another name for the force of
gravity on an object. So, weight changes in situations where the force of gravity changes.
(Mass doesn't change when gravity changes).
Quick Check
What is the force of gravity on an object generally called?
Fall Weight
Mass Pull
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If you know the mass of an object, you can find the force of gravity that's acting on it by using
the equation given above.
Example: A box has a mass of 5 kilograms. What's the force of gravity acting on its mass on
earth?
F = mg
F = 5 kg × 9.8 m/s2
F = 49 N
Gravity acceleration changes with distance from the center of the earth. On a high mountain
peak, the value of g is slightly lower than it is at sea level. The force of gravity changes
proportionally to gravity acceleration, so the force of gravity is slightly lower at the top of a
mountain than at the bottom of the mountain.
The change is small enough that you can continue to use 9.8 m/s2 anywhere on Earth and get
a reasonable answer. So, for this course, always use 9.8 m/s2 as g on Earth.
However, on other planets or moons with a different mass than Earth, g is a much different
value. Because the moon is less massive than the Earth, the force of gravity on the moon is
about one-sixth of the force of gravity on the earth. The value of g on the moon is only 1.6
m/s2. To calculate the force of gravity of an object on the moon, multiply the mass of the
object times 1.6 m/s2.
Example: An astronaut’s body has a mass of 70 kilograms. What is the force of gravity acting
on her mass (that is, her “weight”) on Earth?
Solution: Use the force formula. Substitute the known values into the formula and solve. (On
Earth, assume that g = 9.8 m/s2.)
F = mg
F = 70 kg × 9.8 m/s2
F = 686 N
Answer: The force of gravity acting on the astronaut on Earth is 686 newtons.
Example: What's the force of gravity on the same astronaut on the moon?
Solution: Use the force formula to solve this problem. Substitute the known values into the
formula and solve. On the moon, assume that g = 1.6 m/s2.)
F = mg
F = 70 kg × 1.6 m/s2
F = 112 N
Answer: The force of gravity acting on the astronaut on the moon is 112 newtons.
On larger planets, such as Jupiter, g is a much larger value, and the force of gravity on an
object on that planet would be much stronger than the force of gravity on the same object on
Earth.
In everyday measuring using English units, it has become common practice to use the term
“weight” for both the mass and force of gravity. In a scientific discussion, the term “weight”
should indicate only the force of gravity that acts upon a mass.
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When metric units are used, the confusion between mass and force of gravity is easily
avoided. Mass is measured in kilograms and the force of gravity is measured in newtons. A
measurement in kilograms (or grams or milligrams) is a mass. A measurement in newtons is a
force—including the force of gravity, or “weight.”
You can also use a rearrangement of the same formula to calculate an object’s mass if you
know the force of gravity acting on it.
F
m =
g
Example: If the weight of a rock is 58.8N, what is the rock’s mass?
Solution: Use a variation of the force formula to solve for mass. Substitute the known values
into the formula and solve.
F
m =
g
58.8 N
m = 2
9.8 m/s
m = 6 kg
Answer: The rock's mass is 6 kilograms.
Another important fact to keep in mind is that the direction of the force causing acceleration is
in the same direction as the acceleration. For example, on Earth, gravity acceleration is in the
same direction as the force of gravity—toward the center of the Earth.
Solve the following problems using what you've learned about gravity:
Example: What's the force of gravity acting on the mass of a 3-kilogram package of
potatoes?
Solution: Use the force formula. Substitute the known values into the formula and solve.
F = mg
F = 3 kg × 9.8 m/s2
F = 29.4 N
Answer: The force of gravity acting on the package of potatoes is 29.4 newtons.
Example: The force of gravity acting on a girl’s mass on Earth is 550 newtons. What is her
mass?
Solution: Use a variation of the force formula to solve for mass. Substitute the known values
into the formula and solve.
F
m =
g
550 N
m = 2
9.8 m/s
m = 56.123 kg (56 kg, rounded)
Answer: The girl’s mass is 56 kilograms.
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Quick Check
How can we calculate the mass of an object if the weight is given?
m = Fg m = F ÷ g
m = F – g m = F + g
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Interactive Simulation: Forces and Motion
View the video before attempting to complete the interactive simulation. The video explains
how to properly complete the simulation.
Answer the questions in Motion and Forces Reflection

Questions(http://lessons.pennfoster.com/pdf/SP1691.pdf) in a notebook while completing the
simulation. Assess your answers by comparing them to the sample answers given at the end
of the worksheet.
External
Reference(https://cdnapisec.kaltura.com/p/4258593/sp/425859300/embedIframeJs/uiconf_id/49148332/part
iframeembed=true&playerId=kaltura_player&entry_id=1_u36wdq0m&flashvars[streamerType]=auto&flashva
Complete the Motion and Forces: Basic from PHET interactive simulations.
External Reference(https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/forces-and-motion-basics/latest/forces-and-motion-
basics_en.html)
Unit 1 Lesson 1 Practice

Question 1
What's Newton’s first law of motion also called?

a. Law of inertia
b. Laws of thermodynamics
c. Law of friction
d. Law of conservation of mass
Question 2
If a man is standing in a moving bus that then slows down, what causes the man’s body to continue moving at the
original speed and hence push forward?
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a. Mass
b. Velocity
c. Inertia
d. Gravity
Question 3
A scalar is a quantity consisting of a single real number and is used to measure

a. magnitude.
b. gravity.
c. velocity.
d. forces.
Question 4
Oil is used between two facing surfaces, such as pistons and cylinders, to overcome _______.
This is an open ended question. Check your answer below.
Question 5
_______is a measure of inertia, or a measure of a body’s resistance to change in motion.
This is an open ended question. Check your answer below.
Answers
Question 1: Newton’s first law of motion is also called the law of inertia.
Question 2: Inertia also encourages the man’s body to remain at rest when the bus moves or speeds up.
Question 3: Scalar quantities are used to measure magnitude (size).
Question 4: Oils or greasy substances help overcome resistance.
Question 5: Mass is a measure of inertia, or a measure of a body’s resistance to change in motion.
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14. Practice: Effect of Force on Motion
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15. Practice: Laws of Motion
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Motion in a Curved Path
Objects move on a curved path due to centripetal force. Centripetal force is the center-
directed force. If this force is removed, the object will move in a straight line.
Key Takeaways
The centripetal force that keeps the moon and satellites in orbit is gravity.
The universal gravitational law states that every object that has mass attracts every other object that has mass.
Increasing the masses or decreasing the distance between them would increase the gravitational force between
them.
The Ptolemaic model of the universe had Earth at the center. Nicolaus Copernicus, a native of Poland, suggested a
radical revision showing the solar system with the Earth and other planets orbiting the sun.
Kepler's laws describe the elliptical orbits of planets.
Centripetal Force
External Reference(https://www.youtube.com/embed/sxI-OeQf6N0?wmode=opaque)
Circular Motion
According to Newton’s first law, objects in motion stay in motion in a constant speed and
direction. So, an extra force must be required to move objects in a circle or even around a
curve. This short video explains and gives examples of the force that's required to make
circular motion happen.
Video Length: 1 minute, 52 seconds
Does a car rounding a curve experience acceleration? Does it have direction? If so, what is
it?
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This sketch shows three positions, A, B, and C, of a car that’s rounding a curve at a uniform magnitude of velocity. The vectors VA, VB, and VC
represent the velocities at points A, B, and C. The three vectors point in three different directions.
The different directions of velocity vectors in the figure show that at each instant, the velocity
is different. Because the velocity changes direction, there’s acceleration. Whenever
acceleration is present, a force causing the acceleration is also present.
Friction is a naturally occurring force between the surfaces of bodies in motion. It always
works against the direction of motion. (If it's strong enough to prevent motion completely,
it's working against the direction the body is trying to move).
Centripetal force is a center-seeking force related to acceleration around a curved path. This
force causes the moving body to continually change direction as it moves in a curve.
In the next figure, the centripetal force of friction is acting on a car. The car is moving from the
bottom of the figure upward on a curved path. The force is directed toward the center of the
circular path of the car. It causes the car to follow the circular path instead of moving in a
straight line. The vector directed toward the center of the path at the bottom of the figure
indicates the centripetal force, friction.
The car is moving around a curve, until it strikes the patch of ice. Because the ice
removes the centripetal force of friction, the car skids and continues in a straight
line in the direction it was headed before it hit the ice.
At the bottom of the figure, the frictional force pushing the car toward the center of the circular
path is strong enough to keep changing the direction of the car every instant, and the car
moves around the curve.
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However, when the car hits the icy patch at the center of the figure, the frictional force
suddenly disappears. The car skids in a straight line off the road, following its inertia. On the
figure, the vector drawn from the ice shows the direction of the velocity when the centripetal
force disappears.
When a road is flat, the only centripetal force is the frictional force between the tires and the
road. If the car tries to go around a curve quickly, that frictional force often isn’t enough to
keep changing the massive car's direction. The car can skid off the road. To help vehicles stay
on the road, the roadbed may be inclined or banked from side to side.
This is a cross-section of a banked roadbed. The supporting force from the road
provides an additional centripetal force as the car goes around a curve on the
angled road.
In this case, the road provides some supporting forces on the wheels in a horizontal direction.
These help the friction, providing additional centripetal force. This is enough force to allow the
car to travel a curved path. The angle of the bank incline is very pronounced at a racetrack; it
allows cars to travel at a very high speed without skidding out of the curves.
Another example of a body traveling in a curved path is a mass that’s attached to a string and
whirled in a circle of constant radius at a constant speed as shown in the figure.
When a person whirls a mass on the end of a string, the centripetal force acts
toward the center of the circular path and perpendicular to the direction of the
motion, shown by vectors.
The tension in the string acts as the force that holds the mass in its circular path. The center-
seeking force is the centripetal force, and that type of motion is called central-force motion.
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If the mass keeps whirling in a circular path at a higher and higher velocity, the needed
tension becomes greater. The tension can become so high the string will break. The mass will
fly off in a straight line.
That type of whirling mass can be used to make an effective sling. In this device, the tension
is purposely released so that the mass flies away at a high speed.
In ancient times, a sling consisted of a small leather pad held by two leather
strips. A rock was placed in the leather pad. The user whirled the sling quickly,
then released one of the leather straps. The rock flew from the sling in a straight
line.
Quick Check
A person standing at the edge of a merry-go-round must hold on tightly to keep from flying off
the edge as it speeds up. What name is given to the force that keeps the person moving in a
circular path?
Gravitational force Centrifugal force
Centripetal force Frictional force
The Motion of Orbiting Bodies
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Satellites
Another example of central-force motion is the motion of satellites (including the moon)
around Earth. The moon travels around Earth in an almost circular path. The centripetal force
that keeps the moon in orbit is the gravitation force.
The path of the moon around the Earth is similar to the motion of a mass being
whirled in a circle on a string, but there’s no string to exert the force that
constrains the moon to follow its path.
A similar force can be observed in artificial satellites. These satellites are used for all sorts of
communication transmissions. They're launched into orbit beyond the Earth’s atmosphere.
Rockets are used to launch, place, and set the speed for these satellites. Once satellites are
set at a constant speed at a certain distance from the Earth, they can move freely in circular
orbits without the application of any additional forces.
Ptolemy’s Model of the Universe

It’s only natural that humans try to describe the rest of the universe in terms of the Earth.
People usually assumed that Earth wasn't moving and that the other planets, the sun, the
moon, and the stars all moved around the Earth. That model was accepted in ancient times
because by everyday observations the Earth appeared to be stationary.
A formal model of a stationary Earth was developed by the ancient astronomer Ptolemy
(pronounced “tall-a-mee”). Widely accepted by scientists of the day, it remained popular for
over one thousand years. The Ptolemaic model had all other bodies in the universe moving
around the Earth in circular paths.
When observed, the real planetary positions didn’t always match their theoretical orbits, so
some of the planets were assumed to move in “secondary orbits,” indicated in the figure by
the smaller broken-line circles.
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In Ptolemy’s model, the Earth was the center of the universe. All of the planets,
the sun, and distant stars were assumed to move in circular orbits about the
Earth.
Ptolemy’s model did compare reasonably well with observations made over the centuries. It
could predict the future positions of the planets fairly well. One problem was that it required
unexplained extra circles within the orbits of some planets.
When later scientists developed better techniques and more accurate viewing devices, they
began to realize that there were serious differences between the true, observed planetary
positions and the positions predicted by Ptolemy’s model.
Copernicus’s Model of the Universe

In the sixteenth century, Nicholas Copernicus, a native of Poland, suggested something
radically different. The Copernican model states the following:
Earth rotates once a day on its axis, and at the same time orbits around the sun.
The other planets also orbit around the sun.
The moon orbits around the Earth.
All of these happen in perfectly circular orbits.
The figure below shows the orbits of the planets in the Copernican model.
In the model of the universe suggested by Copernicus, the planets (including the Earth) rotate around the sun in circular orbits.
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The Copernican model accounts for the rising and setting of the sun, moon, and stars in the
sky; the changes in the moon; and changes in the stars and planets throughout the year. The
whole thing was simpler than the Ptolemaic model. However, it didn't do much better at
predicting the future positions of the planets.
When the ideas of Copernicus were published, many long and bitter arguments resulted. The
suggestion that the Earth wasn't the center of the universe went against the religious
teachings of the time and angered government leaders.
In many locations, Copernicus’ writings were banned, and it was unlawful to express a belief
in them. Both believers and nonbelievers attempted to make more exact astronomical
measurements so that either or both models could be better tested.
Around that time, Tycho Brahe, a native of Denmark, built an astronomical observatory near
Copenhagen that was more precise than any other previously developed. His instruments
could measure an angle to one-hundredth of a degree.
Tycho Brahe spent a lifetime making measurements and left behind a wealth of data. Brahe’s
assistant, Johannes Kepler, believed the theories of Copernicus and spent several years
trying to align the Copernican model with the data that Brahe and he had collected.
Kepler concluded that some that errors existed in the model, but the model was correct in
showing that the Earth revolves around the sun.
Quick Check
Who put forward the theory that Earth rotates once a day on its axis and at the same time
orbits around the sun (which was assumed to be fixed in place)?
Copernicus Ptolemy
Newton Kepler
Kepler's Laws
After many calculations, Kepler concluded that planets couldn't have circular orbits. He
discovered that elliptical (oval-shaped) orbits fit more closely. Kepler discovered the following
laws that appear to govern the motion of planets:
1. The path of each of the planets is an ellipse around the sun, with the sun at one focus.
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2. As a planet moves, a line drawn from the planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times. The planet
moves faster when closer to the sun.
3. Every planet has the same ratio between the size of their orbit and the time it takes to orbit.
The path of the Earth while traveling around the sun is an ellipse, not a circle. The
Earth moves faster when it's closer to the sun. Shaded areas A and B, swept out
in equal times, are equal.
The Universal Gravitational Law

Kepler’s laws are consistent with the universal gravitational law, discovered by Isaac Newton.
The universal law of gravitation states that every object in the universe that has mass
attracts every other object in the universe that has mass.
This force is proportional to the product of the two masses. Increasing either of the masses
would increase the force between them by the same proportion; doubling a mass will double
the force.
This force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers.
Increasing the distance between the masses will decrease the force between them by a larger
amount; doubling the distance will cut the force into one-fourth.
The force between the objects pulls them toward each other. When applying this to a situation
with two objects with very different masses, the object with the smaller mass will do most of
the moving because the larger object has much more inertia. Therefore, it won’t move by a
noticeable amount.
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17. Practice: Centripetal Force
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18. Practice: Forces and Curved Movement
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Measuring Momentum
Momentum is a word used in daily life to indicate that it's easier to keep doing something (or
harder to stop) once you "get going." It's based on a similar concept in physics; momentum
describes mass in motion, and the simplest way to think of it would be how hard it is to stop a
moving body.
Key Takeaways
Momentum is the product of a mass and its velocity.
The higher the momentum, the more difficult it is to stop the object.
In physics, momentum is mass in motion. For practical purposes you can think of it as how
difficult something is to stop.
The equation for momentum is:
Momentum = Mass × Velocity
or
p = mv
The letter p is used for momentum so it’s not confused with m for mass.
Using this equation, you can see how a change in an object's mass will impact its momentum.
Example: A truck that weighs 1,000 kg is traveling 5 m/s. How would its momentum change
after adding a trailer with a mass of an additional 1,000 kg, if it still traveled at 5 m/s?
1. Begin by figuring out the truck’s starting momentum before the trailer.
Since the equation is p =mv, and you’re trying to find p, you know that the mass of the truck is
1,000 kg and the velocity is 5 m/s.
p = 1,000 kg × 5 m/s
p = 5,000 kg-m/s
2. Now, find the truck’s new momentum once it tows the trailer, which increases its mass.
p = (1,000 kg + 1,000 kg) × 5 m/s
p = 2,000 kg × 5 m/s
p = 10,000 kg-m/s
3. Compare your answers. You can see that once the truck tows the trailer, its momentum
actually doubles. This makes sense because the truck’s mass doubled with the trailer.
If you think about the definition of momentum being how hard an object is to stop, this makes
even more sense. A heavier truck, traveling at the same speed, would be much harder to
stop, needing more brake power to slow down.
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Quick Check
What is the formula to calculate momentum if mass and velocity are given?
p = m – v m = v ÷ p
p = m ÷ v p = mv
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Collisions: Conservation of Momentum
The law of conservation of momentum states that the total momentum remains constant when
bodies collide. Depending on the type of collision and how the bodies were moving before the
collision, this will have different end results.
Key Takeaways
Conserved momentum means that the total momentum in a system is constant both before and after a collision.
In an elastic collision, one object strikes another, giving some or all of its momentum, and they bounce apart.
In an inelastic collision, one object strikes another and they stick together; both objects then move together.
During a collision, when two objects hit or run into each other, momentum may be given from
one object to another. But the total momentum of both objects before the collision will always
be equal to the total momentum of both objects after the collision. This rule is the law of
conservation of momentum.
In physics, different types of collisions are classified by what happens to the momentum of the
two objects.
External Reference(https://www.youtube.com/embed/jRliH0jVilM?wmode=opaque)
Collision Demo: Two Carts
In physics, different types of collisions are classified by what happens to the momentum
of the two objects.
Whether colliding objects stick together or bounce off each other, momentum is
conserved. This demo shows how the velocity changes when two objects with the same
mass collide, in order to conserve momentum in different types of collisions.
Video Length: 3 minutes, 4 seconds
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Type 1: Elastic Collisions

In an elastic collision, two objects hit each other and bounce apart. Think about elastic
collision like bouncy balls made from rubber. The two objects bounce off each other.
If one object is moving and the other is still, after the collision, both objects will be moving,
but more slowly than the original object. The moving object gave some of its momentum to
the object that originally wasn't moving.
The total momentum of the system is conserved, meaning it’s unchanged. The total
momentum of the two objects before the collision equals the total momentum of the two
objects after the collision. Because their mass doesn't change, the velocity of each object
changes to conserve the momentum.
In the following diagram, before the collision, the momentum of the blue train is 300 and the
momentum of the yellow train is 0, so the total momentum is 300. The collision decreases the
velocity of the blue train and increases the velocity of the yellow train. After the collision, the
momentum of the blue train is 150 and the momentum of the yellow train is 150, so the total is
still 300.
Quick Check
In which collision do two objects hit each other and bounce apart, changing velocities to
conserve momentum?
Random Elastic
Steady Inelastic
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Type 2: Inelastic Collisions

In an inelastic collision, the objects don’t bounce away from each other; they stick together
after the collision and move as one body with a large mass.
Picture a skater on ice who is going fast and about to fall. If he reaches out and grabs his
friend, they’ll stick together and both start moving. However, they're now combined and have
a greater mass. They’ll slow down to keep the same momentum.
Example: Skater 1 weighs 50 kg with a speed of 2 m/s.
p = mv (50 kg × 2 m/s)
p = 100 kg-m/s (momentum)
Once the skater grabs his friend, they now have a total mass of 100 kg. Momentum must be
conserved. It was 100 before the collision and must be 100 after the collision. So how fast are
the skaters moving together? Solve for v in the equation for momentum. Use the original
momentum of skater 1 but the total mass of both skaters, once they stick together.
100 = 100 kg × v
Solving for v, we get a velocity of 1 m/ s, which is slower than the 2 m/s that skater 1 was
going. Why did hugging his friend and increasing their combined mass slow the skaters
down? Because the momentum of skater 1 had to be conserved, due to the laws of physics.
Quick Check
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In an inelastic collision, one object strikes another and they _______.
repel break
stick together bounce back
Unit 1 Lesson 1 Practice

Question 1
Which of the following is the equation for calculating momentum of an object? (Remember, p = momentum)
a. v = mp
b. p = mv
c. p = m + v
d. p = m – v
Question 2
Which of the following would decrease momentum?

a. Decreasing mass
b. Increasing mass
c. Increasing velocity
d. Decreasing air resistance
Question 3
A truck that weighs 1,000 kg is traveling 5 m/s. How would momentum be affected if the truck added a trailer with an
additional mass of 1,000 kg but still traveled at the same velocity?
a. It would take more brake power to slow the truck to a stop.
b. It would take less brake power to slow the truck to a stop.
c. The truck will have the same momentum as long as the velocity is the same.
d. The truck will have less momentum as long as the velocity is the same.
Question 4
When two objects collide and stick together, what happens to their speed, assuming the momentum is conserved?
a. The objects will slow down after they collide.
b. The objects will move at the same velocity as before the collision.
c. The objects will slow down for an instant before speeding back up.
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d. The objects will speed up after they collide.
Question 5
In a game of pool, when one ball hits another and sets it into motion, this is an example of a/an _______ collision.
This is an open-ended question. Check your answer below.
Answers
Question 1: The equation for calculating momentum of an object is p = mv.
Question 2: Momentum is mass × velocity, so decreasing mass or velocity would decrease momentum.
Question 3: It would require more brake power to slow down the truck because the momentum is increased.
Question 4: The objects can be considered one larger mass. Momentum is conserved and mass is increased, so
velocity must decrease.
Question 5: This is an example of an elastic collision; the balls don't stick together.
Review
Speed
The distance a body travels in any direction in a unit of time
Acceleration
Occurs when the velocity of a body changes
Free-Falling Body
An application of body movement with uniform acceleration
Motion
The change in position of a body
Velocity
The distance a body travels in a straight line in a unit of time
Metric System
A system of measurement in which the basic units of measurement are the meter (length), liter (volume), and gram (weight)
Newton's Laws of Motion
Three basic theories relating to inertia, the relation between force and mass, and the forces of action and reaction
Vector
A quantity that has both magnitude and direction; usually represented in print by a straight line with an arrowhead on one end
Centripetal Force
A force that makes a body follow a curved path
Universal Law of Gravitation
Every object in the universe that has mass attracts every other object in the universe that has mass
Friction
A naturally occurring force related to two bodies in motion
Central-Force Motion
The type of motion where the center-seeking force is the centripetal force
Gravitational Force
A centripetal force that keeps the moon in orbit
Momentum
Mass in motion, or how difficult something is to stop
Collision
Objects running into each other
Elastic Collision
Collision in which two objects hit each other and bounce apart
Inelastic Collision
Collision in which objects don't bounce away from each other
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Page:59 of 65
21. Practice: Calculating Momentum
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22. Practice: Conservation of Momentum
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Page:61 of 65
Formula Sheet for Exam
Save or print this formula sheet to use when taking your exam.
Motion and Forces Exam Formula

Sheet(https://courses.portal2learn.com/content/enforced/28505-
HSD916_04_1/Lesson_1/Section_4/../../physicalscience2022_formulas01.pdf?
isCourseFile=true)
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24. Review
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Preparing for Your First Exam
If you've read and completed all of the assignments in this lesson, you're ready to take your
first exam!
If you aren't sure of the right answer when taking the exam, you can go back to the lesson to
find it. You have as much time as you need to complete exams, so don't rush.
You have two chances to pass an exam. If you don't pass your exam the first time, that's
okay! Study the concepts you didn't do so well on, and try again. Only the highest score will
count toward your grade.
Watch this video to learn more about taking your exams and viewing the results:
Download transcript(this link opens in a new window/tab)
(http://lessons.pennfoster.com/savi/transcripts/INV00001_T.pdf)
Select each item to learn helpful tips about taking Penn Foster assessments:
Exam Preparation
These suggestions can help you prepare to take an exam:

Review the quick checks and practice exercises in each section. If you have trouble with those
questions, review the topic before taking an exam.
Review any notes you took while completing your coursework often as you get ready for your exam.
Use the flashcards in the Review sections to help you better remember and recall concepts.
Ask your instructor before beginning the exam if you have any questions about the material or the testing
process.
Page:64 of 65
Get enough sleep the night before an exam. Eat well. Test in a calm environment.
Strategies for Answering Exam Questions
These suggestions can help you while taking your exam:

Look for keywords in questions and multiple-choice answer options. They often provide a clue to the best
answer.
Carefully read every answer option; do not quickly choose the first answer that sounds correct without
reading the rest!
Answer questions that you're confident about first.
Watch for words such as not, never, and best describes or most correct in the questions.
Watch for words such as always, every, and never in answer options.
Academic Integrity
This exam is the first graded assignment in your program. It’s important that you take the
exam yourself, that your answers are your own, and that you use your own notes and the
knowledge you gained from this lesson. These are all tenets of academic integrity. Academic
integrity is important not only as you complete this program, but for any further education, in
your work life, and beyond.
To learn more about why academic integrity is important, watch this video featuring Penn
Foster’s Director of Academic Policy.
Download transcript(this link opens in a new window/tab)
(http://lessons.pennfoster.com/savi/transcripts/VID00442_T.pdf)
Page:65 of 65

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Course Name:Physical Science

Lesson 1: Motion and Forces

Preparing for Your Course

Before Your Exam

Chart changes in position, time, and velocity

Explain how forces affect motion using Newton's laws

Explain the forces required to create motion in a curved path

Describe the momentum of an object and how it can be conserved

Bodies and Motion

Unit Abbreviation Number of Meters

Unit Abbreviation Number of Liters

Mass (and Weight)

Unit Abbreviation Number of Grams

Unit Abbreviation Number of Meters

English System of Measurement

Unit Abbreviation Values

mile mi 5,280 feet

inch in 0.083 foot

English System of Measurement

Unit Abbreviation Values

Unit Abbreviation Values

gallon gal 4 quarts

pint pt 16 fluid ounces

fluid ounce fl oz 0.0625 pint

Unit Abbreviation Values

ton T 2,000 pounds

ounce oz 0.0625 pound

Ampere (electric current)

Candela (light intensity)

Mole (amount of substance)

Speed and Velocity

v = 70 km/h (kilometers per hour)

Average and Instantaneous Speed

Rearranging the Formula

s = 5 m/s × 600 seconds

Answer: The boat travels 3,000 meters in 10 minutes.

Acceleration can be expressed as follows:

Acceleration = Change in velocity ÷ Time required

This relationship is shown in the following formula:

Solution: Use the acceleration formula to find the answer.

Answer: The acceleration of the car is 0.5 m/s2.

Acceleration of Falling Bodies

Using Formulas for Word Problems

Velocity (how fast the object is moving in a certain direction)

Inertia Constant velocity

8. Practice: Understanding Motion Measurements

9. Practice: Essentials of Motion

Force and Motion

Factors Affecting the Motion of a Body

Newton’s First Law

First law Third law

Second law Fourth law

Newton’s Second Law

Answer: The acceleration of the ball is 20 m/s2.

Answer: A force of 60 N is required.

What's the metric unit of force?

Action and Reaction

Second law Third law

First law Fourth law

Balanced and Unbalanced Forces

Video Length: 2 minutes, 35 seconds

Vector and Scalar Quantities

Here are some examples of scalar quantities:

60 miles per hour